ASSIGNMENT 2

General Motion of a Particle in Three Dimensions

EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE DUAL DEGREE POST GRADUATED PROGRAM OF UNESA

GENERAL MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN THREE DIMENSIONS

A. Introduction (General Principles) We turn our attention now to the general case of motion of particle in space. We have already seen that the vectorial form of equation of motion of a particle is

in which p is the linear momentum. This is essentially and abbreviation for three component equations in which the force components may involve the coordinates, their time derivatives, and the time. Unfortunately, no general method exists for finding analytical solutions in all possible cases. However, there are many physically important special types of force function for which the differential equations of motion can be attacked by relatively simple methods. Some of these will be studied in the section follow. In the cases where F is known as an explicit function of time, the linier momentum P can be found by finding the impulse, that is by integrating with respect to time in the one dimensional case, we get ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

In second integration will yield the position: ( ) ( ) ( )

In special case of zero force, the momentum and velocity are constant and the preceding equations are particularly simple.

Angular Momentum Consider the general equation of motion of a particle F =dp/dt. Let us multiple both sides by the operator r to obtain

The left-hand side is by definition the moment of the force about the origin of coordinate system. The right-hand side turns out to be the time derivative of the quantity r p. ( Because v p = 0, so we can write (
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the quantity of r p is called the angular momentum of the particle about the origin. Our result is the time rate of change of the angular momentum of a particle is equal to the moment of force acting on the particle.

The Work Principle In the general equetion of motion F = dp/dt let us take the dot product of both sides with velocity v :

In which we have the introduced the kinetic energy can integrate to obtain.

. Further, since v dt = dr we

Now the left-hand side of the above equation is a line integral. It represent the work done on the particle by the force F as the particle moves along path of motion. The right-hand side is just the net change in the particles kinetic energy. Hence the equation merely states that the work done on the particle is equal to the increment in the kinetic energy.

Conservative Forces and Force Fields Generally, the value of a line integral of the work is depends on the path of integration. Work principle is indeed very useful in the study of the motion of a particle under the action of a particular kind of force known as conservative force. Fortunately, many of the physically important forces are of this type. When the force F is a function of the positional coordinates only, it is said to define a static force field. Among the possible kinds of force fields, there is an important class for which the work integral is independent of the path of integration. The work done by a

conservative force always has these properties: 1. It can always be expressed as the difference between the initial and final values of a potential energy function. 2. It is reversible. 3. It is independent of the path of the body and depends only on the starting and ending points. 4. When the starting and ending points are the same, the total work is zero.
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B. The Potential Energy Function in Three Dimensional Motion The Del Operator If a particle moves under the action of a conservative force F, the statement that the work increment F.dr is an exact differential means that it must be expressible as differential of a scalar function of the position r , namely F . dr = - dV(r) This is analogous to one dimensional case where Fx dx = - dV, the function V is potential energy. The work principle, equation 4.6, then is simplify expressed as T = -V or (T + V) = 0 This implies that the quantity T + V remains constant as the particle moves. We call it the total energy E, and write ( ) In the case of a non conservative for the work increment is not exact differential and therefore cannot be equated to a quantity dV. A common example of a non conservative force is friction. When the conservative forces are present we can express the total force as a sum F + F where F is conservative force and F is non conservative force. The work increment is then given by dT = F . dr + F . dr = - dV + F . dr d(V+T) = F . dr we see that the quantity of T + V is not constant, but increases or decreases as the particle moves depending on the sign of F. dr

Gradient and Del Operator in Mechanics If rectangular coordinates are employed, the statement F . dr = - dV

We can now expressed F vectorially as

This equation can be written in a convenient abbreviated form F = - V

Here we have introduced the vector differentiation operator

Its called the dell operator. The expression V is also called the gradient of V and sometimes written in grad V. physically, the negative gradient of potential energy function gives by direction and magnitude of the force that act on a particle located in field created by other particle. The meaning of the negative sign is that the particle is urged to move in the direction of decreasing potential energy rather than in the opposite direction.

Conditions for the Existence of Potential Function. The Curl let us assume that a potential function does exist, that is equation 4.10 hold, then we have

This order of differentiation can be reversed; the two expression is equal. Hen we can write

These are the necessary condition then on Fx, Fy, and Fz for a function to exist, they express the condition that is an exact differential.

The criteria for force field to be conservative are conveniently expressed in term of del operator. In this application we introduce the cross product of the del operator;

The cross product as defined above is called the curl of F. The components of the curl each vanish if the force is conservative. Thus condition for a force to be conservative can be written in the compact form F=0 Physically, the vanishing the curl of F means that the work done by F on the moving particle in independent of the path of the particle in going from one given point to another.

