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How tight financing conditions
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HOW TIGHT FINANCING CONDITIONS WILL AFFECT COUNTRY RISK

Financing requirements are set to remain

heavy for some emerging markets

• Rising global interest rates have increased the debt-servicing burden for many countries.
• There were six sovereign defaults in 2022; others may follow in 2023-24, given that interest
rates will remain high.

• The most exposed economies are in Africa, reflecting high indebtedness, heavy external
debt-service burdens and stretched public finances.

• Financial risk has eased in Asia, but there are several countries (Sri Lanka and Pakistan in
particular) that will remain vulnerable.

• Argentina and Ecuador are in the spotlight in Latin America: both could face repayment
difficulties, particularly if policy becomes less market-friendly after elections later in 2023
and external financing is trickier to secure.

• Developed economies will face different challenges. Repayment burdens are lighter, but
some countries have large public debt loads. Fiscal deficits will remain above pre-pandemic
levels in many countries.

The past year has been dominated by monetary policy concerns. Soaring inflation has prompted
central banks to raise interest rates sharply. Massive quantitative easing (QE) rolled out over 2020-21
was tapered and finally reversed, with central banks switching to quantitative tightening (QT) in a
bid to shrink their balance sheets. Few would argue that the focus on monetary policy tools has been
inappropriate. Rapid monetary tightening is showing signs of cooling inflation, aided by moderating
global energy prices.

External debt servicing rises sharply

(external debt service paid as % of GDP)

Africa Latin America Developing Asia-Pacific Middle East

8

0
2008 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23* 24*
Source: EIU. *Forecast.

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Fiscal policy has generally been less prominent. There was a moderate improvement in many
countries’ public finances after a coronavirus-related splurge in spending, but with many governments
extending some form of cost-of-living support to households and businesses, budget deficits narrowed
only gradually. Government plans for fiscal consolidation were placed firmly on the back burner.
Against this backdrop, public finances remain strained in many countries. Six countries defaulted
in 2022: three of these (Russia, Ukraine and Belarus) were the result of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine,
while the other three (Ghana, Sri Lanka and Mali) related either to a combination of domestic
economic imbalances—exacerbated by a less favourable external context—or policy mismanagement.
Others may follow in 2023-24.

Africa: under pressure

Most of the countries at the highest risk of a debt default are in Africa, reflecting high indebtedness,
heavy external debt-service burdens and stretched public finances. African economies had taken
advantage of low-cost international credit prior to the pandemic for budgetary and balance-of-
payments support, accumulating large external debt burdens as a result. However, rising interest rates
have increased debt-servicing costs dramatically.
Egypt is particularly at risk of facing payment difficulties. Public debt has risen from about 80%
of GDP in 2019 to 90% in 2022, and a large fiscal deficit will make it difficult to reduce this ratio
meaningfully. Debt-servicing costs were officially projected at 46% of total revenue in the 2022/23
financial year ( July-June), but the reality is likely to have been even higher, given sharp increases
in interest rates. We expect Egypt to meet its financing requirement in 2023, but this rests on the
assumption that it will be able to tap Gulf finance. Currency risk remains elevated, given that the
Central Bank of Egypt has reverted to a heavily managed exchange-rate regime following sharp
depreciation from early 2022 until early 2023. IMF disbursements are unlikely to be forthcoming
following Egypt’s reluctance to fully adhere to programme conditions (which, in turn, will undermine
market confidence and reduce other avenues for external finance). Foreign-exchange shortages could
raise repayment difficulties in servicing hard-currency loans, which represent 16% of the loan book to
private businesses and households.
Ethiopia also combines a large external financing requirement with uncertainty about how the
government will close this funding gap. Financing needs mainly reflect a wide current-account deficit,
but rising debt repayments are also a contributing factor. This is exacerbated by a precipitous decline
in foreign reserves (import cover is less than one month). The currency is heavily overvalued, and
with foreign exchange in short supply, there is a significant gap with the black-market rate. These
developments will be mitigated by the ongoing implementation of the November 2022 peace deal
that ended a conflict with Tigray (a northern province); this agreement has resulted in disbursements
of foreign aid to assist with reconstruction and redevelopment. However, the peace deal is fragile, and
if renewed conflict were to break out, donor aid would probably be reduced or withdrawn. This would
increase the risk of repayment difficulties and currency volatility, particularly in 2024 when a US$1bn
Eurobond payment falls due.

