Agricultural Extension

UPS UPSTEP REVIEW CENTER
2021 LEA REVIEW
Agricultural
Extension and
Communication
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Checklist of Contents
DATE PRE-TEST SCORE
DATE POST-TEST SCORE
DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION
HISTORY OF EXTENSION
Early Extension Initiatives
Birth of Modern Agricultural
Extension Services
Beginnings of Agricultural
Extension in Developing Countries
Extension in the Philippines
Philippine Agriculture
Extension Terminologies
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
EDUCATION
Objectives of Agricultural
Extension
Major Paradigms of Agricultural
Extension
Nature of Dimensions of Extension
Methods of Influencing Human
Behavior
EXTENSION AS A MAJOR FUNCTION
OF A STATE UNIVERSITY/COLLEGE
Functions of a State
University/College
Specific Functions
Interrelationship Among the
Functions of a University/College
Sources of Information and
Technology
PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION
Structure of Philosophy
Guiding Principles of Extension
Purpose of Extension
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DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION
COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION
Communication
Importance of Communication in
Extension
Attributes of Communication as a
Process
Elements of the Communication
Process
Levels of Communication in
Extension
Extension Worker as a
Communicator
Communication Models
Barriers to Effective
Communication
APPROACHES IN EXTENSION
Approach Method Technique
Extension Teaching Methods (ETM)
Electronic Media
COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
Community
Community Organizing
Community Organization
Values, Goals and Principle
Some Approaches to Rural Change
THE ADOPTION PROCESS
Diffusion Process
Types of Adopter
Adoption Rate
Strategies to Effect Adoption
Framework for Sustainable
Development
Agricultural Knowledge System
(AKS)
Factors that Influence Technology
and Information Flow in
Agricultural Technology System
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History of Extension
EARLY EXTEN SION extension activities to the Ministry of
Agriculture. These activities were then
IN ITIATIVES
officially called ADVISORY SERVICES.
Origins This term (in English) was used by most
1800 BC European countries as they developed and/or
expanded similar advisory services within their
In Iraq (Mesopotamia in the early days), respective ministries of agriculture.
archeologists unearthed clay tablets with
inscribed advice on watering crops and getting 1840s
rid of rats.
The term “University Extension” or “Extension
Some hieroglyphics on Egyptian columns gave of the University” was first used in Britain
advice on avoiding crop damage and loss of life
in Nile’s floods 1850s
2 nd Century BC In Oxford and Cambridge, discussions began

about how they could serve the needs of the
Texts on practical farming experience were
rapidly growing population in the industrial
written to help Roman landowners and tenants.
and urban areas
The state made it a matter of concern to
disseminate information on agriculture. 1867
Beginnings in England The first practical attempt was made in what

was designated “University Extension”, not for
19 th Century
students enrolled in the universities, but to
The term EXTENSION was first used to describe bring the university outside of its campus to
adult education programs organized by Oxford people who could not qualify for entry into
and Cambridge universities in England starting university
in 1867. These programs helped extend the
1871
work of these universities beyond the campus
and into the neighboring communities. James Stuart, a fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge and considered as the “Father of
The term was later formally adopted in the
University Extension”, appealed to the
United States in conjunction with the land grant
authorities of University of Cambridge to
universities originally established in the 1860s
organize Centers of Extension Lectures under
as teaching institutions.
the university’s supervision
In the early 20th century, United Kingdom
transferred responsibility for agriculture
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1872 1890s
University of Cambridge adopted the system Universities incorporated agricultural subjects

in their lectures.
1876
United States of America
University of London adopted the system
Morill Act of 1862 by President Lincoln:
1878
• created Land Grant Colleges and Universities
University of Oxford adopted the system
• established demonstration centers and
1880s
experimental stations using Federal funds
The extension system became well-established • started Farmers’ Institute Movements that
and developed into what was to be called organized meeting (1-2 days) for farmers with
Extension Movement. professors from state colleges and universities
as speakers
BIRTH OF MODERN
AGRICUILTURAL EX TEN SION 1890
SERVICES Second Morill Act, extending the Land Grant

concept in other areas of USA
Europe
1891
1841
University of Chicago and University of
The Royal Agricultural Improvement Society
Wisconsin began organizing extension
(RAIS) was founded in Britain.
programs that led to the establishment of land
1845 grant colleges and the establishment of
agricultural extension work in the country
In Ireland where the predominantly peasant
community relied on potatoes as staple food, 1914
potato blight resulted in the coming into Smith-Lever Act established the Cooperative
existence of the first agricultural extension Extension Service, a tripartite cooperation
service. among the federal government, the state
1847 government and the local county government in
association with state colleges and universities
Then newly appointed British viceroy to as extension agencies
Ireland, the Earl of Clarendon, urged RAIS to
appoint lecturers to travel around the
distressed districts to help small farmers
improve their farming and grow other
nutrient-rich crops.
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BEGIN N IN GS OF July 1910

AGRICULTURAL EX TEN SION IN
Creation of Demonstration and Extension
DEVELOPIN G COUN TRIES Division (DED) under Bureau of Agriculture
1940s – 1960s • the first formally organized government

department implementing research and
Latin America and the Caribbean established extension programs
agricultural extension organizations
Agricultural schools were established to
1960s – 1970s educate and train government agricultural
extension workers and others who were
Many African nations started establishing engaged in agriculture. Many elementary and
extension organizations secondary schools from the Spanish era were
converted to normal, vocational, business and
EX TEN SION IN THE agricultural schools.
PHILIPPIN ES
July 1919
Spanish Era The role of DED was expanded to include
organization of cooperatives for farmers which
1965 focused on rural credit, marketing and animal
insurance. The persons who carried out this
Granja Modelos or model farms were
work were called farm advisers.
established by the first Spanish missionaries to
educate rice, corn and tobacco farmers in large
1923
encomiendas
• experimental stations for the Spanish Demonstration and Extension Division was
government renamed Agricultural Extension Service
• demonstration center for farmers • Home Extension Work was started in Division
of Organic Chemistry of Bureau of Science. Its
American Era service was mainly on food preservation.
• Maria Y. Orosa founded the Home Extension
October 8, 1901 service
Beginning of extension work under the

1929
American regime
Bureau of Agriculture was reorganized and split
April 30, 1902 into Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) and Bureau
of Animal Industry (BAI), both expanding their
Creation of Bureau of Agriculture under
respective extension activities
Department of Interior to boost extension
work. The bureau’s Administrative Division
Agricultural Extension Division was placed
took charge of the extension work.
under Bureau of Plant Industry and later on
renamed Agricultural Division in 1932. This
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division carried out extension services up to the October 28, 1950

assumption of Mr. Manuel L. Quezon as
President of the Commonwealth in 1938. The results of the Bell Survey Mission were
submitted with the following recommendation,
1936 among others – the consolidation of the
scattered extension service of organizations of
Commonwealth Act No. 85 established the the different bureaus (BPI, BAI, BS, BFor, BFis)
Provincial Extension Service. The Provincial into one bureau that would adequately extend
Agriculturist was in-charge of agricultural information to farm families for improved
extension in the whole province. Positions for farming, homemaking and rural organization.
Home Demonstrators were created to cater to
the training needs of rural women. July 16, 1952
Undated Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEx) was

created by virtue of RA 680. BAEx consolidated
Commonwealth Act No. 649 was passed, all existing extension services being carried out
increasing the amount appropriated for by different government offices.
extension work. Setup of the agricultural
extension service continued until the outbreak January 6, 1956
of World War II.
The role of BAEx was reduced with the creation
J apanese Occupation of Presidential Assistance for Community
Development to implement the Philippine
1942-1945 Community Development Program that
coordinated on a national scale the effort of
Home economics and agricultural extension various governmental and civic agencies to
work suffered drawbacks. Literally, extension improve the living conditions of the barrio
work was paralyzed. residents nationwide and make them self-
reliant.
Post-World War II
1963
1947
BAEx was changed to Agricultural Productivity
Home Extension Unit under BPI was fused with Commission (APC) with the enactment of RA
Agricultural Extension Unit of Bureau of 3844 or Land Reform Code. It was placed
Agriculture. directly under Office of the President.
1949 Teams of agriculturists, home demonstrators

and 4-H Club officers provided technical
Philippine Government requested USA to send assistance to the rural people.
an economic survey mission to the Philippines
to “consider the financial problems of the Undated
country and to recommend measures that will
enable the Philippines to become and to remain Rice and Corn Authority (RCA) was created by
self-reliant”. virtue of Executive Order No. 62. It extended
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credit for seeds, pesticides and harvesting and July 1, 1973

had fertilizer subsidy for participating farmers.
BAEx was transferred back to DA. Abaca and
1965 Other Fibers Board was fused with BAEx.
Rice self-sufficiency program was re- 1977

conceptualized to include rice production,
marketing and distribution and the World Bank Mission appraised the Philippines’
consolidation, integration and the Agricultural Extension Service upon request of
concentration of government and private sector the Philippine government.
resources. Result: The Philippines adopted Training and
Visit System (T & V) which evolved into
1967 a development strategy designed to
improve the quality of life of farm
Republic Act No. 188- BAEx functions were families through a pool of resources.
decentralized and autonomous powers were
granted to the local government units to 1978
appoint their respective provincial agriculturist
and municipal extension workers. PD 1579 created regional offices in Ministry of
Agriculture, where 12 regional directors and 24
1969 assistant regional directors (1 for livestock and 1
for crops in each region) were appointed. In
National Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) 1970, 75 Provincial Agricultural Officers were
was created by virtue of EO No. 183. NFAC was appointed.
given full control of the food production
program and controlled a large portion of the 1978
funds for agriculture and funds from USAID.
PD NO. 1579 and LOI No. 595 created ministry-
Martial Law Era wide regional offices in Ministry of Agriculture
and the appointment of 12 ministry-wide
1972 regional directors and 24 assistant regional
directors, and 75 PAOs in 1980.
Presidential Decree No. 1 (PD No. 1) and
Presidential Letter of Implementation No. 9 March 27, 1979
reverted APC to its original name BAEx (Nov. 1,
1972) and its control was returned to National Extension Project (NEP) became
Department of Agriculture and Natural operational with a World Bank loan of US$ 35M.
Resources.
EO No. 967 renamed Ministry of Agriculture into
Functions and personnel assigned in Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MAF) and
cooperatives were transferred to Department of transferred BFAR from Ministry of Natural
Local Government and Community Resources to MAF.
Development (DLGCD). PD 970 abolished Farm
Management Office of DAR. Its extension
function was transferred to BAEx.
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1982
 global competitiveness
EO No. 803 designated the province as the  sustainability
political unit of management, inducing
agricultural development coordination and PHILIPPIN E AGRICULTURE
supervision of agencies involved in the delivery
of agricultural services.
Spanish Era
RA 51885 (Decentralization Act) – the provincial
The myrrh birds (Martinez) from China were
governments were empowered to have their
introduced and acclimatized to fight against
own extension services.
migratory locust infestation in the Philippines.
1987
Plan General Economico included the income-
EO No. 116 merged BAEx, Agricultural Training generating monopolies of tobacco, jareta nut,
Council and Philippine Training Center for spirituous liquors and explosives.
Rural Development into Agricultural Training
Institute (ATI). The ‘birth of ATI meant the American Occupation
“death of BAEx.
• June 23, 1897 – creation of Department of
Recent Developments in the Agriculture and Manufacturing
Agricultural Extension System • Homestead Law – every Filipino citizen had
the opportunity to acquire at least 24 hectares
1991 of land
To ensure the delivery of basic services in the • Torrens Act – safeguarded all titles to
agricultural extension system, Congress of the cultivated lands owned by private persons
Philippines enacted Local Government Code • 1902 – creation of Bureau of Agriculture, now
(RA No, 7160) into Law. Among other provisions, Bureau of Plant Industry, to promote
the code decentralized authority to local agriculture
government units (LGUs) the management and • Philippines exports hemp, sugar, tobacco,
supervision of agricultural extension system of copra and embroideries
the country.
President Manuel L. Quezon
1997
RA 8435 – Agriculture and Fisheries • Division of Soil Survey was created to

