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Knowledge management: processes and systems

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DOI: 10.4314/iijikm.v8i3.3

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 Article https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/iijikm.v8i3.3
Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems Information Impact:
Journal of Information and
Knowledge Management
Magnus O. Igbinovia 2017, Vol. 8 (3) Pg 26 - 38
University of Ibadan, Nigeria ISSN: 2141 – 4297 (print)
ISSN: 2360 – 994X (e-version)
Iguehi J. Ikenwe www.informationimpact.org
Ambrose Alli University, Nigeria.

Abstract
The paper examines the concept of knowledge and knowledge management; nature and lifecycle
of knowledge management. It also review the various processes involved in knowledge
acquisition and generation, knowledge capture, knowledge storage, knowledge sharing and
knowledge application. The paper also discusses the various forms of knowledge elicitation to
include questionnaire, interview, observation, role reversal technique, and discussion forums as
well as the forms of knowledge representation to include report writing, database management
system and institutional repositories. The paper shield light on the various technologies that aids
knowledge management practice chief among which are groupware, electronic mail, database
management system, data mart, data warehouse among others.

Keywords: knowledge, knowledge management, knowledge sharing, knowledge application,

Introduction
During the last decade, the business world began to view and use knowledge as a weapon for
competitive advantage. It was then the concept of knowledge management (KM) gained
popularity. However, in the 21st century, Knowledge and by extension, knowledge management
has been an electromotive force for social, economic and educational advancement to any nation.
Over the years, diverse definitions of knowledge abounds. In this light, Ikenwe and
Igbinovia (2015) defined knowledge as information that has been improved on, and a mixture of
experience, insights, reading and imaginations. It evolves in people’s mind by a combination of
data, information and experience, (Kucza, 2001). Knowledge is information that has undergone a
sort of distillation process which makes it context based and applicable in handling real life
situations. According to Aguolu and Aguolu (2002), it is information that has been interpreted
and processed according to a point of view, preparing the receiver for appropriate actions. From
the various definitions given above, knowledge by implication exists in a DIKW (Data-
information-knowledge-wisdom) chain, also referred to as the information continuum. While
data is a discrete element, information is a linked data, knowledge is organized information and
wisdom is an applied knowledge.
However, Liew (2007) opines that data are recorded (captured and stored) symbols and
signal readings, while information is a message that contains relevant meaning, implication, or
input for decision and/or action, and knowledge is the (1) cognition or recognition (know-what),

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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

(2) capacity to act (know-how), and (3) understanding (know-why) that resides or is contained
within the mind or in the brain. This further show the link between data, information and
knowledge; and the relationship occurs in preceding order.
Within the field of knowledge management, two types of knowledge are widely accepted
- tacit and explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is knowledge that is hard to encode and
communicate. It is personal, context-specific and hard to formalize (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995).
Tacit knowledge is un-codified and resides in people’s mind which can be expertise, technical
know-how, experience and skills. This can be transferred and shared via mentoring, face-to-face
communication, training, group project/task execution among other forms of elicitation. While,
explicit knowledge are codified and easy-to-transfer knowledge usually embedded in physical
formats such as books, memos, database, electronic media among others, which can easily be
acquired, captured, communicated, shared, leveraged or stored.

TACIT
KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

EXPLICIT
KNOWLEDGE

Figure 1: Types of Knowledge

Conceptual nature of Knowledge Management (KM)

Knowledge management is a discipline (branch of knowledge) that has been defined in various
ways by scholars globally over the years. Ghani (2009) asserts that KM is essentially defined by
the need to manage knowledge in an organization like an asset. Mutula and Mooko (2008)
quoting Groff and Jones (2003), refer to KM as the tools, techniques and strategies to retain,
analyze, organize, improve and share business expertise. kucza (2001), defines KM as the overall
task of managing the process of knowledge creation, storage and sharing as well as the related
activities. In light of this, KM is the process of identifying capturing, leveraging, sharing and
effective utilization of organizations intellectual assets to enhance its performance and
competitiveness.
According to Mutula and Mooko (2008) KM entails (i) capturing the knowledge that the
employees and customers need at a central repository; (ii) Identification of the categories of
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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