2 © The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited 2023

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Financial risk in selected countries

Middle East & Africa Uganda

Nigeria

Tunisia Jordan

Malawi Iraq

Libya Egypt

Kenya Cameroon Tanzania Saudi Arabia

Zimbabwe Iran Bahrain South Africa Kuwait

Syria Lebanon Ethiopia Ghana Algeria Côte d'Ivoire Botswana Israel

High risk Low risk

Asia

Vietnam

Malaysia

Indonesia Singapore

India Thailand New Zealand

Sri Lanka Pakistan Bangladesh China South Korea Japan Australia

High risk Low risk

Source: EIU.

Financing conditions will improve but remain difficult for Zambia, despite securing a Memorandum
of Understanding (MoU) on a debt restructuring deal with official creditors in June. However, Zambia
has not secured external debt forgiveness, raising the risk of future repayment issues. Meanwhile,
following a default in December 2022, Ghana has requested bilateral debt restructuring under the
Common Framework for Debt Treatments supported by the G20. In June the Ghanaian authorities
sent a non‑binding working debt-restructuring proposal to official bilateral creditors, signifying the
beginning of a negotiation process that we expect to conclude in the coming weeks.

Asia: some improvements, but vulnerabilities remain

Financial risk has eased in several Asian countries. After announcing that it would suspend external
debt repayments indefinitely in April 2022, Sri Lanka secured final approval from the IMF for a
US$2.9bn package in March 2023. The government hopes to negotiate an extended grace period
for its foreign debt, with the prime minister, Ranil Wickremesinghe, seeking a ten-year moratorium.
However, there are several difficulties, including Sri Lanka’s designation as a middle-income economy,
which disqualifies it from applying for relief under the Common Framework. In addition, Sri Lanka
owes a significant amount of debt to China, which is reluctant to agree to a haircut or to participate in
a multilateral restructuring initiative. Conditions in the banking sector remain challenging, with some
of Sri Lanka’s biggest banks having extensive exposure to foreign-currency-denominated government
securities. The sovereign debt default threatens to undermine these banks’ balance sheets, heightening
the risk of a crisis.

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HOW TIGHT FINANCING CONDITIONS WILL AFFECT COUNTRY RISK

Key sovereign risk indicators for selected Asian emerging markets

Bangladesh

Philippines
Cambodia

Indonesia

Myanmar
Mongolia

Sri Lanka

Thailand
Malaysia

Pakistan

Vietnam
China

India

Laos

PNG
1 Fiscal deficit

2 Public debt/GDP

3 Foreign-currency-denominated
public debt/GDP

4 Debt-service ratio

5 Significant off-budget liabilities

6 Current-account balance

7 Foreign exchange reserves as

% of external financing requirement
8 Access to external
concessional financing

1. Deficit as % GDP 2023-24; <2% 2-5% >5%

2. Debt as % GDP 2023-24; <40% 40-60% >60%
3. Debt as % GDP 2023-24; <10%, 10-30% >30%
4. Total external debt service due as % exports of goods, primary income and remittances
2023-24; <10% 10- 20% >30%
5. none or small up to 20% GDP >20% of GDP
6. Average annual as % GDP 2023-24; surplus or deficit <1% deficit <6% >6%
7. External financing requirement is external debt repayments minus the
current-account balance (2023); reserves >200% (or financing requirement surplus) 60-200% <60%
8. The availability of financing at concessional rates during crisis would be good ( ) / limited ( ) / poor ( ).
Source: EIU Financial Risk Service; EIU Country Analysis.

A last-minute staff-level agreement by the IMF in late June to unlock a new stand-by arrangement
(SBA) worth US$3bn has helped Pakistan to avoid a debt default. The SBA will help the government
to get through the national election (due to be held by October 2023) without risking a default. Access
to fresh loans will shore up Pakistan’s foreign-exchange reserves, and allow the country to pay for
critical industrial raw materials, thereby giving some traction to faltering industrial activity. However,
the chronic twin deficits on the balance of payments and fiscal accounts (linked to a very narrow tax
base), lacklustre economic activity, and limited appetite for other creditors to assist Pakistan mean that
the next government will have to start negotiating for another IMF package sooner rather than later.
The fresh IMF package will lend some support to the currency, but ongoing investor concerns about
Pakistan’s debt sustainability will weaken the rupee.