Modernization Act (AFMA) undertake soil and agronomical survey
• Major concerns of AFMA: • the period of “Rude Awakening” – the

realization that Philippines did not raise
 food security
enough food for the people and was not self-
 poverty alleviation and social equity sufficient
 income enhancement and profitability
especially for farmers and fisher folk
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• Filipino First Policy – encouraged the people
President Manuel A. Roxas to patronize Filipino-made products and to
promote Filipino labor
• Parity Rights to the Americans – the
disposition, exploitation, development and President Diosdado Macapagal
utilization of all agricultural, timber and
mineral lands of the public domain • International Rice Research Institute –
• Rehabilitation Finance Corporation (RFC, now established at UPLB
known as Development Bank of the • Focus to solve the problem of the sugar
Philippines or DBP) – for the rehabilitation industry
and development of agriculture, among others
President Ferdinand E. Marcos
President Elpidio Quirino
• RA 6389 – automatic conversion of share
• Bureau of Agricultural Extension tenancy to leasehold and retention rate of 75-
• made the rice industry the first commodity 24 hectares must be lowered; the creation of
sector to have an integrated national planning Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR)
• Rural Bank Act – organization of a system of • Masagana 99 – program with massive
rural banks with substantial capital dispersal of modern package of technology
participation of the government including high yielding varieties, fertilizer and
• Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing pesticides
Administration (ACCFA) – authorized to • Coconut replanting program
organize Farmers’ Cooperative Marketing
Associations (FACOMAS) President Corazon C. Aquino
President Ramon Magsaysay • CARP
• Philippines became a member of UN-FAO President Fidel V. Ramos

• National Rice and Corn Program – launched
along with Rice and Corn Coordinating • Medium Term Agricultural Development
Council Program (MTADP)
• Rice and Corn Coordinating Council – • Grains Production Enhancement Program

forerunner of National Food and Agriculture (GPEP)
Council (NFAC), now known as National • Key Commercial Crops Development Program
Agriculture and Fishery Council (NAFC) (KCCDP)
• Medium Term Livestock Development
President Carlos P. Garcia Program (MTLDP)
• Austerity Program – urged the people to live • Medium Term Fisheries Management
simple lives and do away with luxurious Development Program (MTFMDP)
lifestyles • GATT Safety Measures was adopted
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President J oseph E. Estrada EX TEN SION

TERMIN OLOGIES
• Constitutional Correction for Development
(CONCORD) Adoption – decision to make full use of an
• Agrikulturang Makamasa innovation as the best course of action available
• Biotechnology was approved in the Agricultural extension – a non-formal system

Philippines of education organized to provide rural people
with useful and practical
• President Gloria M. Arroyo knowledge/technology in agriculture and teach
and encourage them to apply these in their
• Ginintuang Masaganang Ani (GMA) respective farms and homes. It is both a
• Countrywide assistance for rural employment teaching and an influence process (O.F. Sison)
and services
Andragogy – the science of teaching adults
• Hybrid Rice Commercialization Program
Meaning of extension in other countries Barriers – factors obtaining in a given place

over a given time that tend to impede or block
Term Country Meaning or decelerate the communication process.
Voorlichting Netherlands Lighting the path ahead to Synonymously, they are called “filters of
help people find their way
communication”
Penynluhan Indonesia Lighting the path ahead
with a torch
Perkembangan Malaysia Education, the way USA Communication – the process by which
interprets it
participants create and share information with
Beratung Germany “Advisory work” – an
expert can give advice on one another in order to reach a mutual
the best way to reach one’s understanding for a given purpose at any given
goal but leaves the person
the final responsibility for
place over a given period of time
selecting the way
Aufklärung Germany “Enlightenment” so that Credibility – the degree to which a
one knows clearly where
he/she is going
communicator is perceived as knowledgeable
Erziehung Germany “Education”, that is, to and expert on a subject matter
teach people to solve their
problems themselves
Förderung Austria “Furthering” or
Development – a change or transformation
stimulating one to go in a process of any target audience regardless of
desirable direction direction
Vulgarisation France Simplification of the
Animation message for the common
man Diffusion of an innovation – the total process
Capacitacion Spain Improving people’s
by which an innovation spreads out among
Consultatcion abilities, normally through
training farmers
Extension USA Education, or influencing
people to change their
behavior
Extension – the process of sharing any
development-oriented idea/concept with
others
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Extension method – educational techniques Pedagogy – the science of teaching children

employed by extension system
Safety-Credibility – the degree to which a
Extension model – representation of a system communication source or channel is perceived
that specifies the parts and its components as as trustworthy
well as relationship among them
Technology – a design for instrumental action
Extension strategy – series of steps, set of that reduces the uncertainty in achieving
procedures and activities that operationalize desired outcome
the approaches that will facilitate
accomplishment of goals
Extension teaching
• the art of stimulating, directing and guiding
the learning process
• The process of guided interaction
• Process designed to help people develop and
become capable of guiding successfully their
own destinies
• Proving effective learning situations that
create new learning experiences for people
Innovation – anything perceived to be new by

somebody in any given place and time; a new
way of doing something, something regarded as
new in a given locality or by a group of people
Innovation-Decision Period – the length of

time required to pass through the innovation-
decision process
Innovation-Decision Process – the process

through which an individual passes from the
first knowledge of an innovation to forming an
attitude towards it, to a decision to adopt or
reject, to implementation of the idea and to
confirmation of this decision
Leaning experience – a series of activities and

appraisals from which one gains meanings in
facing new problems and planning new
experiences
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Agricultural Extension
Education
• a system of educating and training the rural
OBJ ECTIVES OF AGRICULTURAL
people to develop skills and abilities in
farming, homemaking and youth building EX TEN SION
• a well-planned program of bringing results of
Hierarchy of extension objectives (Neils Roling,
agricultural research and technology to rural
1988)
families to help them solve problems of
agricultural production and home and
Ultimate Objectives
community living
(from analysis of societal problems)
• a two-way process that brings agriculture and
homemaking technologies from research Intervention Objectives
agencies and/or universities to rural families (Based on analysis of causes)
in forms applicable to their own situations and
in turn present their problems in farming and Conditions for Efftct
homemaking for study of these institutions (Based on determinants of voluntary behavior)
• a process of getting useful information from
people (communication dimension); teaching Activities
farmers’ management and decision-making (Programming, implementation)
skills as new technology inevitably places
more demand on those abilities; and helping Means
rural people develop leadership and (Resources, management, organization)
organization ability so that they can better
organize, operate and/or participate in Core objectives
cooperatives, credit union and other support
services, and to participate actively in making • emphasizes the client-centered approach
their local community conducively livable • all the efforts of extension are geared towards
changing elements related to the client
system, the farmers
Direct objectives
• what the extension system is trying to achieve

in terms of specific activities that will
hopefully bring the core objectives
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Result objectives N on-formal Education ( N FE)

• end goal
• this paradigm dominated the earlier days of
extension in Europe and North America when
MAJ OR PARADIGMS OF
universities gave training to rural people who
AGRICULTURAL EX TEN SION could not afford or did not have access to
formal training in different types of vocational
Technology Transfer and technical agriculture training
• continues to be used in most extension
• this extension model was prevalent during
systems, but the focus shifted more toward
colonial times and re-emerged with intensity
training farmers how to utilize specific
during the 1970s and 1980s when the Training
management skills and/or technical
and Visit (T & V) system was established in
knowledge to increase production efficiency
many Asian and Sub-Saharan African
or to utilize specific management practices
countries
such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as
• a “top-down” model, it primarily delivers taught through Farmer Field Schools (FFS)
specific recommendations from research,
especially for the staple food crops, to all types Facilitation Extension
of farmers (large, medium and small)
• its primary goal is to increase food production • facilitated extension evolved over time from
which helps reduce food costs participatory extension methods used
decades ago and now focuses on getting
Advisory Services farmers with common interests to work more
closely together to achieve both individual and
• in response to farmers’ inquiries about common objectives
particular production problems, extension • frontline extension agents primarily work as
workers in both public and private sectors still “knowledge brokers” in facilitating the
commonly use the term advisory services teaching-learning process among all types of
• in most cases, farmers are “advised” to use a farmers (including women) and rural young
specific practice or technology to solve an people
identified problem or production constraint
• public extension organizations should have
N ATURE OR DIMEN SION S OF
validated information available from research EX TEN SION
about the effectiveness of different inputs or
methods in solving specific problems so that Altruistic Dimension
inquiring farmers receive objective and
validated information • extension is aimed at helping farmers
• a basic premise of extension that must be
observed by practitioners
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Educational Dimension • ways to foster closer links between the

farmers and the researchers need further
• extension is a non-formal method of adult understanding
education
• extension professionals must be imbued with Input Dimension
knowledge on how adults learn
• provision of technical inputs plays an
Communication Dimension important linking function in the transfer of
technology
• extension is a communication intervention • requires that extension professional be
• extension personnel should have adequate knowledgeable of these technical inputs
understanding of basic communication
Income Dimension
process and its dynamics
• extension is aimed at increased income for the

Behavioral Dimension farmer through increased production and
productivity
• extension is aimed at inducing behavioral
changes among farmers Management Dimension
• the aforementioned aim makes behavioral
• extension aims to function according to sound
change the end goal of extension
management principles
• if farmer has not changed his behavior (for his
• this requires that the extension professional is
betterment), no extension has been done
a good manager
Technology Dimension
METHODS OF IN FLUEN CIN G
• extension helps in the transfer of technology
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
• extension should be able to identify Formulating objectives
technologies appropriate to clientele Designing and testing goal

satisfaction
• the need for alternative approaches and

Intervening Deploying resources to change people
According to
methods for diagnosing technical problems Implementing
intervener’s
goals
should be recognized Evaluating
An extension practitioner’s work

Research Dimension
Advice
• extension aims at linking research with
farmers • Used if:
 farmers agree with extension agent about
the nature of their problems and the
criteria for choosing the “correct” solution
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 extension agent is knowledgeable of the
farmers’ situation and has adequate and/or because his/her attitude does not
information to solve their problems in a match his/her goals
way that has been tested scientifically or in • we believe that the farmer can solve his/her
practice own problems if he/she has more knowledge
 farmers are confident that the extension
or has changed his/her attitudes
worker can help them with a solution to • we are prepared to help the farmer collect
their problems more and better knowledge or influence
 extension agent does not think it necessary
his/her attitude
or possible for farmers to solve their • farmer trusts our expertise and motives and is
problems themselves prepared to cooperate with us in changing
 farmers have sufficient means at their
his/her knowledge and/or attitudes
disposal to carry out the advice
Manipulation
Compulsion or Coercion
• influence farmer’s knowledge level and
attitudes without him being aware of it
• party forcing somebody to do something
• possible if we believe:
• has power and authority
 it is necessary and desirable for farmer to
ex.: Government regulations make people
change his/her behavior in certain
conform to traffic rules, public health
direction
policies, environmental upkeep, etc.
 unnecessary/undesirable for farmer to
Exchange make independent decisions
 we can control techniques for influencing
• exchange of goods and services between two farmers without them being aware of it
individuals
 farmers don’t actively object to being
• applicable if influenced in this way
 each party considers the transaction to be
in their favor Providing Means
 each has the goods/services desired by the
• may involve taking over certain tasks from
other
farmers
 each can only deliver his/her part when the
• possible when:
exchange goods/services have been
delivered by the other  we have knowledge and/or means available
to perform the tasks better or more
Openly Influencing Farmer’s Knowledge economically than farmers
Level and Attitude  we agree with farmers that it is useful to
perform these tasks
• applicable if we believe that the farmer can’t
 we are prepared to perform them for
solve his/her own problems because he/she
him/her
has insufficient or incorrect knowledge
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Changing Farmer’s Social and/or