C. Forces of the separable Type. Projectile Motion The curl of separable forces is automatically zero as shown below F = iFx (x) + jFy (y) + kFz (z) It is readily verified that the curl of such a force is identically zero.

The x component is Fz(z)/y - Fy(y)/y, and similarly to the other component. Hence the field is conservative because each partial derivative is of the mixed type therefore vanishes identically, since the coordinates x, y, z are independent variables.

Motion of projectile in uniform Gravitational Field One most famous classical problem of particle dynamics is the motion of a projectile. a. No air resistance First, for simplify we consider the case of projectile moving with no air resistance. In this idealized situation there is only one force acting, namely the force gravity. Choosing the z axis to be vertical, we have the differential equation of motion

If further idealize the problem and assume that the acceleration of gravity g is constant, then the force function is clearly of separable type and also conservative. We shall particularize the problem further by choosing the initial speed to be vo and the initial position to be at origin at time t = 0. The energy function is ( Or equivalently )

thus giving the speed as a function of height. In order to proceed further, we must go back to differential equation of motion. We can write ( It can be integrated directly, so we get velocity )

Another integration yields the position vector is

The constant of integration ro is zero in this case, since the initial position of the projectile is in origin. In component Here and are the component of the initial velocity vo. we have thus solved the

problem of determining the position of the projectile as a function of time. Concerning the path or trajectory of the projectile, we notice that if the time t is eliminated from x and y equations, the result is y = bx in which the constant b given by Thus the path lies entirely in a plane. In particularly, if = 0, then the path lies in the xz plane. Next, if we eliminate t between the x and z equation of the path to be the form z = Ax Bx2 where A= and B = g/2 .Hence the path is the parabola lying in the plane y = bx

0 y x y = bx

b. Linear Air Resistance We now consider the motion of projectile for the more realistic situation in which there is a regarding forces due to air resistance. In this case the motion is not conservative. Let assume that the law of air resistance is linear so that the resisting force varies directly with the velocity v. it will be convenient to write the constant of proportionality as m where m is mass of projectile. Thus we have two forces acting on
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the projectile, namely the air resistance mv and the force of gravity which is equal to mgk. The differential equation of motion is then

The integration of above equation is conveniently accomplished by expressing it in component from follows:

We now see that the equations are separated. Hence each can be solved individually. We can write down the solution immediately by setting = c1/m where c1 is the linear drag coefficient.

The results are

With similar way, we get for y axis is

Let to determine the velocity in z direction, and the result is

Two sides be multiplied with

for the velocity component, and the positions of projectile are found with: At t = 0 the position x = 0, so ( )

With similar way, we get position in y direction: ( )

and then the projectile position in z direction is: ( at t = 0 the position ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ( )

= 0 so,

The above solution of motion of a projectile with linear air resistance can be written vectorially in the following way:

Path with no air resistance

z
Vertical asymptote
Path with Air resistance

Figure 2, comparison of the path of a projectile with and without air resistance. Motion is sown in the plane y = bx

As in case of zero resistance, the path of the projectile lies in vertical plane y = bx. The path in this case is not parabola, however but is a curve that lies below the corresponding parabolic trajectory. This illustrated by figure 2. Inspection of the x and y equation show that for larger t, the value of x and y approach the limiting values.

This means the complete trajectory of the projectile, if it did not hit anything would have asymptote as shown in the figure.

Horizontal Range The horizontal range a projectile with linear air drag is found by setting z = 0 in the third equations 4.20c and then eliminating t among the three equations. We shall set = 0 so that the trajectory lies in the xz plane. From the first equations 4.20c we have (
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Thus the horizontal range is given by the implicit expression

This is a transcendental equation and must be solved by some approximation to find . We can expand the logarithmic term by use of series

Which is valid for | |

. With

it is left as a problem to show that this

leads to the following expression for the horizontal range:

If the projectile is fired at angle of elevation with initial velocity vo. then then and

. An equivalent expression is

The first term on the right is the range in the absence of resistance. The remainder is the decrease due to air resistance.

4. THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS Consider the motion of particle that is subject to a linear restoring force which in always directed forwards a fixed point, the origin of our coordinate system. Such a force can be represented by expression F = - kr Accordingly, the differential equation of motion is simply expressed as

the situation can be represented approximately by a particle attached to a set of elastic springs as shown in figure 3. This is the three dimensional generalization of the linear oscillator studied earlier. The equation is the differential equation of the linear isotropic oscillator.

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The Two-Dimensional Isotropic Oscillator In the case of motion in the single plane, the above differential equation is equivalent to the two component equations.