Latin America: Argentina and Ecuador in the spotlight

In Latin America, many governments are grappling with the dilemma of raising taxes or cutting
spending to ensure debt sustainability, but financial risk appears well contained in most of the region.
Among major economies, financial risk remains highest in the two economies with a recent history

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of debt default: Argentina and Ecuador. In Argentina, a severe drought has contributed to a fall in
export earnings that, coupled with a near-total lack of access to private external finance, leaves the
country reliant on the IMF for financing. This financing is conditional on meeting targets laid out in an
extended fund facility (EFF) deal. The government reached a staff-level agreement with the IMF on the
fifth and sixth reviews of its US$44bn EFF in late July, with the IMF easing some programme targets. If,
as we expect, the centre-right Juntos por el Cambio ( JC) wins the October presidential election and
introduces orthodox macroeconomic reforms, risks to creditworthiness should gradually ease. The
government manages a multiple exchange rate system, intended as a stopgap measure to give the
authorities time to restore policymaking credibility and reduce depreciation pressure. However, there is
still a substantial risk of an uncontrolled devaluation in the coming year.

Financial risk in selected countries

Americas

Uruguay

Panama
Dominican
Republic Peru

El Salvador Jamaica Colombia Mexico US

Venezuela Cuba Argentina Ecuador Brazil Chile Canada

High risk Low risk

Europe

Spain

Portugal Netherlands

Romania Poland Luxembourg

Kazakhstan Hungary Latvia Ireland Norway

Azerbaijan Greece Italy France Germany

Czech
Ukraine Turkey Albania Bulgaria Republic Finland Denmark

High risk Low risk

Source: EIU.

Meanwhile, in Ecuador, political risks to creditworthiness will remain a concern. External debt
restructurings in 2020 and 2022, along with a recently completed US$6.5bn IMF loan agreement,
make Ecuador’s external financing position more manageable. However, a snap election scheduled
for August 20th is likely to usher in a new government with less market-friendly policies. Given the
country’s default history, financing is therefore a cause for concern, particularly as Ecuador is essentially
shut out of voluntary markets.

Fiscal consolidation will be slow in developed markets

For developed economies, the main issue to watch is government policy towards fiscal consolidation.
Many governments have yet to engage in any serious discussion about the appropriate budgetary
5 © The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited 2023
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HOW TIGHT FINANCING CONDITIONS WILL AFFECT COUNTRY RISK

stance once inflation subsides. Fiscal responsibility laws that fix a maximum deficit ceiling were in most
cases suspended during the pandemic, and governments have dragged their feet on deciding when (or
whether) to reinstate them.
The EU has already delayed the reintroduction of its fiscal framework several times, most recently
until the start of 2024. Few of its member countries are close to complying with the 3% of GDP deficit
target. There is a significant risk that the reintroduction will slip past this date, as the bloc is struggling
to agree on whether to exclude some spending items (such as green transition costs) from the deficit
calculations.

Little fiscal consolidation likely in most developed economies

Public debt (% of GDP) Ten-year government bond yields (%)

2022 2023 2024 US UK Germany France Italy
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 5

Italy 4

3
France
2
UK
1

US 0

-1
Germany
2021 22 23
Sources: EIU; Refinitiv.

The US is also unlikely to see meaningful fiscal consolidation in the near term. The president, Joe
Biden, has accepted some spending caps in exchange for a Republican concession to temporarily
suspend the federal government’s US$31.4trn debt ceiling. However, we expect the federal deficit
to remain wide in fiscal year 2023, at 5.7% of GDP (higher than in fiscal year 2022), as income growth
slows in line with economic activity. The budget deficit will remain large compared with pre-pandemic
averages, as tax receipts will not fully cover a modest moderation in spending, and federal debt will
remain at over 120% of GDP.

No near-term easing of financing conditions

Central banks are generally either close to the end of their monetary policy tightening cycle or have
already reached peak interest rates, so global financing conditions are unlikely to tighten much further.
However, with inflation still well above target in many countries, there is little chance of a near-term
shift back to monetary easing and cheaper financing. In developed economies where deficit financing
is easier and sources of credit more abundant, governments will face heavier interest burdens. In
developing economies with a limited revenue base and financing options, some governments will have
to address fundamental concerns about debt sustainability.

6 © The Economist Intelligence Unit Limited 2023

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