Economic Structure
• we agree with farmer that he/she could

perform optimally
• farmer, though, is not in a position to behave
this way because of barriers in the economic
and/or social structure
• possible when:
 we consider changes in these structures
desirable
 we have the freedom to work toward these
changes
 we are in a position to do this, either
through power or by conviction
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Extension as a Major
Function of a State
University/College
FUN CTION S OF A STATE SPECIFIC FUN CTION S
UN IVERSITY /COLLEGE
• Provides pre-service and service training for
extension workers in the region
Instruction
• Releases information through the different
An agricultural state university or college extension techniques/methods
devotes substantially more effort, attention and • Provides backstopping in subject matter and
fiscal and human resources to manpower technical knowledge to change agents and
strength in agriculture, forestry, veterinary special interest groups in the fields of
science, animal science, fisheries, horticulture, agriculture, cooperatives, homemaking, land
agronomy, dairy science and social science and reforms, etc.
churn out graduates with operational skills and
managerial competencies needed to spur Under Section 90 of Agriculture and Fisheries
agricultural and rural development. Act 8435, state universities and colleges are
mandated to primarily focus on the
Research improvement of the capability of LGU extension
service by:
An agricultural state university or college
makes continuous exploration and discovery of • Degree and non-degree training programs
new knowledge and new skills possible, and • Technical assistance
make instruction more useful and substantial as • Extension-cum-research activities
time goes on.
• Monitoring and evaluation of LGU extension
Extension projects
• Information support services through the tri-
Extension in an agricultural state university or media and electronics
college is concerned with functions that are
primarily educational. In general, it aims to Under AFMA of 1997, SUCs are not to deliver
improve the productivity, profitability, equity direct extension services but work with DA
and well-being of the farmer and fisher folk. operated extension. SUCs play a significant role
in addressing the shortage of well-trained
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agricultural extension staff in the field level a greater awareness of the realities of the
through trainings and non-degree programs. farmer into his research plans and priorities.
Instead, extension in a university complements SOURCES OF IN FORMATION

and supplements extension work of other AN D TECHN OLOGY
government agencies especially that of the
LGUs • International Agricultural Research Centers –
IRRI, CIMMYT etc.
SUCs can revitalize the Agricultural Extension
curriculum through student internships, field • University Agricultural Research Centers –
work as well as interactions with allied DTRI, IPB, BIOTECH, NCPC, FSSRI, IAS, etc.
disciplines like agricultural education, • Research Institutes of Department of
development communication and rural Agriculture – PhilRice, DA-BAR, EVIARC, etc.
sociology.
• Private firms – Del Monte, Dole, etc.
• Banks, agribusiness firms, stock agents,
IN TERRELATION SHIP AMON G
agriculture magazines
THE FUN CTION S OF A
• Farmers’ cooperatives/organizations
UN IVERSITY /COLLEGE
• Farmers’ experience and knowledge
The integration of the three functions (indigenous knowledge)
(instruction, research and extension) is quoted  knowledge that is unique to a given culture
in a publication from Cornell University in
 passed down from generation to
Ithaca, New York (cited by Chi-Wen Chang), and
generation
it reads
 dynamic, never static and are continually
“The mutual stimulation of research, influenced by internal creativity and
teaching and extension is essential to the experimentation
best progress of colleges (universities) of • Informal sources like parents, neighbors,
agriculture. Teachers need contact with friends and the like
research in order to keep abreast with
their profession; researchers need the
stimulations of students and of farm
problems which they can help to solve;
and extension specialists have nothing to
extend unless they have research
results”.
The three functions complement each other.

The extension worker learn from the farmer
and conveys his new awareness of farmer
problems, needs and interest to the scientist.
The scientist then would be able to incorporate
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Philosophy of Extension
Philosophy
 Begins identification and consideration of
• a background of theory, knowledge and beliefs
that explains and justifies a way of life local condition and environment, social
structure, habits, traditions, attitudes and
• an overall vision or attitude towards life and beliefs
its purpose. It seeks to address the problems
 New ideas must be related to what the
and needs (“the gap”) of the people in their
current state (“what is”) to attain the ideal view farmers already know and that with which
of life (“what ought to be”). they are familiar
A philosophy of extension includes the set of • The classroom is where the people are – in
beliefs and principles that serves as basis for their farm, in their homes and/or even in
making decisions and judgments in the field of their barangays
extension.  In extension education, the formal
classroom setting is done away with
STRUCTURE OF PHILOSOPHY • Extension programs are based on people’s
needs and decided by them
Beliefs – one’s mental convictions, view of the
 The farmers make effort to determine their
world, or acceptance of something true or
needs, interests, problems and aspirations
actual
 The extension workers assist the people in
Ethics – the basic principles of right exploring possible solutions to their
action/conduct as defined by profession, problems
society and nation; also referred to as the ideal • People learn to do by doing
of conduct
 The extension worker demonstrates the
activities and later on makes the clientele
Value – something regarded as desirable,
do the activities themselves
worthy or right. The intensity or degree of
valuing something may change in time. • Education is carried on with groups or with
individuals
Philosophy of Extension Education  Group method reaches more people and
promote leadership and joint actions
• Begins where the people are, with what they
 Individual approach – although expensive,
have
is more effective in clarifying specific
 Extension should work at the level where problems of individual client
the people are – at their level of
understanding, interest and degree of
readiness
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• Extension works with and through people  communicator – transfers useful
 Extension workers use cooperators to
information or technology to the clientele
teach and eventually adopt recommended  educator – helps people acquire the
practices necessary skills, knowledge and attitude
• The spirit of self-help is essential in a Works with Rural People

democratic living
 The clientele plans and works on his • for impact and sustainability, work with, not
project while the extension worker work for people
provides technical assistance • people must participate and make decisions
that will benefit them; extension agent must
Essential Considerations in Building Up assist them by providing all the information
an Effective Extension Service needed and possible alternative solutions to
( Chang, 1969) clientele problems
• Extension must be closely related to research Accountability to Clientele

and can never be separated from it
• the extension agent must justify to the
• Agricultural extension must be educational
organization whatever action he/she takes and
• Extension workers must live in the rural area be accountable and responsible to the
where they serve (live with the people) clientele on whatever advice or information
• Extension workers must be satisfactorily given to him
trained, both technically and socially, to do the • the clientele is the one to pass judgment on the
job required of them success or failure of the extension programs
• Extension workers must be provided with an
ample supply or useful teaching materials Two-way Process Linkage
• Local people must be involved in extension
• disseminate information and technology to
program planning
and receive feedback from clientele so that
• Extension workers must assist the farmers in their needs can be better fulfilled
carrying an extension project to a successful
• learn from the clientele the wealth of their
conclusion, and help solve problems as they
experiences
arise
Cooperate with Other Agencies

GUIDIN G PRIN CIPLES OF
EX TEN SION • extension is only one aspect of the many
economic, social, cultural and political
Communication and Education activities that hope to produce the change for
the betterment of the rural masses
• Extension agent’s role is as communicator and • it should therefore cooperate and collaborate
educator with both GOs and NGOs to accomplish the
goal
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• Extension cannot be effective on its own as its
activities must be interdependent on other
related activities
Work with Different Target Groups
• Extension clientele is made up of various

target groups with different needs, social
status and cultural and economic background
• Extension therefore cannot offer a package of
technology for all its clientele due to this
heterogeneity
• Therefore, there must be targeting of
extension – meaning, different programs and
technology packages for different target
groups
PURPOSE OF EX TEN SION
Informative Extension
• helps people make well-considered choices

among alternatives provided by extension for
the individual to achieve his/her goals
• Emancipatory Extension
• an instrument for developing, ‘forming’ an

individual or enhancing her/her capabilities to
make decisions to learn, to manage, to
communicate, to organize, etc.
Persuasive Extension
• a policy instrument to induce preventive

behavior with respect to societal concerns
such as environmental pollution, health
hazards, vandalism, drug addiction, rape, etc.
Such preventive behavior is in the interest of
the society as a whole or of the future
generation
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Communication in
Extension
COMMUN ICATION Concept of Communication
Etymology Communication can be conceptualized in terms

of the S-M-C-R model
“Communis” – to make common or establish • It is a process by which a
commonness between two or more people
SOURCE sends a
“Communico” – to share MESSAGE to a
RECEIVER by means of a
• a process by which two people exchange ideas, CHANNEL to produce a
facts, feelings or impressions so that each RESPONSE in accordance with the
gains common understanding of the meaning intention of the source
and intent of the message
Basic Communication Process
• a process by which an idea is transferred from
a source to a receiver with a purpose of When an extension worker communicates or
changing his behavior talks to his clientele, he is the sender; what he
says is the message; the spoken work is the
Communication as Interaction channel; and the clientele being talked to is the
receiver.
Interaction – the process of reciprocal role-
taking, the mutual performance of emphatic The reaction of the clientele to what the
behaviors extension worker says is the feedback or
response. In the transfer of information, it is
If two individuals make inferences about their necessary that there should be some level of
own roles and take the role of the other at the past experience, some level of similarity and
same time, and if their communication some level of shared meaning between the
behavior depends on the reciprocal taking of sender and receiver.
roles, then they are communicating by
interacting with each other. Participatory Communication
Empathy – the ability to project ourselves into • a social process which starts with farmers and
other people’s personalities brings together both extension workers and
farmers in a two-way sharing of information
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• this highlights the importance of cultural Systemic

identity, local knowledge and community
participation • Communication should be recognized as a
system that consists of a group of elements
IMPORTAN CE OF that interacts with each other and the system
as a whole.
COMMUN ICATION IN
EX TEN SION Interaction through Symbols
• rural agricultural development is a complex • Symbols should arouse in one’s self what it
process in scope and content arouses in another.
• rural agricultural development is a dynamic • The language or symbol we select and the way
process, hence, Heracletus’ philosophy, in which we organize it affect how others will
“importance of being”, is at work in any interpret our messages.
development situation
• Technological inventions that are meant for Meaning is Personally Constructed
development or change are oftentimes
“foreign” to target beneficiaries. They must be • No two people construct the same meaning
“simplified” if not “purified” even if they hear or see the same thing.
• Target beneficiaries of any extension Interpretation is bounded by our
activity/program are equally complex experiences, thoughts, feelings, needs,
possessing varied personalities or expectations, self-concept, knowledge,
idiosyncrasies that require different etc.
approaches or strategies to effect change
• Each of us is unique so we interpret in unique
• Extension benefits are oftentimes perceived to ways.
be “angels in satanic attire”
Field of experience
ATTRIBUTES OF • The sum total of an individual’s experiences
COMMUN ICATION AS that influences his/her ability to
communicate.
A PROCESS
• Communication can take place between
Dynamic people only to the extent that they share a
common field of experience or similar
• Communication has an ever-changing experiences.
character. It fluctuates constantly, is never
fixed, and has no clear beginnings and
endings.
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The two overlapping circles in the figure Channel

represent the field of experience of • the medium through which the message is
communication participants A and B sent from the source to the receiver
The overlap in the two circles represents the Effect

common field of experience of A and B, or their
shared similar experiences. • the difference between what the receiver
thinks, feels and does before and after
Feedback exposure to a message
• The information that is sent or fed back to the  Cognitive effect – knowledge, awareness,
source by the receiver, intentionally or thought and skills
unintentionally  Neutralization – shifting of an existing
attitude to the neutral zone
Purpose
 Boomerang effect – a shift opposite to the
• Tells the source whether the receiver is paying intended direction
attention to the message, understands it, is
 Conservation – maintenance of existing
not bored, or likes the presentation. The
attitude
source is informed whether he/she should
revise his/her communication act.  Attitude reinforcement or strengthening
of existing attitude
Relationship of elements of communication
 Shift to the opposite sign, from (+) to (-)
Feedback Effect and vice versa
MESSAGE Philosophy
Source RECEIVER
CHANNEL • the body of principles underlying a given
branch of learning of major discipline, a
Source religious system, a human activity or the like
• sends message/information to receiver • guides a person’s actions
• characteristics of source: • a view of life – what ought to be and its