knowledge needed to support the overall business strategy; (iii) Process of collecting, classifying
and disseminating information throughout the organization; (iv) Employment of information
technology to help organize and store information; and (v) Provision of access tools.
Importance of Knowledge Management
Knowledge management (KM) has become a priority for organizational competitiveness
and advantage because of the benefits it accrues. Jelenic (2011) on the importance of knowledge
management in organizations avers that KM support innovation, encourages free flow of ideas,
increases revenues, and reduces cost, increases efficiency and effectiveness. Dhamdhere (2015a)
on why knowledge management was of the opinion that “Knowledge Management can transform
organizational new levels of effectiveness, efficiency, and scope of operation, using advanced
technology, data and information are made available to users for effective productivity”.
Knowledge management is thus crucial to the progress of organizations, institutions and systems
for harnessing its knowledge for possible gains.
Knowledge management improves organization’s performance through increased
efficiency, productivity, quality and innovation. It enhances better decision-making, streamline
process time, reduces re-work, ensures high data integrity and greater collaboration (CIO
Council in Ali & Ahmad, 2006). Also, knowledge management increases the worth or financial
value of an organization by treating the knowledge of organizational members as an asset similar
to capital facilities, (U.S. Department of Navy in Ali & Ahmad, 2006). Therefore, knowledge
management is a vital element for the continuous existence and progression of organizations.
While knowledge is identified as a key factor in production and/or service processes,
knowledge management according to Nickols (2000) leverages the knowledge for organization’s
advantage. In like manner, KM leverages intellectual assets for the enhancement of
organizational performance, (Stankosky 2008). Krstić and Petrović (2012) review the role of
knowledge management in increasing enterprise’s innovation among several other things assert
that KM promotes and encourages knowledge-driven culture in which innovations are
stimulated, as well as improves growth willingness, which has a positive influence on innovation
capability of an enterprise. Such innovation will enable enterprise secure and retain their
competitive positions in the marketplace, (Desouza, 2011). They (Krstić & Petrović, 2012)
conclusively state that Knowledge management in enterprise provides a better use of knowledge
and reduces the complexity of innovation process.
Moreover, Omotayo (2015) concludes that knowledge management is critical for
organizations that seek to ensure sustainable strategic competitive advantage. This corroborates
the assertion of Dzunic, Boljanovic and Subotic (2012) that “to achieve a sustainable competitive
advantage today means to achieve primacy in knowledge… while knowledge management helps
generate the value of knowledge-based assets, an imperative of modern business”. Knowledge
management is thus important to individuals and organizations in the knowledge economy where

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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

knowledge is treated as a factor of production. The organization that best manage her knowledge
(people, technology and process) will record sustainable growth and development.

Nature of Knowledge Management (KM)

The effectiveness of any knowledge management practice will depend on the effective
utilization of people, processes and systems (technologies). These are the three fundamental
focuses, facets, elements or components of knowledge management which works in relation to
one another to achieve any knowledge management objective(s). Every knowledge management
practice must therefore put these elements in place to achieve a successful outcome; hence they
are referred to the tripartite nature of knowledge management for the purpose of this paper.
People also known as human resources are key in knowledge management and as such
must be given consideration in any knowledge management practice. As already stated,
knowledge is the basis of knowledge management, and people are the primary conveyor of this
knowledge in the form of tacit knowledge, even in explicit knowledge, people are needed to
ensure codification. In line with this, Aziri, Veseli and Ibraimi (2013) note that organizational
knowledge and knowledge management is dependent on human resources. Also, Armstrong
(2006) asserts that people influence knowledge management by promoting an open culture that
values/inspires sharing of knowledge; promote a climate of commitment and trust; develop
systems and policies for knowledge management among others.
Another component is the knowledge management processes, which connote the methods
and steps by which knowledge management practices are achieved. Edwards (2011) model
connotes implementing new ways to work or to build in what you want to achieve, in both cases
to achieve knowledge management objectives. He further opines that people help design and
then operate Processes, while Processes define the roles of, and the knowledge needed by
People. Meanwhile, systems or technologies which is the third component of this system, refers
to all devices that supports the practice and implementation of knowledge management.
Knowledge Management requires technologies to support people and processes involved in
knowledge management. Subsequent part of this paper will pay attention to the processes and
systems (technologies) in knowledge management as suggested by the title of the work.

