Force: Anything that can deform or change the state of movement or

rest in a body.
Effects:
There are two different types of effects:
Static effect: The force produces deformation in a body.
Dynamic effect: The force produces change in the movement of
a body.

Read pg. 7. Activity 6.

Structure: Set of elements in a body that are intended to resist the
effects of the forces that act on it.

Set A group of elements that belong together

Function:
They prevent a body from breaking or becoming too deformed.

Structure: Set of elements in a body that are intended to resist the

effects of the forces that act on it.
Types:
Natural structure: They are not made by humans (e.g. Skeleton).
Man-made structure: They are made by humans (e.g. Chassis).
pg. 6. Activity 3
Structure: Set of elements in a body that are intended to resist the
effects of the forces that act on it.

Types:
Natural structure: They are not made by humans (e.g. Skeleton).
Man-made structure: They are made by humans (e.g. Chassis).

Exercise Produce a complete sentence classifying the following structures.

Birds’ nest

A birds’ nest is a natural structure

Birds’ nests are natural structures

Structure: Set of elements in a body that are intended to resist the

effects of the forces that act on it.

Types:
Natural structure: They are not made by humans (e.g. Skeleton).
Man-made structure: They are made by humans (e.g. Chassis).

Exercise Produce a complete sentence classifying the following structures.

Skyscraper

A skyscraper is an artificial structure

Skyscrapers are artificial structures

Structure: Set of elements in a body that are intended to resist the
effects of the forces that act on it.

Types:
Natural structure: They are not made by humans (e.g. Skeleton).
Man-made structure: They are made by humans (e.g. Chassis).

Exercise Produce a complete sentence classifying the following structures.

Shell

A shell is a natural structure

Shells are natural structures

Structure: Set of elements in a body that are intended to resist the

effects of the forces that act on it.

Types:
Natural structure: They are not made by humans (e.g. Skeleton).
Man-made structure: They are made by humans (e.g. Chassis).

Exercise Produce a complete sentence classifying the following structures.

Electrical tower

An electrical tower is an artificial structure

Electrical towers are artificial structures

Features: Structures must be:
Suitable: It must play its role properly.
As simple as it can be: This will facilitate its construction.
Cheap. If we have several similar options we always have to
pick the cheapest.

Exercise

Look at the picture on the right.

Do the blue walls belong to the

structure of the building? Why?

Examples:
Paper structures
Examples:
Paper structures

Examples:
Paper structures
Examples:
Metal structures

Examples:
Metal structures
 Examples:
Stone structure

Load: Any kind of force that acts on a structure

Examples of typical loads in structures:

Weight of objects placed on
structures: Vehicles crossing a
bridge.
 Load: Any kind of force that acts on a structure

Examples of typical loads in structures:

Weight of objects placed on
structures: Vehicles crossing a
bridge.
Object’s own weight: Weight of the
materials that make them up.

Make up Compose, form

Load: Any kind of force that acts on a structure

Examples of typical loads in structures:

Weight of objects placed on
structures: Vehicles crossing a
bridge.
Object’s own weight: Weight of the
materials that make them up.
Water pressure: The water on a
swamp.
 Load: Any kind of force that acts on a structure

Examples of typical loads in structures:

Weight of objects placed on
structures: Vehicles crossing a
bridge.
Object’s own weight: Weight of the
materials that make them up.
Water pressure: The water on a
swamp.
Wind force: When it actuates over
big surfaces.

Load: Any kind of force that acts on a structure

There are two different types of loads:

Fixed or permanent loads: They do not change over time. They
always affect the structure in the same way.
Variable loads: They are occasional.

Structure’s own weight Snow weight

 Load: Any kind of force that acts on a structure

If the structure is not resistant enough, loads will make it fall.

Any structure has to be able to:

Resist the combined action of fixed and possible variable loads

acting on it.
In the design process we need to think about the variable loads
that can act on the structure.

Tacoma Bridge video Oresund Bridge Sweden - Denmark

Stress: Internal tension suffered by a body when one or more forces

are applied to them.

- Traction There are five different types of stresses:

- Bending

- Compression

- Torsion

- Cutting
 Stress: Internal tension suffered by a body when one or more forces
are applied to them.

Two opposing forces try to stretch the object.

- Traction
They move outwards from the body.
- Bending
They move along the same direction but in
opposite trajectories.
- Compression

- Torsion

- Cutting

Direction Line on which something is moving

Trajectory Path followed by a moving object

Stress: Internal tension suffered by a body when one or more forces

are applied to them.

Three forces try to bend a body.

- Traction
They move along the same direction.
- Bending
Usually two of them are separated by a certain
distance and a third one acts in the opposite
- Compression trajectory direction.
- Torsion

- Cutting
 Stress: Internal tension suffered by a body when one or more forces
are applied to them.

Two forces try to flatten a body.

- Traction
They move inwards towards to the body.
- Bending
They move along the same direction but in
opposite trajectories.
- Compression

- Torsion

- Cutting

Flatten To make something flat

Stress: Internal tension suffered by a body when one or more forces

are applied to them.

Two forces try to twist a body.

- Traction
They try to turn the ends of a body in opposite
- Bending directions.