components of “what is” and “how to bridge
 Credibility – a set of perceptions about the
the gap” between “what is” and “what ought to
source held by receiver in terms of
be”
competence, trustworthiness and
dynamism
ELEMEN TS OF THE
 Homophily – the degree to which a
receiver perceives the source as similar to
COMMUN ICATION PROCESS
him in certain attributes
Source
Message
An extension worker should have credibility
• sign or symbol that has meaning to both because this determines the acceptance or
sender and receiver rejection idea by the person or group with
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whom he communicates; adequate knowledge  Composure – when a source is

of his guidance, his message and the effective perceived in terms of self-confidence,
channels to use; genuine interest in the welfare poise, dignity, level-headedness, etc.,
of his audience; careful preparation of his his or her credibility is based on the
message via use of language that intended composure dimension
receivers understand, to ensure successful  Dynamism – when a receiver rates a
reception; clear way of speaking; establishment source in terms of being bold,
of mental understanding between teacher and aggressive, extrovert, etc., his or her
learner’; and awareness of time limit. credibility is based on the dynamism
dimension
Characteristics of the source
Message
• Homophily
 refers to the degree to which a receiver • The message should contain the purpose or
perceives the source as similar to him or the specific outcome desired from the
her in certain attributes such as age, sex, message whether it can be change in behavior
language, regional background, beliefs, or change in knowledge, skills and attitude on
values, etc. the part of the learner.
 homophily of source and receiver in certain • The treatment of the message refers to the
attributes contributes to effective manner the messag3 is presented in
communication understandable, logically organized,
interesting and in conformity with acceptable
• Credibility standards.
 a receiver’s perception of the believability • a set of symbols arranged deliberately in
of the source in a particular situation certain ways in order to communicate
 high or low according to the degree to information or meaning
which a source is considered by the
receiver as believable in a given situation Message factors
based on four dimensions
 Code – symbols used in communicating;
Dimensions of credibility both sender and receiver should
understand in order to communicate
 Character – when a source is perceived  Content – the idea or substance selected to
as honest, trustworthy, friendly, express the purpose of the source for
reliable, pleasant, warm, etc., his or her communicating
credibility is based on the character
 Treatment – the manner by which the
dimension
materials are arranged in order to be
 Competence – when a source is meaningful to the receiver
perceived as well-trained, competent,
intelligent, experienced, witty, bright,
etc., his or her credibility is based on the
competency dimension
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Channels
Categories of non-verbal
communication • the various methods available to any
communicator to reach his audience with the
1. Physical message; may be classified as visual, spoken
or written or a combination of two or three
 the personal type of communication
channels; and the techniques in using these
 includes facial expressions, tone of methods determine the success or failure of
voice, sense of touch, sense of smell and the communication process
body motions
Dimensions of channels
2. Aesthetic
• mode of encoding or decoding so that a
 the type of communication that takes message can be seen heard, touched or felt,
place through creative expressions – smelled, tasted
playing instrumental music, dancing,
• message vehicles are in the form of:
painting and sculpturing
 interpersonal channels
 mediated channels
3. Signs
 mass media channels
 the mechanical type of communication  folk media channels
which includes the use of signal flags,
the 21-gun salute, horns and sirens Interpersonal channels
 “Gatekeeper” – someone who
4. Symbolic
- controls the flow of information
 the type of communication that makes
use of religious, status or ego-building - decides what information to transmit
symbols and to whom he will transmit it
- evaluates the content of determine its
Message meaning and relevance and value to the potential
understanding receivers
- has the power to delete, alter the flow,
 meanings are in people
add, subtract or distort the message
 meanings are never fixed. As experience
changes, meaning changes.  “Opinion leader” – a person who is
 No two people can have exactly the same - approached by others for advice on
meanings to the extent that they have the certain matters
same experiences.
- perceived as credible, influential and
 Denotative or referential meaning – the authoritative in the community
relationship between a word-sign and an
object or the sign-object relationship. Receiver
 Connotative meaning – meaning associated
with the personal experiences of the person • The audience in extension education is
using the word. composed of farmers, homemakers and youth.
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As receivers of the message whose behaviors Feedback

the extension worker expects to change, they
differ in intelligence, beliefs, experience and • information that is sent or fed back by the
social standing in many other ways. receiver intentionally or unintentionally to the
• The individual differences in people may source
result in different interpretations of the • this is an important element of effective
message in kind and in extent. communication that makes it a two-way
process. If a farmer is viewed as the receiver,
Receiver characteristics then he must be given the opportunity to
function as the sender with the extension
 Psychological orientation – psychological worker as the receiver
factors that are salient to a receiver’s • in the absence of an reaction from the farmer,
personality it is virtually impossible to gauge the
 selective exposure appropriateness of the message content or
 selective perception channel in the implementation of an
information campaign
 selective remembering • feedback serves as corrective function by
 selective acceptance preventing communication breakdown.
Feedback helps determine whether or not a
Selective processes message was perceived as intended. If not,
adaptations, modifications can be made.
 Selective exposure – receiver tends to
expose him/herself only to information
that agrees with or supports hi/her
LEVELS OF COMMUN ICATION
existing behavior IN EXTEN SION
 Selective perception – receiver tends
• the effective or efficient technique/s or
to “notice” or assign meaning only to
approaches through which a target audience
messages that
may be vulnerable or exposed to the
- serve some immediate purpose communication process
- reinforce his or her mood • may refer to the “weaknesses” or the so-called
- fits his/her cognitive structure “killing points” in communication
- are meaningful to him/her
 Selective retention – receiver tends to According to Social Structure
learn or remember only information
that supports or agrees with his/her • Institutional/Group – communication of any
attitude, beliefs, behaviors given idea is through the community
 Selective discussion – receiver tends to • Individual – “one-on-one” or “man-to-man”
discuss only those information that level
might be of interest to him/her and to • Combination of the two
his/her listeners
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According to Formality • a change agent would not be needed in the

diffusion of innovation where there are no
• Formal – communication is facilitated social and technical chasm between the
through established norms of action change agency and the client system
• Informal – communication is made possible
through unorganized and day-to-day and Heterophily in technical competence
casual interaction between communicators Heterophy in sub-cultural language
Heterophily in socio-economic stage
• Combination of the two
Heterophy in beliefs and attitudes
EX TEN SION WORKER AS A • he/she is a marginal figure with one foot in

COMMUN ICATOR each of the two worlds
• his or her success in linking the two sub-
• Extension worker – essentially an agent of systems often lies at the heart of the diffusion
change process
• he is essentially a primary actor in the process
Change agent – an individual who influences
clients’ innovation decisions in a direction
deemed desirable by a change agency Sequence of Change Agent’s Roles
 in decentralized diffusion system, the Develops need for change

potential adopters may control their • he/she is required to help his or her clients
change agents; in some cases, certain become aware of the need to alter their
clients serve as their own change agents behavior
 in relatively centralized diffusion systems, • he/she offers new alternatives to existing
the long-range goal of many agents is to problems, dramatizes the importance of these
create a condition in which clients can help problems – consultation is highly
themselves and thus work the change agent recommended
out of the job
Establishes an information-
Change Agent as Linker exchange relationship
• he/she must develop rapport with his or her
• he/she facilitates the flow of innovations from clients, which can be done by creating
a change agency to an audience or clients credibility in his/her competence,
• for this type of communication to be effective, trustworthiness and empathy with the clients
the innovations must be selected to match the and problems
clients’ needs and problems • he/she must be accepted first before the
• for the linkage to be effective, feedback from change
the client system must flow through the
change agent to the change agency so that it
can make appropriate adjustments on the
basis of previous successes and failures
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Diagnoses problems Change agency versus client orientation

• he/she must view the situation empathically • a change agent’s success is positively related
from the clients’ and not his perspectives to to a client-orientation, rather than to a
arrive at a diagnostic conclusion change-agency orientation
• he/she must psychologically zip him or herself
in to the clients’ skins and see their situation Compatibility with clients’ need
through their eyes • a change agent’s success is positively related
to the degree to which the diffusion program
Creates intent to change in the clients is compatible with clients’ needs
• he/she seeks to motivate the client to be
interested in the innovation Change agent empathy
• he/she must be client-centered, not • a change agent’s success is positively related

innovation-centered to empathy with clients
Translates intent into action Homophily and change agent contact
• he/she seeks to influence his/her clients’ • change agent contact is positively related to
behavior in accordance with recommendation higher social status among clients
based on the clients’ needs • his/her contact is positively related to greater
social participation among clients
Stabilizes adoption and • his/her contact is positively related to higher
prevents discontinuance education among clients
• he/she may direct reinforcing messages to • his/her contact is positively related to
clients who have adopted, thus ”freezing” the cosmopoliteness among clients
new behavior
Change agent contact with
Achieves a terminal relationship lower status clients
• his/her main goal is to develop self-renewing • underprivileged clients (less educated, lower
behavior on the part of the client system income) need the assistance of change agents
more than elite clients
Factors in Change Agent Success
• the question: why doesn’t he not concentrate
Change agent effort his efforts on them?
 one reason: homophilous principles.
• the extent of effort that a change agent
expends in communication activities with Homophily is the degree to which pairs of
clients individual who interact similarly in
attributes like beliefs, education, social
• generalization: his/her success is positively status, dialect, political affiliation, age, sex,
related to the extent of change agent’s effort in marital status, etc.
contacting clients
 generalization: more effective
c o m m u ni c at i o n o c c u r s w h e n t w o
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 individuals are homophilous unless they Opinion leader

have high empathy • Opinion leadership is the degree to which an
 lessprivileged clients often lack the individual is able to influence formally other
necessary resources to adopt the individuals’ attitudes or overt behavior in a
innovations that are being promoted desired way with relative frequency.
 many change agents do not really try to
 generalization: change agent success is
contact the needy, lower status clients
because of a self-fulfilling prophecy that positively related to the extent that he
the change agents have developed from works through opinion leaders
their past experience and of the probable
thought that needy clients are not Clients’ evaluation ability
responsive to change agents’ efforts at
diffusion • technical competence – one of the change
agent’s unique contributions to the diffusion
 The aforementioned stereotype in the process, allowing him to provide this expertise
change agents’ mind serves to discourage to clients in making innovation decisions
them from initiating contacts with less
privileged clients. They capitalize on the • if he takes a long range approach to change, he
diffusion theory that presupposes that should seek to raise the clients’ technical
innovation would trickle down from the competence and ability to evaluate potential
elite clients to the less advantages clients. innovations themselves
 generalization: change agent success is
Change agent’s credibility positively related to increasing clients’
ability to evaluate innovations
• heterophilous sources/channels (like
professional change agents) are perceived as
competent, credible and homophilous COMMUN ICATION MODELS
channels like paraprofessionals are perceived
as having safety credibility Berlo’s Model
• An ideal change agent represents a balance of Source Message Channel Receiver
competence and safety credibility. He/she
must be homophilous with his or her clients in Communication Contents
Elements
Hearing
Seeing
Communication
Skills
Skills
social characteristics (socio-economic status, Attitudes Treatment
Structure
Touching
Smelling
Attitudes
Knowledge
Knowledge
ethnicity, etc.) but heterophilous with regard Social System Code Testing Social System
Culture
Culture
to technical competence about the
innovations being diffused. • focuses on the individual characteristics of
communication and stresses the role of the
 Generalization: change agent success is relationship between the source and the
positively related to credibility in the receiver as an important variable in the
client’s eyes communication process
• the more highly developed the
communication skills of the source and the
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• involves breaking down an information
• receiver, the more effectively the message will system into sub-systems so as to evaluate the
be encoded and decoded efficiency of various communication channels
• represents a communication process that and codes
occurs as a SOURCE drafts messages based on • Shannon and Weaver proposed that
one’s communication skills, attitudes, communication must include six elements –
knowledge and social and cultural system Source, Encoder, Channel, Message, Decoder
• the messages are transmitted along and Receiver
CHANNELS that can include sight, hearing, • often referred to as an “information model” of
touch, smell and taste communication
• a receiver interprets messages based on the • one drawback – it looks at communication as
individual’s communication skills, attitudes, a one-way process, but remedied with the
knowledge, and social and cultural system addition of the feedback loop
• the limitation of the model is its lack of • Noise – indicates factors that disturb or
feedback otherwise influence messages as they are
being transmitted
Laswell’s Model
Osgood and Schramm’s Model
Source Message Channel Receiver Effect
Message
Encoder Decoder
• a macroscopic theory that is concerned with
media’s impact on culture and society – for Interpreter Interpreter
example: cultural studies theory

