NUD 422: Food Chemistry and Toxicology (2 Units)

Structure, chemistry, properties and interactions of food constituents

Food chemistry is a division of food science that evaluates how foods are processed, prepared
and distributed. Its principles are based on knowledge of the main components of life such as
water, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, minerals and vitamins. Food chemistry is the study
of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods.
The biological substances include items such as meat, poultry, milk, vegetables, and fruits etc. s.

This discipline also encompasses how food materials change under certain food processing
techniques and describes the ways either to enhance or to prevent these changes. An example
of enhancing a process would be to encourage fermentation of dairy products with
microorganisms that convert lactose to lactic acid. An example of preventing a process would be
stopping the browning reaction on the surface of freshly cut red delicious apples using lemon
juice or other acidulated water.

The chemical nature of foods is important in two ways in respect to food processing: (a) Food
chemicals are altered by processing and these changes result in changes in the characteristics of
the food and consumer acceptance of the product. (b) Because of the lability of some food
chemicals, the parameters used in food processing such as temperature and shear, are limited to
achieve minimal changes in the characteristics of the food and to maximize consumer
acceptance.

Food-Colloidal Dispersions
Foods are essentially mixtures of chemical compounds arranged in specific organizations that
give rise to the particular chemical, physical and sensory properties of each food system. A
knowledge of the chemical and physical properties of the constituents of foods is important to
your understanding of how food systems behave under the various conditions encountered in
preservation, storage and preparation for consumption. Food systems vary in their chemical
composition and physical properties, ranging from chemically simple systems such as sugar
syrups to the chemically complex food systems such as milk, muscle food systems, and plant
tissue systems.
In Colloidal Dispersions, the particles of one substance are distributed, dispersed, in another
substance without dissolving.

• The substance that is dispersed within another is called the dispersed phase.
• The substance that extends throughout the system and surrounds the dispersed phase is
called the continuous phase.

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Food Component

Foods are made of chemical components that are working together and making the food the way
it is. Chemical composition is determination of these compounds. The chemical composition
tables identifies the amounts of these compounds in each food.
Quantifying the amount of Carbohydrate, Fat, Protein, Water and Ash is called proximate
analysis.
Food components can be classified as major and minor components. The major food components
of food systems are carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water. There are also minor food
components, organic acids, pigments, aroma compounds, vitamins and minerals.

Food Major Components

The major food components of food systems are carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water. These
are the compounds are found in largest amounts in foods. Each component has variety of
functional properties which affects the physical and sensory characteristics of the food during
processing and storage. Understanding these properties is essential tool in product development
and also quality control.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are one of the three main classes of nutrients (the other two being fats and
proteins). They occur in foods as sugars and starches and are the human body's main source of
energy. Digestible carbohydrates contribute 4 Calories (kilocalories) of metabolized energy per
gram. Carbohydrates should contribute about 50% of our caloric intake per day; and most of the
carbohydrates that we consume should be in the form of complex carbohydrates
(polysaccharides) such as starch rather than as simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides and
disaccharides) such as table sugar.
a. Monosaccharides
The main monosaccharides found in foods are glucose, fructose and galactose. These are
referred to as simple carbohydrates and one of their main functions is their ability to impart a
sweetness sensation; however, sugars vary in their sweetening power.

b. Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed by the union of two monosaccharide molecules. Disaccharides are also
considered as "simple" carbohydrates. They can be split into their component monosaccharides
by enzymes or by boiling with dilute acids. The most important disaccharides in foods

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are sucrose, lactose and maltose. These disaccharides differ from one another in solubility,
sweetness, and other properties.
Sucrose
Table sugar, obtained from sugar-cane or sugar-beet, is mainly pure sucrose. It is formed
from glucose and fructose linked together. Sucrose can be found in a variety of fruits, grasses
and roots.
One of the recent trends in the food industry, particularly for carbonated beverages, is the use
of invert sugar in place of sucrose because of the inherently greater sweetening power per unit
weight of the fructose containing sweetening systems. Invert sugar is produced by hydrolyzing
sucrose with the enzyme invertase or with acid, to produce a mixture of glucose + fructose (1:1).