These are separated, we can immediately write down the solutions in the form

In which ( ( ) )

The constant of integration A, B, , and are determined from the initial conditions in any given case. In order to find the equation of the path, we eliminate the time t between the two equations. To do this, let us write the second equation in the form

where

, and then we have ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ( ( ) ) ) )

) )

(
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From the first of equation before, we get

or upon squaring and transposing terms, we obtain

Which is a quadratic equation in x and y. now the general quadratic

represents an ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola, depending on whether the discriminant

In particular, if the phase difference = /2, then the equation of the path reduces to the equation

which is the equation of an ellipse whose axes coincide with the coordinate axes. On the other hand, if the phase difference is 0 or then the equation of the path reduces to that of a straight line

The positive sign is taken if = 0, and the negative sign if = . In the general case it is possible to show that the axis of the elliptical path is inclined to the x axis by the angle where

The derivation is left as an exercise.

The Three-Dimensional Isotropic Harmonic Oscillator In the case of three-dimensional motion the differential equation of motion is equivalent to the three equations

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which are separated. Hence the solutions may be written in the form of alternative equation. We can write

The six constant of integration are determined from the initial position and velocity of particle. Now the equation above can be expressed vectorially as

In which the component of A are A1, A2, and A3, and similarly for B. it is clear that the motion takes place entirely in the single plane which common to the two constant vector A and B, and that the path of the particle in that plane is ellipse as in the two-dimensional case.

The picture 3. The three dimensions oscillator

Non Isotropic Oscillator The above discussion considered the motion of the isotropic oscillator, wherein the restoring force is independent of the direction of displacement. If the magnitude of the components of the restoring force depends on the direction of the displacement, we have case of the non isotropic oscillator. For a suitable choice of axes, the differential equations for non isotropic case can be written

Here we have a case of three different frequencies of oscillation:

and the motion is given by the solutions

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Again, the six constant of integration in the above equations are determined from the initial conditions. The resulting oscillation of the particle lies entirely within a rectangular box (whose are 2A, 2B and 2C) centered on the origin. In the event that 1, 2, 3 are commensurate, that is

Where n1, n2, and n3 are integers, the path is called a Lissajous figure. It will be closed because after time a time 2n1/1 = 2n2/2=2n3/3 the particle will return to its initial position and the motion will be repeated. On the other hand, if the s are not commensurate, the path is not closed. In this case the path may box mentioned above, at least in the sense that if we wait long enough, the particle will come arbitrary close to any point. Energy Considerations In the three-dimensional the potential energy function is like in one dimension. For general three-dimensional case it is easy to verify that

Since

And similarly for Fy and Fz. if k1 = k2 = k3 = k , we have the isotropic case, and

The total energy in the isotropic case is given by the simple expression

which similar to that the one-dimensional case discussed in the previous chapter.

5. Motion of Charged Particles in Electric and Magnetic Fields When an electrically changed particle is in the vicinity of other electric charge, it experiences a force. This force F is said to be due to the electric field E which arises from these other charges. We write: F = qE The equation of motion the particle is then:

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Or in component form,

We can choose one of the axes, say the z axis, to be in the direction of the field. Then Ex = Ey = 0, and E = Ez. The differential equations of motion of a particle of charge q moving in this field are then:

These are of exactly the same form as those for a projectile in a uniform gravitational field. The part is therefore a parabola, if and are not both zero initially. Otherwise, the part is a straight line, as with a body falling vertically. It is shown in textbooks dealing with electromagnetic theory that,

if E is due to static charges. This means that motion in such a field is conservative, and that there exists a potential function such that . The potential energy of a

particle of charge q in such a field is then q , and the total energy is constant and is equal to .

In the presence of static magnetic field B (called the magnetic induction) the force acting on a moving particle is conveniently expressed by means of the cross product, namely,

The differential equation of motion of a particle moving in a purely magnetic field is then,

6. Constrained Motion of a Particle When a moving particle is restricted geometrically in the sense that is must stay on a certain define surface of curve, the motion is said to be constrained. A piece of ice sliding around in a bowl or bead sliding a wire, are examples of constrained motion. The Energy Equation for smooth Constraints The total force acting on a particle moving under constraint can be expressed as the vector sum of the external force F and the force constraint R. the latter force is the
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reaction of the constraining agent upon the particle. The equation of motion may therefore be written

If we take the dot product with the velocity v we have

Now in the case of a smooth constraint, for example a frictionless surface. The reaction R is normal to the surface or the curve while the velocity v is tangent to the surface. Hence R is perpendicular to v and the dot product R . v vanishes. Equation then reduces

Consequently, if F is conservative, we can integrate and find the same energy, namely

Thus the particle, although remaining on the surface or curve, moves in such a way that the total energy is constant.

Bibliography Fowles, Grand R. 1985. Analytical Mechanics. United States: The Dryden Press. Ruina, Andy and Rudra Patrap. 2002. Introduction Statics and Dynamics. England: Oxford University Press.

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