Decoder Encoder
• theories of mass communication have always
focused on the “cause and effects” notion, i.e., Message
the effects of the media and the process

leading to those effects, on the audience’s • emphasizes the circular nature of
mind communication
• the participants swap between the roles of
• Laswell’s (1949) essential question is timeless: source/encoder and receiver/encoder
“Who says what in what channel to whom with • Wilbur Schramm stated: “In fact, it is
what effects?” misleading to think of the communication
process as starting somewhere and ending
Shannon and Weaver’s Model somewhere. It is really endless. We are little
switchboard centers handling and rerouting the
Noise
great endless current of information…”
Channel
Source Encoder Decoder Receiver
Message
• a general model of communication
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BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE Socio-physical factors

COMMUN ICATION  the instance/existence of
road/transportation network within the
Barriers – analogous to filters of the communication target
communication process
Internal Factors
External Factors
• the quality and quantity consideration that are
• some considerations outside of the directly inherent in the elements of
communication process but which directly or communication
indirectly influence its operation
Sender
Socio-economic factors  credibility
 access/availability
 availability of financial institution which
can provide credit
Message-related factors
 land tenure arrangement
 economic motivation in farming  characteristics of the technological
 market (inputs and outputs) information that tend to influence its
diffusion
Labor situation Relative Advantage - the degree to which
An innovation (a new idea or practice) is
Socio-political factors superior to the one it is intended to replace
 political environment where Compatibility - the extent to which an

communication in extension operates: innovation fits into a farmer’s views about
democratic versus autocratic form what ought to be, what he does on the farm
 cultural values that are inherent among
and how he does it
Filipinos: Complexity - the fact that some
 kumpadre system innovations are more complicated than
 palakasan others. A practice will be adopted more
 partido system quickly when it is seen as simple and not
difficult to understand
Socio-psychological factors Trialability - the degree to which an
 the degree of access of communicators to innovation can be experimented or
potential sources of information on duplicated on a small scale basis
agricultural and rural development Observability - the extent to which an
innovation or its results can be observed or
seen. If the results of an innovation can be
easily seen, it will tend to be adopted
quickly.
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Channel-related factors  ability to cope with uncertainty

 the various considerations that are (positive)
inherent in the different strategies, ways,  attitude towards education (positive)
approaches, techniques that influence the  attitude towards science (positive)
flow of information from the source to the  fatalism (negative)
receiver  achievement motivation (positive)
 higher aspiration for education,
Appropriateness/Compatibility of the occupation (positive)
channel to the
Effects-related factors
 purpose of the communication
 the possible consequences brought about
 kind and quality of the receiver by an introduced innovation
 competence of the use  consequences – changes that occur to an
 kind/nature of the messages which are individual or a social system as a product of
being communicated communication
 timeliness of its use  there are at least three classifications of
consequence:
Receiver-related factors  desirable versus undesirable
 the different considerations that are consequences, depending on whether
inherent in the communication receiver the effects of an innovation in a social
that tend to influence his vulnerability to system are functional or dysfunctional
change-related communication  direct versus indirect consequences,
depending on whether the change to an
Socio-economic characteristics individual or society occurs in
 age (not related) immediate response to an innovation as
 education (positive) a second-order result
 literacy (positive)  anticipated (expected) versus
 higher social status (positive) unanticipated consequences, depending
 upward social mobility (positive) on whether the changes are recognized
 large-size units (positive) and intended by the members of a social
 commercial (positive) system or not
 attitude towards credit (positive)
 change agents usually introduce
 more specialized operation (positive)
innovations into a client system that they
Personality variables expect will be desirable, direct and
anticipated
 empathy (positive)
 change agents are seldom able to predict
 dogmatism (negative)
 ability to deal with abstraction (positive) another aspect of an innovation’s
 rationality (positive) consequences, its meaning, the subjective
 intelligence (positive) perception of the innovation by the client
 attitude towards change (positive)
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Approaches in •
Extension
APPROACH METHOD leadership, program, methods, resources and
TECHN IQUE linkages)
Strategies are approaches and method chosen

Approach or developed to reach a particular set of goal;
used to define the operational design by means
Method
of which the national government or other
Technique sponsoring organizations implement its
policies.
APPROACHES IN EX TEN SION

Definitions 1. General Agricultural Extension Approach
2. Commodity Specialized Approach
• Approach – embraces the entire spectrum of 3. Project Approach
the process. It states a point of view, a 4. Farming Systems Development Approach
philosophy, an article of faith (Garcia, 1989). 5. Training and Visit System Approach
There can be several methods within an 6. The Cost-sharing Approach
approach. 7. Agricultural Extension Participatory
• Method – a procedural consisting of a series Approach
of actions arranged logically for the smooth 8. Educational Institution Approach
flow of operation.
General Agricultural Extension
• Technique – a particular trick, strategy,
Approach ( GAE)
individual artistry of the teacher/extension
worker
General nature
Extension approach – an organized and • Transfer of technology (TOT)

coherent combination of strategies and
methods, designed to make rural extension Basic assumption
effective in a certain area • Technology and information are available but
• embodies the philosophy of a system are not being used by farmers. If these could
be communicated to them, farm practices
• spells the doctrine of the system
would be improved.
• style of action which by and large, determines
the direction and nature or style of the various
a s p e c t s o f t he s y s t e m ( e .g . st r u c t u r e ,
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• focuses on one export crop or one aspect of
Purpose farming
• to help farmers increase their production
Basic assumption
Program planning • the way to increase productivity and
• controlled by the government production of a particularly commodity is to
• changes in priority, from time to time, are concentrate on that one grouping extension
made on a national basis with some freedom with such other functions as research, input
for local adaptation supply, output marketing, credit and
sometimes price control, will make the whole
Implementation system productive.
• carried out by a large field staff assigned Purpose

throughout the country
• increase production of a particular
• demonstration plots are major technique commodity
Advantages • sometimes to increase utilization of a

particular agricultural input
• interpret national government policies and
procedures to the local people Program planning
• covers the whole nation • controlled by the community organization
• relatively rapid communication from the
department level to the rural people Implementation
• carried out by a large field staff assigned
Disadvantages throughout the country
• lacks two-way flow of communication • demonstration plots are major technique
• fails to adjust extension messages to different
localities Advantages
• field staff not accountable to rural people • technology tends to “fit” the production
problems and so extension messages tend to
• expensive and inefficient
be appropriate because of coordination with
research and marketing people
Measure of success
• messages tend to be delivered in a timely
• increase in national production of the
manner
commodities being emphasized in the
national program • focus on a narrow range of technical concerns
• higher salary incentives
Commodity Specialized Approach
• closer management and supervision
General nature • fewer farmers per extension worker
• highly specialized • easier to monitor and evaluate
• relatively more cost-effective
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• control of program shared jointly by local
Disadvantages farm men and women, extension people and
• interests of farmers may have less priority agricultural researches
than those of the commodity organization
• does not provide advisory service to other Implementation
aspects of farming • through partnership of research and
• commodity organization may be promoting its extension personnel with the local people,
commodity even in situation where it is no taking a systems approach to the farm
longer in the national interest to be increasing • requires research personnel to go to the farm,
production of that particular commodity listen to farmers and in collaboration with
them and the extension personnel,
Measure of success understand the farm as a system
• increase in yield, and total production of the
crops being emphasized Advantages
• local control of program planning increases
The Farming Systems Development relevance of program content and methods to
Approach ( PSDA) needs and interests of clientele
• higher adoption rates
General nature
• effective communication between local people
• interdisciplinary approach i.e. involves several and extension personnel
disciplines
• lower cost to central government an local
people
Basic assumption
• technology that fits the needs particularly the Disadvantages
needs of small farmers, is not available and
• some degree of difficulty in working in a
needs to be generated locally
multi-disciplinary team
Purpose • no quick results in development of
appropriate technology
• to provide extension persons, and through
their farm people, with research results
Measure of success
tailored to meet the needs and interests of
local farming systems conditions • extent to which farm people adopt
technologies developed in the program and
Program planning continue to use them over time
• evolve slowly during the process for different
climatic farm ecosystem types since program The Training and Visit
takes into account a holistic approach to the Approach ( T & V)
plants, animals and the people in each
particular location General nature
• highly disciplined and patterned with fixed
schedules for training of extension workers,
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• closer technical observation
SMSs, and visits by extension workers to
partners Disadvantages
Basic assumption • high long-term costs to governments due to

expanding size of VEWs
• extension personnel poorly trained, not up-
to-date and tend not to visit farmers, but stay • lack of actual two-way communication
in offices • technology relevant to farmers not integrated
• management and supervision are not • lack of flexibility to change programs as needs
adequate and interests of farmers change staff tires of
• two-way communication between research vigorous, patterned activities without
and extension units and between extension appropriate rewards
staff and farmers can be achieved
Measure of success
Purpose • increase in yield, and total production of the
• to induce farmers to increase production of crops being emphasized
specified crops
The Cost-Sharing Approach ( CSA)
Program planning
Basic assumption
• centralized
• any non-formal education program is more
• what to teach and when to teach it is decided
likely to achieve its goals if those who benefit
upon by professionals and is delivered down
from it share some part of the cost
to farmers
• program would more likely serve interest of
• program planning follows cropping pattern of
the client if costs are shared between
priority crops
“outside” sponsors and “inside” target groups
Implementation • commitment of learners to participate if they