Sucrose

Sucrose conversion

Incidentally, the primary sugars in honey are glucose and fructose in a 40:60 ratio. Most of the
nectar collected by the honey bee contains sucrose which is hydrolyzed by invertase in the saliva
of the honey bee. Some of the glucose is converted to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide by
glucose oxidase, another enzyme secreted into the collected nectar by the honey bee. The
gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide act as preservatives in the nectar. Honey also contains
minute quantities of disaccharides and complex sugars.

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It is important to note that sweetness has no relation to caloric contribution of a sweetening
agent to the diet. Fructose and lactose each produce 4 Calories of metabolized energy per gram
when digested and absorbed, but lactose is only one-seventh as sweet as fructose. Thus for an
equivalent sweetness intensity, less fructose would be required than lactose. Conversely, a
product sweetened with lactose could potentially contain seven times the caloric content
compared to a product sweetened with fructose.
Lactose
Lactose, also known as milk sugar, occurs in the milk of all animals. Cow's milk contains about 4-
5%, whereas human milk contains 6-8% lactose. Lactose is formed by
linking glucose and galactose together. The hydrolysis of lactose found in dairy products into its
component monosaccharides is catalyzed by the enzyme lactase. Breaking down lactose
substantially increases the sweetness. Lactose can also be fermented by lactic acid-producing
bacteria, into lactic acid. This is the acidulant and preservative agent in yogurt and numerous
cheeses.

Lactose intolerant people are those who do not have the enzyme lactase necessary to digest
(breakdown) lactose (milk sugar). People who are lactose intolerant can suffer from minor
cramps to extreme intestinal discomfort. Lactose-free products have had the enzyme lactase
(usually isolated from yeast) added to them. Alternatively, lactose intolerant individuals can take
tablets containing the enzyme, prior to eating or drinking dairy or other food products with
lactose or milk solids.

Maltose
The sugar maltose contains two glucose units linked together. It is obtained when starch (eg corn
starch) is hydrolysed by the enzyme amylase or by heating with dilute acid. Maltose can be

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further hydrolysed by the enzyme maltase into its component D-glucose units, which are then
enzymatically isomerized by the enzyme glucose isomerase to produce a liquid syrup composed
of 42% fructose, commercially known as high fructose corn syrup (HFCS 42). HFCS has 42%
fructose, 52% glucose and 6% starch. Subsequent technological improvements in which the syrup
is passed through an ion-exchange column that retains fructose, allow for the production of a
90% fructose syrup. Today, HFCS 90 is blended with HFCS 42 to create HFCS 55, which has a
sweetness profile similar to sucrose. Many soft drinks are now sweetened with HFCS especially
when cost of these syrups is lower than the cost of sucrose or even invert sugar.

Fig 2.3 Structures of monosaccharides and disaccharides in foods and the production of high
fructose corn syrups (click to get a larger image)

Functional Properties of Simple Sugars in Foods

The functional properties of sugars in foods are:

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• Sugars are widely used for their sweetening power. The sweetness of carbohydrates is
determined by their molecular structure and interaction with sensory receptors on the
tongue. Simple sugars vary in their sweetness
• Sugars produce body and mouth feel when they are incorporated into foods at
concentrations high enough to affect the viscosity (resistance to flow) of the food product
• Production of hot supersaturated sugar solutions with controlled crystallization during
cooling is the basis of formation of many hard candy products, toffees and related products.
• Sugars are readily soluble in water because they contain many hydroxyl (OH) groups, which
form hydrogen bonds with water. Solubility of sugars increases as the temperature of water
increases. This property is used to produce syrups of varying concentrations for various uses
(e.g. pancake syrup, concentrated syrups for use in food processing, cooking or confections.)
• Sugars can be crystallized from solution when water is evaporated. This is the basis of
production of table sugar (sucrose) from the juice extracted from sugar cane and sugar beets.
• Sugars, in sufficiently high concentration, can be used to inhibit growth of undesirable
microorganisms. They function as a preservative by binding water needed by the
microorganisms.
• Sugars are fermented by microorganisms with the concomitant production of acids and/or
alcohol as well as flavouring compounds. This is the basis for production of fermented foods
and ingredients obtained by means of microbial fermentations.
• Sugars caramelize when exposed to high temperatures - Browning reactions.
• Reducing sugars react with proteins and amino compounds to produce flavours and colours
in foods (Maillard browning) - Browning reactions.
Browning reactions
Another important property of the simple sugars is their ability to serve as reactants in non-
enzymatic browning reactions, namely caramelization and the Maillard browning reaction.
The caramelization reaction involves reaction of sugars (reducing and non-reducing sugars)
when heated at high temperatures (200°C) to produce caramel and butterscotch flavours. The
brown pigments formed during the heating of sugars contributes to the colour of caramel candies
and toffees. The pigments are not the same as the melanoidins formed during the Maillard
reaction.