- Compression

- Torsion

- Cutting

Twist Turn in opposite directions

 Stress: Stress: Internal tension suffered by a body when one or
more forces are applied to them.

Two opposing forces moving in opposite

- Traction
directions try to divide an object.
- Bending They move along the same direction but in
opposite trajectories.
- Compression Both forces must be very close together.
- Torsion

- Cutting

Stress: Internal tension suffered by a body when one or more forces

are applied to them.

Exercises pg 32: 52, 55, 56, 57

In order to work properly, a structure must comply three conditions:

- Stability

- Resistance

- Rigidity

In order to work properly, a structure must comply three conditions:

Stability: Capacity of a structure to remain upright
and not tip over.
- Stability
Center of gravity: Point where the body’s weight is
applied.
- Resistance
Stability on body is related to the position of its center of
gravity.
- Rigidity

The stability on a body increases when:

The center of gravity is close to the ground.
The center of gravity is centered over its base.
The size of the base increases.

Exercise Why doesn’t the skier fall over?

In order to work properly, a structure must comply three conditions:
Stability: Capacity of a structure to remain upright
and not tip over.
- Stability
Center of gravity: Point where the body’s weight is
applied.
- Resistance
Stability on body is related to the position of its center of
gravity.
- Rigidity

The stability of an object can be incressed:

Adding mass to the base.
Burying the bottom section to the ground.
Bracing. (We will see this later).

In order to work properly, a structure must comply three conditions:

Resistance: Capacity of an object to bear the
tensions that it’s subjected without breaking.
- Stability
It depends on:
- Resistance
The material used to build it.
- Rigidity The quantity of material used.
The shape of the structure.
The kind of stress applied.
In order to work properly, a structure must comply three conditions:
Rigidity: Capacity of an object to be deformed in a
way that the structure can keep fulfilling its function.
- Stability
It comes from:
- Resistance
Welding joints.

- Rigidity Making sure the structure has the appropriate shape.

Triangulation.

Triangulation

Think about an structure built by four beams. Those beams are fixed
together by screws in the end points forming a square.
What do you think is going to happen we we apply the indicated
force?
The structure deforms.

F F

Beam Long, solid piece of wood or metal.

 Triangulation

What is going to happen if the structure is a pentagon?

What do you think is going to happen we apply the indicated force?
Structure deforms.

Triangulation

Same things happen if we build complex structures based on these simple

shapes.

F F
 Triangulation

Now, let’s think about a triangular shaped structure.

What do you think is going to happen when we apply the indicated
force?
The structure can not turn around the screws. The shape doesn’t
change.
F

Triangulation
Triangles are the only non deformable polygons.

Triangulation: Building construction technique applicable to structures

made of beams. All polygons formed by the bars must be triangles.

We start with a no rigid structure.

Adding four diagonal bars we increase the system rigidity.

F
Triangulation

Triangulation
 Triangulation

Triangulation

Special case:
Cross bracing:
Two thin diagonals (usually made of wire) cross each other giving greater
resistance to traction.
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas
There are eight different types of man-made
- Entramadas structures:

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y El tipo más antiguo.

adinteladas
Se pueden construir de dos formas:
- Abovedadas Acumulando material sin dejar casi hueco.

- Entramadas Escavando en la roca.

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y The Great Pyramid of Giza
It was built as a tomb over a 10- to 20-year period.
adinteladas
Construction concluded around 2560 BC.
- Abovedadas Tallest man-made structure in the world for more than
3,800 years.
- Entramadas

- Trianguladas
147 m
- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y Las aberturas o ventanas se obtienen utilizando

adinteladas el dintel (lintel): Barra horizontal sobre dos
- Abovedadas soportes verticales.

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y Las aberturas o ventanas se obtienen utilizando
adinteladas el dintel (lintel): Barra horizontal sobre dos
- Abovedadas soportes verticales.

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares Parthenon (Athens)

Construction 447-432 BC.
- Geodésicas

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas Lintels do not allow big openings.

El peso de la estructura recae sobre él,
- Entramadas sometiéndolo a flexión por lo que ante grandes
cargas se rompería por la parte central.
- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y Surgen con el descubrimiento del arco y la bóveda.
adinteladas
Arco (Arch): Elemento constructivo lineal de
- Abovedadas forma curvada, que salva el espacio entre dos
pilares o muros.
- Entramadas Bóveda (Vault): espacio curvo que permite cubrir
el espacio entre dos muros (es similar a una
- Trianguladas sucesión de arcos.

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y Arco y bóveda reciben el peso de la estructura

adinteladas transmitiéndolo a través de los contrafuertes al suelo.
- Abovedadas Esto permitió abrir mayores huecos en las
estructuras.
- Entramadas
Las piezas (dovelas) sólo soportan compresión.
- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas 1. clave
2. dovela
- Laminares 7. luz
8. contrafuerte
- Geodésicas
- Masivas y Arco y bóveda reciben el peso de la estructura
adinteladas transmitiéndolo a través de los contrafuertes al suelo.
- Abovedadas Esto permitió abrir mayores huecos en las
estructuras.
- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y There are lots of different types of arches and vaults:
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Medio punto
Semicircular

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Medio punto
Semicircular
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Apuntado
Pointed

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Herradura
Horseshoe
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Lobulado
Lobed

- Masivas y Colosseum (Rome)

adinteladas 70-80 AC.
- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Aqueduct of Segovia
112 AC.