pay some part of the costs
• fortnightly training of village extension
workers (VEW) by SMSs
Purpose
• fortnightly visits by village extension workers
• to make funding of agricultural extension
to small groups of farmers or to individual
affordable and sustainable both at central and
“contact” farmers
local levels
Advantages
Program planning
• pressure on governments to organize a large
• shared by various levels paying the cost but
number of small agricultural units into one
must be responsive to local interest in order to
integrated system
maintain cooperative financial arrangements
• brings discipline to the system village
extension workers become more up-to-date
with information
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Advantages
• extension efficiency is gained by focusing on
• some measure of local control of program important points based on expressed needs of
planning increases relevance of program farmers
content and methods to needs of client
• higher adoption rates Purpose
• effective communication between local people • to increase production of farming people
and extension worker • to increase consumption and enhance the
• lower cost to central government and local quality of life of rural people
people
Program planning
• local people tend to have strong voice in
program planning • controlled locally, often by farmers’
association
Disadvantages
Implementation
• more difficult for central government to
control either program or personnel • features many meetings and discussions of
farmers’ problems
Measure of success • exploring situations with extension officers
• farm people’s willingness and ability to
provide some share of the cost, individually or Advantages
through their local government units • relevance ore fit of the program
• mutually supportive relationships which
The Agricultural Extension Participatory
develop among participants
Approach ( AEPA)
• lesser cost
General nature • stimulates increased awareness, confidence
• puts responsibility of determining agricultural and activity among farm people
extension programs in the hands of farmers
making them partners with GOs and NGOs Disadvantages
• lack of control of program from central
Basic assumption government
• that farming people have much wisdom • difficulty of managing, reporting and
regarding food production from their land accounting
• there is an IKS different from the scientific • pressure people might bring on central units
knowledge system but there is much to be
• people’s influence on personnel management
gained from the interaction of the two
like transfer, selection, promotion, etc.
• needed is participation of farmers, research
and related services Measure of success
• there is a reinforcing effect in group learning • continuity of local extension organizations
and group action and the benefits to the community
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• extent of participation of key stakeholders in
program planning and implementation Several modes are:
 participatory model where the
EX TEN SION TEACHIN G extension agent and the farmer resolve a
problem together
METHODS (ETM)
 counseling model which uses the non-
ETM According to Form directive technique of having empathy
and compassion with the farmer
• Written form  diagnosis: prescription model where the
 Bulletins problem of the farmer is analyzed by the
 Circular letters extension agent and the solution is
 Leaflets prescribed
 News articles
 Personal letters  Farm and home visit
- an extension teaching method in which
• Spoken the extension worker goes to the farm
 Employed during meetings and home and meets the farmer,
 Farm and home visit homemakers and youth
 Office calls - Generally, farm and home visits are for
 Radio calls providing and getting information and
also an opportunity to arouse interest
• Visual or objects in farm, home or community
 Exhibits improvements not yet recognized by
 Motion pictures the individual as desirable.
 Posters - If the visit is primarily for the purpose
 Result demonstration of obtaining information, that
 Slides information can be interpreted and
 Television used more effectively because of the
extension worker’s first-hand
• Spoken and visual object knowledge of the circumstances
 Demonstration involved.
 Meeting involving motion pictures
 Slides  Office calls
 Visual aids -a teaching method wherein farm
people go to extension office for
ETM According to N umber information or assistance.
of Clientele - involves direct personal contact
between the extension worker and the
• Individual approach
individual desiring information or
 This approach proceeds from a mutual assistance
discussion that is basically interpersonal.
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- the fact that the farmer or homemaker - if somebody wants to add to the
calls on the extension worker, there is speaker’s statement, he may present
recognition of the problem to be solved his remarks in the form of questions
and a strong desire to solve it
 Demonstration
- the climate of readiness is even more
favorable to learning and action than in Method demonstration – short-time
the case of the visit to the farm and/or demonstration given by an extension
home worker or trained leader for the purpose
of reaching skills to a group or to show a
 Letters and correspondence better way to carry out a practice
- do not seem very important in - shows how something is done step-by-
disseminating agricultural information step, e.g. how to use a tool, a new
planting technique to prevent soil
- the main value lies in answering
erosion or how to cook a newly
inquiries about new kinds of seed of
introduced viand or delicacy
different crops, new publication and
control of pests and diseases of crops - not concerned in proving the worth of
a practice but “how to do something”
• Group approach - an effective method because during the
 Lecture – a verbal presentation by a process, all best teaching means –
single speaker to a group of listeners seeing, hearing, discussing and doing
are employed
- used extensively by extension
technicians and subject matter
Result demonstration – long-time
specialists to present technical
demonstration carried out under the
information or develop background
supervision of an extension worker in
and appreciation of and to integrate
the farm or in the home of a reliable
ideas
cooperator
- for most part a one-way
- the main purpose is to prove that the
communication from speaker to
new practice is superior to the one
audience
currently being used and is practicable
- frequently, questions at the end of the under local conditions
lecture establish some interaction
- helps to establish confidence in
between the speaker and the audience
scientific farming methods as opposed
- should not be confused with method to traditional methods, by teaching
demonstration farmers why they should adopt a new
practice
 Discussion following a lecture
- proves the advantages of an improved
- often called lecture forum farming or homemaking practice
- anyone in the audience who desires - shows the advantages of applying
more information may ask the speaker scientific methods to everyday
some questions situations
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- dramatizes and arouses interest by
showing old and new practices side by executing specific business of the
side constituted group
 held to introduce and discuss new ideas
- convinces people as they see for
themselves which is the better practice or practices, to obtain the opinions of a
community and, if possible, gain their
 Educational tour/Field trip – a group
support on local problems and extension
travels to another location to observe programs
agricultural practices, projects or
 Group discussion
demonstrations not available locally
- commonly used as part of a seminar-
- A destination may be an agricultural
experimental station, a farm or a workshop
community organization such as a - the audience is divided into a group of
successful farmers’ marketing about 15 and are given a specific period
cooperative, etc. within which to discuss a topic
Brainstorming – an activity to which a
 Field day – a day or days in which an
deliberate attempt is made to think and
area containing successful farming or speak out freely and creatively all
other practices is open for people to visit possible approaches and solution to a
- Usually held on farms, experimental given problem
stations or government centers to Open forum – clarifications, questions,
demonstrate successful farming objection to ideas
techniques or to see field tests,
machinery demonstrations, athletic Phillip 66 – 6-person, 6-minute
contests, or other events discussion
- an activity designed to influence a large  Informal group discussion –

number of people gathered in one farmers/neighbors can get together in a
place at one time certain place and time to get acquainted
with each other, to exchange farming
- may consist of an activity or a information and ideas and to share
combination of activities where the common problems in order to help each
teaching and learning situation are other and the community
made public to a large audience
- discussion groups lead to direct
- an effective tool in creating awareness
interaction possible between an
and interest in new or improved extension agent and the farmers and
agricultural and homemaking among the farmers themselves
practices
- these make it possible for the
 Meeting – an organized and purposive extension agent to adapt his
assembly of a constituted group of farmers, information more closely to the
homemakers and youth for the purpose of farmers’ needs and knowledge level
deliberating, planning, deciding on or when using the mass media approach
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 Panel discussion – a moderated meeting  Extension classes

in which a limited member of experts or - short courses consisting of selected
specialists (2-8) give short presentations subject matter courses in agriculture
on the same subject and family living, programmed into
- An informal discussion of a topic specific number of learning sessions
participated in by a group of 2-8 for farmers, homemakers and youth
speakers for the benefit of listeners
- ideally, each panelist represents a  Seminar-workshop
different field of discipline - extensively used in the training of
-a leader presides, introduces the extension personnel and local leaders
speaker, and encourages the less who participate in development
talkative to shoot his questions programs
- the training consists of actual work;
 Symposium – a short series of lectures
participants are to perform certain
usually, by 2 to 5 speakers, each with a directed activities
different viewpoint
- a modification of the lecture, but  The film forum
differs in that there is more than one - a discussion before and after the
speaker and more than one point of viewing of an educational film is
view similar to the lecture forum, except
- the subject is not necessarily that the film takes over the question
controversial and answer function of the lecturer in
- unless speakers are approximately
the film forum
equal in ability, one speaker may
 Program planning meetings
dominate the meeting
- extension workers participate in
 Role playing – a dramatization in which several meetings concerned with
an open-ended scenario is described program planning
and participants are assigned roles to act - may involve a committee of voluntary
out the situation or the problem leaders, the entire membership of an
- the scenario used to set up a role organized group, or those in
playing exercise may be simple but it attendance at publicly advertised
must be based on the local reality neighborhood or community meeting
- the dramatization shows emotional
reaction of participants assuming an  Educational tours
identity other than their own - a group of farmers, homemakers and
- real or hypothetical problems in other interested group are taken to a
interrelation and other areas are central research station, agricultural
presented institution or to successful farm or
projects, to observe and acquaint the
farmers/homemakers of the modern
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 Others such as
technologies used in such institution  posters
or farm  exhibits
• Camps  mass media serves to create awareness of

innovations and stimulation of interest
- a group method with special functions,
thus, has a firm place specially for 4-H
Mass Media
Club
 Advantages
- emphasizes cooperation, stimulates
interest in all group activities and - reach a large number of people rapidly
offers special opportunities for - create awareness and spread
training in health, conservation, group information
actions, arts and crafts, safety and
- lead to changes in weakly held
many other subjects
attitudes
• Achievement days and rallies - low cost per individual reached
- held for the purpose of giving public - high accuracy of message
recognition to worthwhile communicated
accomplishments  Limitations
- may be an all-day or a five-day affair - high probability of selected screening
frequently held with members
exhibiting their project work, giving - low clarity of content
demonstration, announcement or - one way flow of message
winners of awards, delegates chosen - low speed of feedback
for bigger events and outstanding local
leaders honored - low accuracy of feedback
• Mass methods Radio
 channels in communication that can - one of the fastest and most powerful
expose large number of people to the same means of mass communication that
information at the same time can reach all cultural levels
 include media that convey information by - radio plays an important role in

sound (radio, audio etc.), moving pictures a. promoting changes in attitude that
(television, film, video) and print (posters, lead to adoption of new farm
newspapers and leaflets) practices
 Via use of publications that are circulated b. increasing awareness and
as in appreciation for agricultural
 bulletins information
 pamphlets
c. promoting rural people’s
 circulars
awareness about important rural-
 leaflets
urban differences
 new stories
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d. serving as a source of family living Print/Publications
patterns and helping solve some
problems in family relations ◊ bulletins, pamphlets, leaflets and
other reading materials supplement
e. stimulating new wants/desires for other extension methods and
the acquisition of certain techniques
advertised products
◊ distributed to interested parties
- radio program helps create awareness who may call or write for them
and interest in innovations
◊ printed materials furnish ready
- gives timely information to the public answers to queries
- informs the public about extension ◊ well organized at relatively low cost
activities
- stimulate people to seek advice of the Exhibits
extension officers
◊ tell a story much quicker than any
- the most important mass medium for communication tool
farmers in less industrialized countries
◊ in a few seconds, can convey a
- advantages: message than other media such as
1. reaches many people more quickly demonstration, lecture, movie and
in all parts of the country without radio would do in a longer time
delay ◊ used to gain support for extension
2. extremely useful in reaching the programs
countryside where some people are ◊ are carefully designed and
not fully literate constructed so they can be
3. enhances the effectiveness of other dismantled and transported for
extension teaching methods such as reassembly and display at various
demonstrations or meetings other centers
- drawback: ◊ posters, photograph enlargements,

models, drawing and other devices
◊ not all provinces have radio stations
are used to emphasize the principal
object of extension work
Television
◊ the extensionist can give “how-to- Educational campaigns
do-it” method of demonstration,
which is not always possible on ◊ the coordinated use of different
radio extension methods for the purpose
◊ an effective media specially in face of forecasting the attention of the
to face approach of the masses, as it public in a particular widespread
can reach both urban and rural problem and its solution e.g. black
people bug problem
◊ resorted to whenever the problem
w i t h w h i c h i t i s c o nn e c t e d i s
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important to the majority and the 2.3 pests and pest control
solution of which requires the techniques
massive involvement of the people 2.4 bulletin board – carry
posters, wall charts,
Audio-visual Aids bulletins, handouts and
◊ assume considerable importance in announcement of extension
extension work activities, agricultural
information and news
◊ people learn through all their
senses – the more senses used, the 2.5 extension literature –
more the learning is increased. classified both under
With audio-visual aids, people use print/publication and as
sight and hearing to learn. visual aids
◊ Types of visual: » bulletins – contain

complete summary of the
1. presentation visuals – used to
information available on a
reinforce or clarify a speaker’s
particular subject e.g.
message. They include samples
certain specialized poultry,
and specimen, models,
livestock or crops
photographs, blackboards,
flannel graphs, flipcharts and » leaflets – provide practical
flashcards. advice on farming or
homemaking problems and
2. display visuals
practices
2.1 posters – used to announce
» handouts – used to aid
extension activities or to
recall of the message
publicize campaign
objectives 2.6 projected visuals – include
color slides, lantern slides,
» a good poster tells what,
filmstrips, overhead
where and when
projector and cinema films
» the “what” is the subject
2.7 tape recorders – store
matter and must be placed
sound for reuse
in an important place in the
poster 2.8 music, plays and puppets –
folk songs, dances and
» a poster’s job is to get
drama are a great
attention, to stimulate
fascination for people
interest and not to tell the
whole story » socio-drama is a tool that
may be used either in the
2.2 wall charts – provide
classroom, in a meeting, or
explanatory support to the
out in the open in a
main teaching activity. They
barangay
contain graphically certain
process, like the life cycle of
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» role play teaches the very Use of Folk Media
important skills of putting
yourself in the other • the consultative and participative approach to
fellow’s shoes to extension planning, budgeting,
understand how he will implementation, monitoring and evaluation
react in a particular have brought about the interest and increased
situation, and enables one use of folk media as an extension methodology
to see and appreciate his • folk media are participated in by the
point of view grassroots
» puppets are dolls that can • effective in arousing motivation to change
be made to move about and
• communication messages are easily
appear to speak
understood in the local language
2.9 mobile units – have the
• there is freedom in conveying sentiments on
following facilities: public
current problems and issues to concerned
address system, slides and
sectors or individuals by the scriptwriters,
projectors, a tape play back
thus eliciting appropriate actions or
desk, record player and
resolutions
stock of extension literature
• folk and modern media complement each
2.10 story board – useful in
other and evidenced in its use by the Barangay
planning certain types of
Integrated Development Approach for
visual aids like films,
Nutrition Improvement (BIDANI) program in
filmstrips, sets of slide,
the Philippines
flashcards and flip books
Media Combination and Use of ELECTRON IC MEDIA