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Figure 2.5a Liquid caramel and caramel candy: Examples of non-enzymatic browning of sugars.

The Maillard browning reaction occurs when reducing sugars react with nitrogenous compounds
such as amino acids, proteins or amines.

• A reducing sugar contains a free aldehyde or ketone group. Therefore, it will contain a
“free” OH on the position next to the O in the ring structure
The Maillard browning reaction is responsible for the formation of the brown pigments that
appear on bread slices when they are toasted in the toaster.

Figure 2.5b. Glucose, Fructose, Galactose and Lactose are examples of reducing sugars. Sucrose
does not have this "free" OH, therefore is not a reducing sugar.

The Maillard browning reaction is responsible for the formation of the brown pigments that
appear on bread slices when they are toasted in the toaster.

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Many low molecular weight intermediate compounds are formed and these often are aroma and
flavour compounds that contribute to the desirable or undesirable flavours produced in a food
by the Maillard reaction. Examples of desirable compounds are the aroma and flavour of baked
bread, toasted bread and roasted coffee, while undesirable aromas and flavours are those that
form in skim milk powder during storage or during the browning of canned peaches during long-
term storage. The brown colours are high molecular weight pigments, melanoidins, formed as a
result of polymerization of some of the low molecular weight intermediate fractions.
c. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are high molecular weight, long chains of monosaccharide units (i.e.
glucose). They are classified as the complex carbohydrates and differ from simple carbohydrates
by being insoluble in water and generally tasteless. Most of the polysaccharides used in food
products are derived from plant or seaweed sources; a few are from microbial origin. They
contribute to the thickness or viscosity and textural properties of food products.

Polysaccharide Characteristics and Functional Properties

• are structural polymers in plants

• form the cementing material between individual plant cells
• pectin affects the texture of plant tissues
• used in jams and jellies as gelling agents in the presence of sufficient
pectins
sugar and acid¨
• contribute to the viscosity of tomato paste and ketchup
• contribute to the mouth feel and maintenance of particles in
suspension (e.g. orange juice, unclarified apple juice)
• extracted from seaweed (kelp)
agar
• used as a thickener agent
• extracted from certain types of seaweed
alginates
• used as gelling agents

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 • keep solids and liquids in suspension in fruit juices
• is a plant exudate from the bark of the acacia trees
gum arabic or gum
• used as thickener and stabilizer in products like beer, soft drinks, ice
acacia
cream
• extracted from certain types of seaweed (red algae)
carrageenan • used as a suspending agent to keep cocoa particles in suspension in
chocolate milk
• produced by bacteria
• first isolated from rotting cabbage, now cultured in large
fermentation tanks and purified
xanthan gum • used in salad dressings as a thickening agent, which enables the
dressing to cling to the salad components
• used as a suspending agent to maintain pieces of onion, red pepper,
spices in a stable suspension.
• are present in many plant tissues as supporting structures (e.g. the
fibres in celery)
cellulose and • are polymers of glucose that are indigestible
hemicellulose • along with pectin and the other carbohydrate gums form the
indigestible portion of our carbohydrate intake that is known as
dietary fibre
• are polymers of glucose
• digestible when cooked (e.g. rice, potatoes, etc.)
starch
• used as thickening, suspending and gelling agents(read text below
for more information on starch)