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Aqueduct of Segovia
112 AC.
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Bóveda de cañón
Barrel vault

- Masivas y Arco y bóveda reciben el peso de la estructura

adinteladas transmitiéndolo a través de los contrafuertes al suelo.
- Abovedadas Esto permitió abrir mayores huecos en las estructuras.
Hay muchos tipos de arcos y bóvedas.
- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Bóveda de cañón – Barrel vault
- Masivas y Arco y bóveda reciben el peso de la estructura
adinteladas transmitiéndolo a través de los contrafuertes al suelo.
- Abovedadas Esto permitió abrir mayores huecos en las
estructuras.
- Entramadas Hay muchos tipos de arcos y bóvedas.

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
Bóveda de arista
Groin vault

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares Burgos Cathedral

dome
- Geodésicas XV century.
 Material de construcción: Hormigón (concrete):
- Masivas y
adinteladas Resiste compresión.
Se le puede dar cualquier forma.
- Abovedadas
Añadiendo en su interior barras de acero (Steel)
- Entramadas obtenemos hormigón armado, soportará la tracción.

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y Utilizadas en los edificios de bloques de pisos.

adinteladas Formadas por barras de hormigón o acero
unidas de forma rígida formando un
- Abovedadas
emparrillado.
- Entramadas Consta de varios elementos:

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
 Forjado:
- Masivas y Se encuentra bajo el suelo que pisamos.
adinteladas
Formado por una malla de barras metálicas o de
- Abovedadas viguetas (joists) de hormigón.
Entre las viguetas se suelen colocar bovedillas
- Entramadas cerámicas o polietileno expandido.
El conjunto se rellena con hormigón.
- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

Forjado:
- Masivas y Se encuentra bajo el suelo que pisamos.
adinteladas
Formado por una malla de barras metálicas o de
- Abovedadas viguetas de hormigón.
Entre las viguetas se suelen colocar bovedillas
- Entramadas cerámicas o polietileno expandido.
El conjunto se rellena con hormigón.
- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
 Vigas (beams):
- Masivas y Elementos horizontales que reciben el peso del forjado.
adinteladas
Están sometidas a flexión.
- Abovedadas
Pilares (columns/pillars):
- Entramadas Elementos verticales, transmiten el peso de la vigas al suelo.
Están sometidos a compresión.
- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y Los pilares circulares se llaman columnas (columns).

adinteladas Los pilares que están pegados a la pared se llaman
pilastras(Pilasters).
- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
 Cimientos (foundations):
- Masivas y El peso de la estructura no pasa directamente de los
adinteladas pilares al suelo (se hundiría la estructura).

- Abovedadas Los pilares se apoyan sobre la cimentación, esta

actúa como los zapatos del edificio)
- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares
Footing Slab foundation Piles
- Geodésicas

- Masivas y Estructuras formadas por

adinteladas barras metálicas o de
madera.
- Abovedadas Dividen la estructura en
triángulos, siendo por tanto
- Entramadas indeformables.
Son ligeras, resistentes y
- Trianguladas permiten cubrir grandes
luces.
- Colgantes
Las barras metálicas que
forman estas estructuras se
- Neumáticas laman perfiles (profiles).

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y Estructuras formadas por
adinteladas barras metálicas o de
madera.
- Abovedadas Dividen la estructura en
triángulos, siendo por tanto
- Entramadas indeformables.
Son ligeras, resistentes y
- Trianguladas permiten cubrir grandes
luces.
- Colgantes
Las barras metálicas que
forman estas estructuras se
- Neumáticas laman perfiles (profiles).

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y Estructuras formadas por

adinteladas barras metálicas o de
madera.
- Abovedadas Dividen la estructura en
triángulos, siendo por tanto
- Entramadas indeformables.
Son ligeras, resistentes y
- Trianguladas permiten cubrir grandes
luces.
- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y Utilizan cables, tirantes
adinteladas (suspenders), de los cuales
cuelga la estructura.
- Abovedadas En algunos casos estos cables
se pueden regular estirándolos
- Entramadas más o menos, entonces se
llaman tensores.
- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y
adinteladas

- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y Estructuras de plástico (plastic).
adinteladas Se rellenan de aire comprimido (compressed air).
- Abovedadas Son ligeras, se montan rápidamente.
Una vez desmontadas son fáciles de transportar.
- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas

- Masivas y Láminas finas de metal o plástico.

adinteladas Es muy fácil darles forma de curva.
- Abovedadas Se suelen emplear como carcasas.
Se les añade dobleces y pliegues para reforzarlas.
- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas
- Masivas y Estructuras trianguladas que toman como forma
adinteladas básica el tetraedro (indeformable).
Crean formas curvas.
- Abovedadas

- Entramadas

- Trianguladas

- Colgantes

- Neumáticas

- Laminares

- Geodésicas