Audio-visual Aids
• media that requires the use of electricity or
• combinations of mass media and group electric power
discussion bring about substantial changes in
behavior Categories of Electronic Media
• the use of many types of audio-visual aids
(video tapes, sound slides) increases • still projection media – slides, filmstrips,
extension effectiveness overhead transparencies, opaque materials
• messages presented through different aids • audio media – cassette and reel tapes, disc
must be synchronized carefully so that the recorders, radio, telephone, cellular phones
target audience is not overloaded with • audio plus visual media – sound slide tapes,
information sound filmstrips, voice and text cell phones
• audio-visual materials must be pre-tested • motion picture – 16 mm films, 8 mm films,
before general use super 8 mm films, 35 mm films
• television – aerial and cable TV
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• internet – needs the following: computer
system, fax modem, telephone system and ISP Web site
server  contains web pages like paper pages of a
book
Internet  has a home page like the cover + mini table
of contents of a book
• a global network of computers, the computers
linked via a telecommunication system such as Search engine
the telephone system and the communication
satellite  a special site on the web
• internet users need a personal computer (PC),  it is where keywords are typed to search for
a laptop computer, tablet or smart cell phone, web sites
a fax modem and an ISP server in the area  examples are yahoo, google, etc.
• used in sending e-mails, connecting to other
computer databases, sending data or Intranet
computer files to other computers, surfing the  a private internet or network of computers
worldwide web (www), watching real-time (e.g. in offices) where staff can
videos, chatting with friends, reading the day’s communicate with any other staff using the
news headliners, accessing many other instant messaging software, conduct
information and advertising oneself in the net conferences or joint chat
by creating a web page
Extranet
The World Wide Web  several related intranets connected with
 contains web pages or information that are each other (supplier organizations, clients,
made available via the internet using etc.)
hypertext links
 information may contain text, pictures,
Local Area Network (LAN)
sound and video  a network of computers in a small area (e.g.
 a browser is used to view these information
college or university) where units are wired
on the web and connected
 to find information, an address or uniform Wide Area Network (WAN)

resource locator (URL) is used. The links
 a network of LANs or intranets that
are followed, and a search engine or subject
directory is used. facilitate communication among the
interconnected LANs or intranets
Browser
 a software that is connected to the internet
to see information via the Web e.g.
Netscape, Navigator/Communicator and
the Internet Explorer
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Community Organizing
 Interdependence
COMMUN ITY
 “needing and depending upon each
other”. The prefix “inter” refers to that
• an organization of families and individuals
which exists “between and among”
settled in a fairly compact and contiguous
discrete entities.
geographical area, with significant element of
common life as shown by its elements:
 Recognition of belongings
 Manners – a way of doing something
 everybody wants to feel liked and
 Customs – the social convention carried on accepted by others
by tradition
 people get their greatest joys through
 Tradition – handing down of customs, association with others who make them
beliefs and others from generation to feel that they have unity
generation
 Mode of speech – the language of a certain  System of stratification
people or group  the way in which a large group of people
living together is divided into classes
• also refers to people and the pattern of social
 makes people differ from each other by
relationship which may be characterized by:
the place that they occupy in a
historically determined system of social
 a common system of values
production, by their relation to the
 value – hints at what ought to be or at means of production, by their role in the
those that relate to the ultimate ends, social organization of labor and
goals or purposes of social action consequently by the dimensions of the
share of social wealth of which they
 normatively defined relation dispose and the mode of acquiring it
 norms – accepted ways of behaving that
govern group life in all societies and at  Locality
all times.  the area occupied by closely-knit
 “rules” or standards of behavior shared members of a community
by members of a social group and ideal  varies according to the term of
patterns of behavior that most members reference used
of society consider to be correct and
proper in particular situations
COMMUN ITY ORGAN IZIN G
• a development strategy for building people’s

capabilities towards self-determination and
self-reliance
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• a method and process of educating, organizing • As a trainer
and mobilizing people that leads to their own  assesses training needs
development
 plans and conducts educational program
 method – it follows some basic steps.
 assists leaders in training others
However, situations tend to be fluid. The
correctness of strategy depends on sound  engages in praxis (action-reflection-
community diagnosis. action) through continuous dialogue with
people
 since it is a process, the particular stage or
entry point a community organizer utilizes
• As an advocate
depends upon his or her reading of the
local condition  analyzes and articulates critical issues
• it is a continuous process of:  assists others to reflect upon other issues
 educating people to understand their  evokes and provokes meaningful

critical consciousness or their existing discussions and actions
conditions
• As a researcher
 organizing people to work collectively and
efficiently on their problems  conducts social analysis
 mobilizing people to develop their  engages in participatory technology

capability and readiness to respond and development
take action on their immediate needs  simplifies and enriches appropriate
towards solving their long-term problems research concepts and skills
 engages in social integration to understand
Three Major Components of
social phenomena from the eyes of the
Community Organizing people
1. Training and Education • As a planner

2. Organization building
3. Mobilization  conducts analysis of area resources and
potentials
Tasks and Functions of a  assists local groups in planning for their
Community Organizer common goal
 systematizes group actions
• As a facilitator
 enhances individual and group strengths • As a catalyst
and minimize weaknesses and conflicts  initiates debates and actions regarding
 heightens group unity critical problems
 assists individuals and groups to respond to  monitors and nurtures growth of
common interests individuals and groups
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Building relatively permanent structures

COMMUN ITY ORGAN IZATION
and people’s organization
• the process of bringing about and maintaining • community organization seeks to create a
adjustment between social welfare needs and conducive environment for the development
resources in a geographical area of special of human creativity and solidarity through
field of service (Durham, 1958) equitable distribution of power and resources
• process by which a community identifies its
Improved quality of life/standard of living
needs and objectives, orders/ranks or
objectives, develops the confidence and will to
Popular democracy
work at these needs and objectives, takes
action in respect to them and in so doing,
National social transformation
extends and develops cooperative and
collaborative attitudes and practices in the
community (Ross, 1955 and 1976) Principles of Community Organizing
• a systematic, planned and liberating change • People’s participation

process of transforming a complacent, • Self-determination
deprived and malfunctioning community into • Experiential learning
an organized, conscious, empowered, self- • Self-reliance
reliant, just human entity and institution
(PESP) Organizing approaches
VALUES, GOALS AN D • Issue-based approach – organizing approach

PRIN CIPLE that revolves around issues or problems that:
 are felt by a significant number of people in
Values of Community Organization the community
 require people to negotiate from a position
• Human rights of strength usually outside the community
• Social justice for issue resolution
• Social responsibility
 have a high probability of being resolved if
collectively acted upon
Goals of Community Organizing
People’s empowerment • Socio-economic project-based approach –

organizing approach that centers on the
• community organization aims at achieving introduction of socio-economic projects such
effective power for the people as health care, IGP, enterprise development,
• people learn to overcome powerlessness and MPC formation, etc.
develop their capacity to maximize control
over their situation and start to place the • Church/Faith-based approach – organizing
future in their own hands approach used by organizers with the
structures of a church or within components
of church-based programs
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• written agreements are needed so that the

SOME APPROACHES TO
specific responsibilities of each participating
RURAL CHAN GE agency are spelled out
The Concentrated Approach The Institutional Approach

• the change agent does not cover the whole • the aim is to organize farmers into
area at once but limits his operation on a associations so that they can eventually
limited area or project manage their own program or activities
• the change agent works closely with a limited • examples are farmers’ associations,
number of individuals known as cooperators, samahang nayon and cooperatives, etc. The
with the hope that the new information or organized groups are used as instrument for
ideas would later on radiate to the other rural development activities.
farmers in the community
• the approach is suited to areas newly covered Utilizing Local Leaders
by a technician or change agent
• formal and informal leaders are indispensable
The Team Approach in rural development work
• leaders assist in carrying out development
• technicians with different fields of programs in the locality and serve as the link
specialization work together as a team in between the people and the extension service
developing an area
• proper selection and the need for training and
• the technicians come from one agency and development should be instituted before the
works as a team in developing a particular local leaders are put into action
area or community
• the team may be composed of a livestock
technician, crop technician, farm
management technician and a home
management technician
• team members can reinforce each other’s
activities in meeting the client’s varied field
problems
• this approach works well in areas far from
agricultural experiment station or agricultural
college
The Cooperative Approach
• different agencies are involved

• every agency has its own specialized functions
as stated in the program
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The Adoption Process

Innovation – an idea or practice or technology whether he can try it on a small scale, the
perceived as new by a person individual actually applies the new idea on
a small scale in order to determine its
Adoption – the process by which a person is utility in his own situation
exposed to, evaluates and accepts/practices or
rejects a particular innovation. It is the decision 5. Adoption
to make full use of the technology as the best  the final stage of the diffusion process,
option possible. described as full or large scale and
continuous use of the idea
DIFFUSION PROCESS
Note:
• the spreading of information from a source to
 the farmer can also reject the innovation
its intended or unintended receivers or users
based on his or her observation and
and the stages through which adoption passes
assessment
• a process by which an innovation is
 the five stages may not always occur in
communicated through certain channels over
specified order, the trial stage may be
time among the members of a social system
skipped and evaluation stage may occur
throughout the whole process
Stages in the Adoption Process
 adoption may not always be the end
1. Awareness process but more information may be
needed to confirm, reinforce or switch
 a stage when a person knows that an idea decision
exists but lacks details and information
about it
Stages in the Adoption Process
( further explanation)
2. Interest
 a stage when a person seeks more factual Awareness
information as to what it is, how it works
• the individual becomes aware or exposed to
and what its advantages are
the new idea
3. Evaluation • he knows the new idea exists, but he lacks
details and information about it
 when an individual shows marked interest
in the idea as it applies to his farming • Example: the farmer may know only the
operation and family name, but he may not know what the idea or
product is, what it will do or how it will work
4. Trial
 a stage whereby an individual has weighed
the advantages and risks involved and
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Interest Innovation-Decision Process Theory
• the individual wants more information about Knowledge

the idea or product
• stage when the individual learns of the
• he wants to know what it is, how it works and existence of the innovation and gains some
what its potentialities are understanding of its function
• he may say to himself that this might help him • the individual is exposed to the innovation’s
increase his income, or help him control existence and gains some understanding of
insects of diseases, or improve farming or how it functions
home life in some other way
Persuasion
Evaluation
• the individual forms a favorable or
• the individual makes an assessment of the new unfavorable opinion of the innovation
idea
• the individual makes mental application of the Decision
new idea to his present and anticipated future • the individual engages in activities that lead to
situation and decides whether or not to try it a choice between adoption and rejection of the
• the farmer applies the information obtained in innovation
the previous stages to his own situation
Implementation
• he considers the advantages and
disadvantages of using the innovation • the individual puts an innovation into use
Trial Confirmation
• farmer tests the innovation on a small scale • individual seeks further reinforcement of his
basis if he decides that the idea is going to be decision or reverses his decision if he found
beneficial for him conflicting messages about the innovation
• apparently, individuals need to test a new idea
even though they have thought about it for a Individual Innovativeness Theory
long time and have gathered information
about it • states that individuals who are risk takers or
otherwise innovative will adopt an innovation
Adoption earlier in the continuum of adoption or
diffusion
• characterized by large scale, continued use of
the idea, and most of all, by satisfaction with  Innovativeness – the degree to which an
the idea in preference to the old method individual is relatively earlier in adopting
new ideas that the other members of the
system. It is the best single indicator of
modernization.
 Modernization – the process by which
individuals change from a traditional way
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of life to a more complex, technologically • most likely informal leaders and have limited
advanced and rapidly changing style of life resources than innovators and early adopters
• adopt new ideas after they are convinced of its
TY PES OF ADOPTER value as seen from early adopters
1. Innovators Late Majority