Starch
Starch is made out of polymers of glucose joined by an alpha, 1-4 link. A single molecule of starch
can include anywhere from 400 to several hundred thousand glucose units. Therefore, although
they are made of long chains of sugar molecules, starches do not elicit a sweet taste and rather
taste quite "bland". The length and bulkiness of the starch molecule prevent it from interacting
with our tongue receptors! In food, starch is mostly used as a thickening, suspending and gelling
agent.
In foods such as cereals and tubers starch exists in the form of starch granules. Starch molecules
(amylose, a straight/linear chain starch molecule and amylopectin, a branched starch molecule)

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are tightly packed within starch granules. The starch granule is not digestible, nor is it soluble in
cold water unless it is heated.
When starch is heated in water, it undergoes a phenomenon known as gelatinization. The starch
granules absorb water and swell-up as the water entering the granule begins to "loosen" the
bonds between the starch molecules. Hydrogen bonds form between the water and starch
molecules. The starch granule eventually "bursts", becoming soft and pliable. This is the
phenomenon that occurs when puddings are made or when flour is used as a thickening agent
when making gravies. Starch gelatinization is the phenomenon that leads to the conversion of
hard, unchewable, raw rice kernels to the soft, easily chewed, cooked rice.
Gelatinized starch can lose some of its water holding capacity upon cooling and/or during
refrigerated storage. This phenomenon is known as retrogradation, and involves the re-
association of starch molecules, especially the amylose polymers, into an ordered structure. The
linear amylose molecules orient themselves in crystalline regions, leading to a squeezing out
("syneresis") of water and a loss of tenderness of the food (e.g. staling of bread) or the
development of a gritty texture (e.g. starch based pudding stored in the refrigerator).
It is interesting to observe that bread stales more quickly in the refrigerator than the freezer or
at room temperature. Can you think of why this is the case?
Retrogradation can be avoided to a certain extent through the use of dextrins and/or modified
starches, thus reducing the tendency for alignment of linear amylose chains. Starches can be
partially hydrolysed by acids or enzymes to produce products of intermediate chain length
(dextrins) that have numerous uses in food products. Some of the dextrin products are used to
create foods that provide the sensation of containing fat but that are low in fat.
Retrogradation can also be partially reversed by heating the food (e.g. heating stale bread or
buns in an oven or the microwave oven); however, once the product cools the starch quickly
retrogrades again.
Cellulose and hemicellulose
These polysaccharides are present in many plant tissues as supporting structures (e.g. the fibres
in celery). They too are polymers of glucose but joined by a beta, (ß)1- 4 link. However, humans
do not have the enzyme needed to break the beta link and therefore, cellulose is indigestible.
Along with pectin and the other carbohydrate gums, cellulose forms the indigestible portion of
our carbohydrate intake that is known as dietary fibre.

Fats
Consumers are demanding "healthier" foods hence many of the products we currently see in the
market, have selling points such as "low-fat" or "fat-free". This general trend towards low-fat
products has given fats a negative reputation. Fats and oils are part of a group called lipids. Lipids
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can be found in the form of triglycerides, phospholipids and sterols. However, triglycerides make
the largest class of lipids as most of the fats and oils we consume from food are in the form of
triglycerides.
Functional Properties of Fats in Foods
The required reading talked about fats and the important functional properties they have by
influencing the flavour and texture of foods. Fats are even necessary for the absorption of fat
soluble vitamins. The functional properties of fats (and oils) in foods are:

• Fats act as a lubricant in food making the food more palatable and easier to chew and
swallow.
• Fats have tenderizing power because they coat the flour particles (protein and starch) in
baked goods, creating a flaky, lighter texture that makes them easy to tear apart. Fats work
best as shortening when the crystals are in the beta prime form, which produces a fine
texture in the baked goods. Cakes will have a crumbly texture without the moistness given
by fats.
• Another function of fats in baked goods is the one called "aeration". Fats add air (gas) to
batter and doughs. The fat surrounds the air molecules that are being incorporated into the
batter. They contribute to the formation of the dispersion by decreasing the viscosity in the
batter, thus making it easier to flow and rise.
• Fats and oils are carriers of many aroma constituents in foods that are usually fat-soluble.
Thus, fats contribute to the overall flavour of food (we will review aroma and flavour in
Lesson 3- Sensory perception of foods)
• Fats and oils can be heated to very high temperatures before they begin to smoke and
vaporize. Foods fried in hot fats and oils (deep fat frying) cook very fast because of the
temperatures that can be attained.
• Fats gradually soften when heated. This contributes to the desirable features such as
chocolates that melt in your mouth and butter and margarines that are spreadable.
• Fats form part of emulsions (review colloidal dispersions) by acting as the dispersed phase or
continuous phase. Some fats can also act as "emulsifiers", assisting in keeping the emulsion
stable (see "Fats and their role in emulsions" below).
Fats and their role in emulsions
You will recall that there are two types of emulsions: water in oil [e.g. butter, margarine], and oil
in water [e.g. mayonnaise, homogenized milk].
Homogenization or other high-energy mixing processes may be used to disperse one liquid phase
into another. Nevertheless, after two liquid phases such as oil and water are mixed and then left
to stand, the natural tendency is for the two phases to separate. Emulsifiers are compounds that

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promote the formation of emulsions, i.e., the dispersion of one phase in the form of small
droplets, in the second continuous phase.
Certain type of fat molecules called phospholipids, can function as emulsifiers. Phospholipids are
structurally similar to triglycerides, except that only two fatty acids are linked to the glycerol
(making it a diglyceride), and a charged group (negatively charged phosphoric acid esterified with
positively charged choline group) is linked to the third position of glycerol.
Lecithin is an example of a phospholipid. Lecithin is a naturally occurring emulsifier commonly
found in egg yolk and soybean oil. Other naturally occurring emulsifiers include the proteins from
milk, egg yolk or other foods. Sometimes, synthetic emulsifiers (e.g. "Polysorbate 60") are used
to assist in forming food emulsions.
Emulsifiers are amphiphillic molecules that have a hydrophilic [water loving] portion and
a hydrophobic [water hating] portion. Emulsifiers assist in formation of an emulsion by orienting
themselves at the interface between the two phases, with their hydrophilic and hydrophobic
portions facing water and oil, respectively, thereby reducing the interfacial tension between oil
and water phases. This can also help to stabilize the emulsion by preventing the dispersed oil
droplets or water droplets from coalescing together. Other factors that affect emulsion stability
are droplet size, and the viscosity of the continuous phase. Droplet size must be such that, the
downward pull of gravity, is balanced by the upward forces of buoyancy. This will reduce the
tendency for "creaming" (floating to the top) of the less dense (oil) phase.
Note the difference between "Emulsifiers" and "Stabilizers". Stabilizers are compounds that
increase the viscosity of the continuous phase, keeping the droplets suspended or dispersed and
thus reducing the rate of creaming. Some of the polysaccharides discussed earlier in this lesson
are commonly used as stabilizers to thicken the continuous phase (water); some examples are
“xanthan gum” and “propylene glycol alginate”.

Proteins
Protein molecules are made up of long chains of hundreds or even thousands of amino acid units
joined together. Amino acids are a type of organic acid. They are made up of an amino group
(NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH) attached to the same carbon atom.
There are 20 different amino acids in proteins found in food systems and in the human body.
Nine of the amino acids cannot be synthesized by human tissues and must be obtained via food.
These essential amino acids are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, valine; histidine (essential for infants only).

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Adults require 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight. Protein consumed in excess of
body requirements is converted to energy or is converted to fat for storage. Proteins produce 4
Calories per gram when they are digested and the amino acids are metabolized for energy.
Functional Properties of Proteins in Foods
Proteins in tissue systems such as meats and fish contribute to the texture of the products. The
difference between a tender steak and a tough steak can often be related to the types and
relative abundance of various types of protein molecules within the muscle structure. Proteins
from various sources (cereal grains, milk, meat, fish, legumes) can be used in various states of
purity as food ingredients with differing functional properties. Some of those functional
properties are described below.
Emulsion formation
Many proteins are amphiphillic molecules as they contain hydrophilic and hydrophobic portions
(from amino acids) allowing them to act as emulsifiers. One part of these amino acids is attracted
to water, forming hydrogen bonds, while the other part avoids water and binds with oil.