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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

People

Knowledge
Management

Systems
Processes

Figure 2: Tripartite nature of knowledge management

KNOWLEGDE MANAGEMENT PROCESSES (KMP)

Knowledge management processes are series of activities an organization put in place for the
facilitation and use of knowledge. The management of knowledge is a continuous process in
which one form of knowledge is transformed into the other. Knowledge management processes
support the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge and explicit to tacit. Many
scholars such as; Dhamdhere (2015b), Alegbeleye (2010), Mutula and Mooko (2008) amongst
others have identified some processes of knowledge management to involve:

 Knowledge Acquisition and Generation

Acquisition in Knowledge management deals primarily with tacit knowledge although it also
acquires explicit knowledge. The tacit knowledge can be transferred to explicit knowledge
through externalization, that is, the tacit knowledge is converted to recorded form, in documents
or databases for reference by others (Alegbeleye, 2010). However, before knowledge is acquired,
it is essential to identify the knowledge an organization has and needs to achieve its objective
which is called “knowledge identification"
. Knowledge generation focuses on knowledge creation for exploration and knowledge
exploitation. Knowledge can be generated through:
a. Writing both formal and informal.
b. Research: the whole essence of research (which is a systematic investigation) is to generate
knowledge. Examples are: Research institution, tertiary institution etc
c. Shared problem solving: This can be referred to as brainstorming. This has to do with
knowledgeable persons in a particulars area coming together to share their view about a problem
in order to proffer solutions. Examples are; seminars, conferences, workshop etc
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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

 Knowledge Capture
Knowledge capturing is another important aspect or component of knowledge management in
knowledge based organizations. Knowledge capturing involves:
a. Technology: Several technologies exist for facilitating the creation and sharing of knowledge.
Information technology is a useful instrument in knowledge management and use for effective
services in an organization.
b. Knowledge Mapping: Knowledge mapping is a method used to identify where knowledge
resides within an organization. Knowledge mapping requires the techniques of questionnaire,
interview and sometimes observations. The questionnaire should identify persons within the
organization with special knowledge or expertise. Mutula and Mooko (2008) described
Knowledge mapping as a navigation aid to codify information and tacit knowledge, showing the
importance and the relationship between knowledge stores.

 Knowledge Organization
The knowledge acquired generated or created needs to be properly organized for easy access and
retrieval which is the essence of organization of knowledge. Librarians as information
practitioners organize knowledge in documented form called information resources through
cataloguing and classification. Nwalo (2003) defined cataloguing as the process of writing
descriptive information of a book and non-book material on a catalogue card and classification as
assigning a class number to a book that corresponds with a subject heading following a chosen
classification scheme. In addition, Alegbeleye (2010) identified a number of aspects involved in
organization of knowledge as: Identification of messages, identification of texts, and description
of content. Tools for such organization of knowledge include indexing, abstracting and
cataloguing technique.

 Knowledge Storage
The knowledge created and acquired needs to be properly stored and preserved for subsequent
access and use, and for the sake of posterity. Alavi and Leidner, (2001) pointed knowledge
storage as a process in knowledge management involves capturing, transcribing, and coding
knowledge. While, Alegbeleye (2010) asserted that the ideas of knowledge storage, which he
also called knowledge “repository” as used in knowledge management is to take documents with
knowledge embedded in them and store them so that they can be easily retrieved in the future.

 Knowledge Sharing
Knowledge sharing is a key component in knowledge management. Ikenwe and Igbinovia (2015)
described knowledge sharing as a fundamental priority of knowledge management and defined it
as an act through which, acquired information, knowledge, ideas, skills, and experiences are
exchanged and shared among people, organizations and institutions. Knowledge sharing allows
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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

for leveraging the knowledge gained by an organization (Alegbeleye, 2010), and the main reason
of sharing individual knowledge to entire organization is that knowledge should not disappear if
that employee leaves the organization (Dhamdhere, 2015b). An organization must put certain
measures (incentives) in place to ensure knowledge is shared and to discourage knowledge
hoarding.
 Knowledge Application
Once knowledge is shared among people in the organizations, the shared knowledge should be
applied to solve a problem. According to Dhamdhere (2015b) if the gathered, stored, created and
shared knowledge will not be applied properly the whole process would be in vain and for proper
knowledge application, knowledge management process should be communicated to users. That
is, knowledge should be put to affective and efficient utilization to fill a gap or need.