2. Early adopters (Skeptical)
3. Early majority
4. Late majority • make up a large block of farmers in the
5. Laggards community
• have less education and older than the early
Innovators majority
(Venturesome)
• less active in associations and organizations
• the first people in a locality to adopt an • skeptical about new information and ideas
innovation or new idea • hesitant to discard old knowledge and
• have larger farms, higher net worth, more techniques learned
educated and informed • adopt a practice only when it is adopted by
• highly respected and have prestige majority by the community
• take calculated risks
Laggards
• experiment (Traditional)
Early Adopters • last people to adopt an innovation

(Respectable)
• suspicious of innovations, innovators, and
change agent
• follow the innovators
• very conservative
• usually younger than average, have higher
education than those slower to adopt • usually the older, least educated and wealthy
• participate actively in community • not risk takers
organizations and programs • usually believe in superstitions and
• more informed, read papers and magazines indigenous knowledge
• decision to adopt depends on their past
Early Majority experiences
(Deliberate)
ADOPTION RATE
• slightly above average in age, education and
farming experience
Rate of adoption – the relative speed with
• not elected leaders but are active in the which an innovation is adopted by member of a
community social system, measured as the number of
receivers who adopt a new idea in a specified
time period
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• use of progressive farmers has its attraction to
Early majority Late majority extension workers if they are working under
the pressure of targets (e.g. fertilizers to be
Early adopters distributed, areas to be planted with new
Laggards
varieties, etc.
Innovators
2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16% Mass Marketing

The distribution of adopters according
to the rate of adoption • uses advertising to reach each member of the
target market directly
Innovations diffused over time resemble an s- • involves huge communication systems to give
shaped curve information regarding product availability to
- rate of adoption theorizes that diffusion takes consumers
place over time with innovations going • feedbacks data to producers re: consumers’
through a slow, gradual growth period, wants
followed by dramatic and rapid growth, and
• can create broad public awareness of critical
then a gradual stabilization and finally, a
issues
decline
• can be used to introduce new product (e.g.
new brand of chemical fertilizer), the
STRATEGIES TO EFFECT
modification of existing ones (e.g. organic
ADOPTION composting), restricted consumption of
inputs (e.g. use of herbicides), and promotion
1. Extension Worker Intervention of changes in existing institutions
2. Progressive Farmer Strategy
3. Mass Marketing • requires careful design and delivery of
4. Follower-farmer Strategy products to properly identified and analyzed
5. Selective Farmer-to-Farmer homogeneous target markets
Extension Worker Intervention Follower-Farmer
• extension workers are valuable agents for • emerged from the T & V system introduced in
quick diffusion and adoption of innovations many third world countries largely through
the encouragement and support of World
• as “carriers of information”, they must Bank
possess important traits such as credibility
because of good understanding of farmers and • contact farmers are identified from among
their problems, nature of technology, groups of families or households in one village
extension methods, research results, etc. • extension worker works with contact farmers
• revolves around an intensive visit of extension
Progressive Farmer Strategy workers to contact farmers
• extension agents are usually in direct contact • during visits, extension worker transfers
with progressive farmers from whom information to contact farmers who in turn
innovations diffuse
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pass on the information to the farm Sustainable Agriculture

households that they are in charge of
• maintaining or prolonging the productive
Selective Farmer-to-Farmer capacity of the natural resource base to meet
human needs
• knowledge or information acquired by a • conservation of the natural resource base and
farmer is transferred to another farmer the orientation of technological and
through information discussion in fields and institutional change that ensures the
villages attainment of a continued satisfaction of
• conversation can also happen during leisure human needs for present and future
time and on social and religious occasions generations
• relatives, friends and others listen to and
participate in the discussions Components of Agriculture
Development
Explanations for Rejection/
Adoption of Technology 1. Governance
2. Research
INDIVIDUAL-BLAME Hypothesis – I am 3. Extension/Education
poor, I have low educational attainment, 4. Marketing
traditional, fatalistic 5. Production
6. Supply
SYSTEM-BLAME Hypothesis – leadership
is traditional, power relationship is AGRICULTURAL KN OWLEDGE
exploitative, etc. SY STEM (AKS)
PRO-INNOVATION Bias – the innovation is • a system of beliefs, cognitions, models,
okay, it is the farmer’s fault theories, concepts and other products of the
mind
FRAMEWORK FOR SUSTAIN ABLE
DEVELOPMEN T NGO
TECHNOLOGY SUC
1. Economically viable
2. Ecologically sound
3. Socially just and humane FARMER
4. Culturally acceptable/appropriate GO LGU
5. Grounded in holistic science
6. Resilient and low risk
7. Biodiversity-oriented POLICIES EXTENSION
WORKERS
8. Productive
PO
9. Participatory
The different systems within an agricultural system
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Pluralistic Extension Policy FACTORS THAT IN FLUEN CE

TECHN OLOGY AN D
 a practice allowing several organizations to
provide extension work to the different IN FORMATION FLOW IN
farmers of the country AGRICULTURAL TECHN OLOGY
 extension work was done By DA industry SY STEM
bureaus, DA commodity agencies, SUCs,
NGOs and private companies Macro Factors
AKS as Technology/Knowledge System Agroecological

• differences in temperature, rainfall, soil type,
4 Components
evapotranspiration, etc., are reflected in the
diversity of farming conditions and
• Technology generation
production systems
 consists of planning, administration and
implementation of research activities Political-Economic
that develop, assess, adapt and test
• the percentage of resource-poor smallholder
improved agricultural technology for
farmers influences the type of technology to
farmers and other users
be transferred
• Technology transfer • high turnover of top managers undermines
management experience and continuity in
 further evaluates and adapts research
leadership
outputs for users and then widely
disseminates the knowledge and inputs
Socio-cultural
to different target adopters
• language differences and illiteracy can impede
• Technology utilization the communication of improved technology
 encompasses the users of the • the division of labor between sexes can differ
agricultural technology, user awareness, along cultural lines and influences the nature
adaptation and adoption of the of farming systems in different regions
technology
Policy
• Agricultural policy • policy-making bodies of the government set
 relates to the government development development goals and objectives such as
goals and strategies, market and price achieving food security or surplus agricultural
policies and the levels of resources production to stimulate economic growth, or
investment in the system providing health care or education for rural
development
• government sets policies on consumer and
producer commodity prices, subsidies for
inputs, credit availability, import substitution,
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export earnings, food self-sufficiency, and practices and the control of animal pests and
natural resource management diseases
Infrastructure Credit
• farmers in areas that cannot be reached by • facilitates farmer’s ability to purchase inputs
road or transport vehicles are difficult to such as improved variety/breed and fertilizer
reach with improved technology, and they will • understanding of government and bank
have problems transporting inputs and farm policies, availability of credit, and the
produce institutional relationship involved in credit
• farmers’ access to mass media such as delivery
publications, radio or television may be
limited, thus reducing options for Farmer organizations and other NGOs
communicating messages • agreement should be reached with the private
sector, both nonprofit and commercial
Institutional organizations, so that duplication of effort is
minimized and conflicting messages to
Research farmers are avoided
• includes lack of financial resources, acute • farmer organizations offer an effective
shortages of well-trained scientists, lack of channel for extension contact with large
farmer feedback to ensure relevance of number of farmers
research results, lack of access to external
sources of knowledge, inadequate research • feedback on farmer needs, production
facilities and equipment, low staff morale, and problems and the results of adoption from
inadequate operating budgets, staff incentives such groups will be an increasingly important
and renumeration consideration
Education and training

• content of the curricula of universities and
training institutes, number and qualification
of their graduates are limiting or enabling in
any country
Input supply
• availability of new plant and animal varieties
with higher yields or resistance to pests and
diseases
• availability of agrochemicals and other inputs
at the farm level
• access to information like recommendations
for fertilizer types and amounts suited to local
soil conditions, animal feed mixtures and
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References
BENDER, Ralph E. et al. 1972. Adult
Education in Agriculture. Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio
Chang, Chi-wen. 1969. Rural Asia Marches

Forward: Focus on Agricultural and Rural
Development. UPLB, College, Laguna
Chang, Chi-wen. 1974. A Strategy for

Agricultural and Rural Development in
Asian Countries. SEARCA, College, Laguna
LIONBEERGER, Herbert F. and Paul H.

GWIN. 1982. Communication Strategies: A
Guide for Agricultural Extension Agents.
Illinois: the Interstate Printers and
Publishers
MABUTAS, Andres. 1978. The Philippine

Agricultural Extension Service. VERA
Printing Press, Manila. Pp. 106-117
MEDINA, Amadea R. and R.R. ANCHETA.

1988. Agriculture and Home Extension in
Philippine Setting. Publisher’s Press,
Quezon City
PETERSON, Warren. 1997. The Context of

Extension in Agricultural and Rural
Development. In Swanson, B.E., R. P. Bentz and
A.J. Sofranko (Eds.). Improving Agricultural
Extension: A Reference Manual. Rome, Italy:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (Fao)
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UPS UPSTEP REVIEW CENTER

2021 LEA REVIEW

DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION

DATE CONTENT CONCEPT EVALUATION

2 nd Century BC In Oxford and Cambridge, discussions began

Beginnings in England The first practical attempt was made in what

University of Cambridge adopted the system Universities incorporated agricultural subjects

SERVICES Second Morill Act, extending the Land Grant

BEGIN N IN GS OF July 1910

1940s – 1960s • the first formally organized government

Beginning of extension work under the

division carried out extension services up to the October 28, 1950

Undated Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEx) was

1949 Teams of agriculturists, home demonstrators

credit for seeds, pesticides and harvesting and July 1, 1973

Rice self-sufficiency program was re- 1977

RA 8435 – Agriculture and Fisheries • Division of Soil Survey was created to

• Major concerns of AFMA: • the period of “Rude Awakening” – the

President Ramon Magsaysay • CARP

• Philippines became a member of UN-FAO President Fidel V. Ramos

• Rice and Corn Coordinating Council – • Grains Production Enhancement Program

President J oseph E. Estrada EX TEN SION

• Biotechnology was approved in the Agricultural extension – a non-formal system

Meaning of extension in other countries Barriers – factors obtaining in a given place

Extension method – educational techniques Pedagogy – the science of teaching children

Innovation – anything perceived to be new by

Innovation-Decision Period – the length of

Innovation-Decision Process – the process

Leaning experience – a series of activities and

• what the extension system is trying to achieve

Result objectives N on-formal Education ( N FE)

Educational Dimension • ways to foster closer links between the

• extension is aimed at increased income for the

technologies appropriate to clientele Designing and testing goal

• the need for alternative approaches and

An extension practitioner’s work

Changing Farmer’s Social and/or

• we agree with farmer that he/she could

Instead, extension in a university complements SOURCES OF IN FORMATION

The three functions complement each other.

• The spirit of self-help is essential in a Works with Rural People

• Extension must be closely related to research Accountability to Clientele

Cooperate with Other Agencies

Work with Different Target Groups

• Extension clientele is made up of various

PURPOSE OF EX TEN SION

• helps people make well-considered choices

• an instrument for developing, ‘forming’ an

• a policy instrument to induce preventive

Etymology Communication can be conceptualized in terms

• this highlights the importance of cultural Systemic

The two overlapping circles in the figure Channel

The overlap in the two circles represents the Effect

• sends message/information to receiver • guides a person’s actions

• characteristics of source: • a view of life – what ought to be and its

whom he communicates; adequate knowledge  Composure – when a source is

As receivers of the message whose behaviors Feedback

According to Formality • a change agent would not be needed in the