• Egg yolk and mustard proteins in mayonnaise function as emulsifiers.

Foaming

• Proteins have the ability to trap air in bubbles and this leads to the formation of foams.
• Egg white proteins function as foaming agents in the making of whipped egg whites.
Whipping introduces air and denatures (unfolds) the protein molecules. The protein
molecules then coagulate to form a fine film around the air pockets.
o Solid foams such as meringue are formed when the whipped egg whites are heated
causing the protein to denature and form a more rigid three-dimensional structure,
which won't collapse when the air escapes.
• Bread and ice cream are also examples of solid foams. Ice cream is also a solid emulsion.
Gel formation

• Gelatin (from the animal protein: collagen) forms a gel by trapping large volumes of water
within a semi rigid three dimensional protein matrix.
• Heating of meat proteins during the manufacture of luncheon meats, such as bologna and
frankfurters, leads to gelation and formation of the textures characteristic of cured meats.
o Products such as frankfurters and bologna are also emulsions.
• Milk protein also forms a gel when it is acidified, such as in making of yogurt and cheese. The
gel holds water and has a smooth texture.

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The Amazing Functionalities of Milk Proteins

• In latte (A): the milk protein traps air bubbles to form the foam structure.
• In milk (B): casein, a milk protein, acts as an emulsifier preventing the fat globules to separate
(cream) from the skim milk portion. ( This function can be further enhanced by
homogenization-will be further discussed in Lesson 6)
• In cheese (C): casein forms a gel structure in the cheese curd.

Proteins that function as enzymes

• Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts.

• In some cases enzymes are added to food as an ingredient (invertase in candy making)
• Some enzymes are used to promote food-processing operations while others are causative
agents in food spoilage (amylase can ruin a starch gel; lipases can cause lipolytic rancidity
which is the release of free fatty acid from glycerides).
• Enzymes in living tissue food systems such as fruits and vegetables are responsible for the
reactions associated with ripening. Those same enzymes will continue the ripening process
after harvest and unless they are inactivated the enzymes will eventually cause spoilage of
the product (e.g. loss of crispness of stored apples; loss of sweetness of apples during storage;
loss of colour in the skin of apples during storage).
• Many heating processes in food processing are designed to inactivate enzymes in addition to
inactivating undesirable microorganisms in order to extend storage life of foods.
• Microorganisms, when added to food systems, to produce fermented foods, are essentially
sources of desirable enzymes required to catalyse the desired chemical reactions needed to
produce fermented food products (yogurt, sauerkraut, soy sauce). This will be discussed in
more detail in Lesson 9.

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• Enzymes are also extracted from a variety of sources (plants, animal by-products,
microorganisms) and purified for use as aids in food processing (e.g. proteases used for milk
coagulation during cheese making; pectinases to enhance juice recovery and for clarification
of apple juice; invertase for conversion of sucrose to invert sugar; isomerase to produce high
fructose corn syrup).

Food Proteins and Food Allergies

What is the relation between food proteins and allergies?

• Intolerance to certain proteins in foods is the basis for many food allergies. You will often see
statements on labels for ice cream, cereals and candy bars that warn of the possibility that
the product may contain traces of peanuts or other nut products.
• Allergies to peanut protein can be very severe, such that even with proper cleaning and
sanitation, all residues of peanut allergens cannot be removed from processing equipment.
Thus products that do not contain nuts, but that have been processed with equipment that
was used for nut containing products may contribute enough allergen to cause some
problems in very sensitive individuals.
• For recent food recalls in Canada due to potential allergy risks, see
http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/corpaffr/recarapp/recaltoce.shtml

Water
Water is an extremely important component of food systems. Water is related to all aspects of
food ranging from our perception of quality, to the ability of microorganisms to be metabolically
active in food systems.
Water exists in food in two forms: Free water and Bound water.
Free water

• Some water may be present within intergranular spaces, within pores of the food matrix and
as a thin film of water on the surface of many foods.
• Free water can be found in tissue food systems and in dispersions.
• Water that is free and not bound by food components generally retains its usual physical
properties, can also function as a dispersing agent for colloidal substances, can function as a
solvent and can be used by microorganisms.