Knowledge Management Systems (KMS)

KMS has been defined by different scholars in diverse dimension. Gallupe (2000) refers
to KMS as a tool or technologies that support knowledge management. Abdullabi, et.al (2005)
extensively defined KMS as phrase used to describe the creation of knowledge repositories,
improvement of knowledge access and sharing, as well as communication through collaboration,
enhancing the knowledge environment and managing knowledge as an asset for an organization.
In this light, KMS can be defined as tool or Information and Communication Technologies
(ICTs) that can be used to store, disseminate, collaborate, identify sources of knowledge to
support the generation, capture, sharing, retrieval and use of knowledge to enhance access to
source of information and knowledge by individuals, organizations, and nations as a whole.
Utilization of technology in knowledge management in this 21st century is of utmost
importance which offers new opportunities, provides enabling environments for knowledge
sharing, communication of knowledge via technology such as video conferencing, web2.0
amongst others. Technology can be used to facilitate knowledge management all through its
lifecycle. According to Egbu (2003), knowledge management systems or technologies which aid
the implementation of KM, consist of a combination of hardware and software. Furthermore,
Hardware technologies are very important for knowledge management system as they form the
platform for software technologies to perform and the medium for storage and transfer of
knowledge.
However, some technologies available for facilitating the creation, collaboration, sharing
and dissemination of knowledge are;
 Knowledge Portals:
Portals as KM technology are web-based applications or websites that provides information
across an entire organization or among some group of persons. Whereas, knowledge portals are
dedicated websites that provides a single point of access to the tacit and explicit knowledge that
supports members of an organization in meeting corporate goals. The knowledge portal fosters
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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

collaboration both asynchronous and synchronous between knowledge producers and users. In
differentiating between asynchronous and synchronous collaboration, Yao, et.al., (n.d) opine that
synchronous collaboration allows geographically dispersed users to collaborate in real-time over
the internet to jointly search, retrieve, filter, partition, and organize the information available on
the web; whereas, asynchronous collaboration collaborators do not need to co-exist, they
exchange information perhaps over a long period of time.
Knowledge portal enables multiple users to work together in a coordinated fashion over
time (and space) in other to ensure organizational success by gathering, categorization,
distributing, publishing and to personalize relevant knowledge required to solve problems.
 Database management system (DBMS):
Database (DB) is a collection of related files used to store and maintain data of an organization.
DB is related data stored collectively in direct access storage on a computer using software such
as Database Management Systems (DBMs). DBMS provides users and programmers with a
systematic way to create, retrieve, update and manage data.
 E-Mail:
This is far the most commonly used collaborative tool for communication which expedites
dissemination and sharing of information among individuals and organization. It helps to
facilitate knowledge gathering, sharing and collaboration within members of an organization.
 Group Wares:
These are powerful collaboration software use to facilitate collaboration or cooperation, sharing
knowledge and promotion of communication among group of individuals working together in an
organization. This technology provides means to exchange ideas on a network to collaborate and
communicate effectively and promote co-operation such as interactive conferencing, video
conferencing, intranets, internet, E-mail e.t.c. According to Tsui (2002) in Egbu (2013), it is
useful for group decision-making support distributed and virtual project teams where team
members are from multiple organizations and in geographically dispersed locations.
 Data Warehouse:
This is an organization central repository which houses and store pivotal data. This constitutes
combined data from one or more inherently different sources. However, emphasis is on the
capture of data from different sources for easy accessibility.
 Content Management Systems (CMS)
CMS is a computer application that supports the creation and modification of digital content. It is
often used to support multiple users working in a collaborative environment, (Rockley, Kostur,
Manning, 2003). CMS is responsible for the creation, management, and distribution of content
on the intranet, extranet, or a website. It also Improve the quality of explicit knowledge and,
provide (though limited) support to tacit knowledge transfer by identifying content authors (i.e
experts) and supporting collaborative projects.

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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

Barriers to Knowledge management

Abdolshaha and Abdolshahb (2011) carried out a study on the barriers to the
implementation of knowledge management in Iranian institutions and opine that unawareness of
senior managers about knowledge management concepts, lack of proper competition among
institution for attracting customers, lack of formation of knowledge management team and lack
of proper information interchange among institutions could hinder KM in implementation in an
institution. Bartczak (2012) on identifying barriers to knowledge management in the United
States military include leadership education and commitment, lack of resources, among others as
barriers faced in KM implementation. Moreover, lack of monitoring or managing KM systems
and focusing on an individual rather than a team approach are also some barriers to the
implementation of knowledge management as proposed by Dooley (2013).
On what could be the major limitations to the implementations of knowledge
management, Dzunic, Boljanovic and Subotic (2012) found out that respondents for their study
indicated insufficient training, unwillingness of employees to share knowledge with other
employees, too complex system, failure to recognize personal benefits that employees would
have of sharing and managing knowledge and lack of trust among employees, respectively are
major barriers to the introduction of knowledge management. Ujwary-Gil (2017) in her study
aimed at analyzing the barriers to knowledge management notes that lack of reward and
motivation for seeking and sharing knowledge, unawareness of where the knowledge-base of the
institution is, organizational culture promoting individual results to knowledge sharing, limited
resource, unfriendly nature of technology system among others are some factors that hinders
knowledge sharing in organizations.
Frost (2012) gave some knowledge management casual failures which could be a barrier to
the successful implementation of knowledge management to include:

 Lack of performance indicators and measurable benefits

 Inadequate management support
 Improper planning, design, coordination, and evaluation
 Inadequate skill of knowledge managers and workers
 Problems with organizational culture
 Improper organizational structure
Moreover, on the barriers to knowledge management, it is pertinent to consider the work of
Disterer (2001) who stated the individual and social barriers to knowledge transfer. The
individual factors include loss of knowledge power, poor revelation on knowledge sharing,
uncertainty of the value of knowledge to be shared and lack of motivation. Moreover, the social
factors include lack of a common language to communicate knowledge and special language
features like analogies and metaphors to externalize tacit knowledge hidden in individual mental
models; conflict avoidance and some conservative habits; bureaucratic and administrative
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 Knowledge Management: Processes and Systems

organizations With strict formal procedures, which prevent the transfer of knowledge and new
ideas; and, lack of coherence between the personal intents of the individuals and the paradigms
of the organization (which cover strategic intent, vision, mission, strategies, values etc).
Conclusively, from the literature reviewed, the implementation of KM can be hindered by
several reasons as seen above to include management unawareness or unfamiliarity with the
concept; poor knowledge sharing culture; poor management of people as knowledge-base,
systems or tools and KM processes; lack of commitment from leaders; inadequate resources and
will-power; lack of or poor motivation; unfavourable organizational culture, and unskilled
personnel to man complex technologies.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The practice of knowledge management (KM) is trendy in organizations where
productivity, efficiency and innovation are the watchwords. KM is basically made up of three
components of processes, people and systems, which must be effectively managed to meet the
objective of any knowledge management practice. This paper examined the various processes
necessary to achieve the goal of knowledge management as well as the systems or technologies
required to support these processes. In view of which the following recommendations are made:
i. Organizations should encourage the creation of knowledge by supporting research
activities, encouraging collaborations and team work.
ii. Organizations should set up reward systems through which members will be motivated to
acquire as well as share knowledge for common good.
iii. Organizations should carryout knowledge mapping to identify best practices related to
their areas of operations and inculcate such practice into their organizational
activities.
iv. Organizations should create knowledge repositories that are accessible with user friendly
interface.
v. Organizations should ensure that generated knowledge is applied in solving real-time
problems and ensuring innovations.
vi. Organizations should endeavor to acquire tools and technologies necessary to support
people and processes involved in knowledge management.

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www.isi.edu/tbassco/publications/cmc99%20workshop.pdf

About the authors

Igbinovia, O. Magnus, is a PhD student at the department of Library, Archival and Information
Studies, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. He is a researcher, library advocate and certified librarian
of Nigeria. He has published more than ten (10) scholarly articles in learned journals and
presented several papers at conferences with research areas to include knowledge management,
sustainable development, organizational psychology, users’ studies and library management. He
can be contacted with [email protected]

Ikenwe, I. Joy, is a Lecturer 2 with the department of Library and Information Science,
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria. She has published several research articles with both
national and international journals, and presented paper at conferences. Her areas of research
interest include knowledge management, information literacy and digital libraries. She can be
contacted with [email protected]

Information Impact | Journal of Information and Knowledge Management

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