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Bound water

• Some water can be adsorbed on surfaces of macromolecules such as starches, pectins,

proteins through forces such as van der Waals forces and hydrogen bond formation.
• This water does not display all of its normal physical properties and it is not readily available
for use by microorganisms and chemical or enzymatic reactions.
• Another form of bound water is the water that is associated with food matrices as water of
hydration. That water is also not readily available for use by microorganisms and enzymatic
and chemical reactions in the food matrix, whether it is a tissue based food system or a
dispersion.
• Sugars and salts (sodium chloride) can bind substantial amounts of water and are often added
to foods for the purpose of decreasing the amount of free water in the food system. In that
context, sugars and salts can be used to control or prevent growth of certain microorganisms
in foods.
What does water activity (aw) mean?
Water activity is a measurement that is frequently used in monitoring the availability of water
(free water) in foods for the support of:

• microbial growth
• chemical reactions
• enzymatic reactions

The importance of water activity in foods is illustrated by the following few examples:

• (a) Growth of Microorganisms: Water activity indicates the amount of water in the total
water content of the food which is available to micro-organisms. Each species of micro–
organism (bacteria, yeast and mould) has its own minimum water activity value below
which growth is no longer possible. Water activity has its most useful application in
predicting the growth of bacteria, yeasts and moulds. For a food to have a useful shelf life
without relying on refrigerated storage, it is necessary to control either its acidity level
(pH) or the level of water activity or a suitable
• (b) Chemical stability: Water activity control is an important factor for the chemical
stability of foods.
• (c) Enzymatic stability: Most enzymatic reactions are slowed down at water activity
values below 0.8.
Water activity can be measured as the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the food to the
vapour pressure of pure water, both measured at the same temperature.

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 Aw = (Vapour Pressure of Water in Food at X °C) / (Vapour Pressure of Pure Water at X °C)
Water activity values of a number of food products are shown below. Water activity of foods can
be adjusted by physically removing water from foods during concentration and dehydration
processing operations, also when the water in the food is frozen (the free water is in a solid state,
in the form of ice crystals), or by adding substances that bind water thus lowering the proportion
of water in the free form. The most commonly used water-binding agents are sugars and salt.
Is water activity the same as moisture content?
The answer is no. Measurement of the moisture content of a variety of food systems is a
frequently conducted quality assurance measurement. However, measurement of water
content of foods does not indicate whether the water is bound or free.
The data in the above table shows that water content of foods cannot be used as a reliable
indicator of the water activity.

Food Minor Components

A number of other food constituents are present in foods in much smaller quantities than
the major constituents (carbohydrates, proteins, fats). These minor constituents are very
important in their influence on our perception of the quality attributes of the food. The minor
constituents are: organic acids, pigments and aroma compounds.

Organic Acids
Fruits contain natural acids which give the fruits tartness and slow down bacterial spoilage.
Organic acids also impart flavour and acidity to food. Examples of organic acids and foods in
which they are occur are:

Organic acid Food

Malic acid apples

citric acid citrus fruits, tomatoes, strawberries.

Tartaric acid grapes

lactic acid yogurt, cheese, olives, cottage cheese, sauerkraut.

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• The major uses of organic acids are to adjust pH or to acidify food, and to impart flavour.
For example, acetic acid provides flavour and decreases pH; phosphoric acid provides
flavour and tartness in beverages.
• A number of organic acids are also employed as antimicrobial agents.
• Organic acids have a wide range of textural effects in food systems due to their reactions
with proteins, starches, pectins, and other food constituents.
• What is pH?
o pH is a measure of the acidity of a food. Foods and beverages differ in pH because of
their content of acids, which produce hydrogen ions. We are able to detect these
ions by using a hydrogen sensitive electrode in a device called a pH meter.
Is pH important to the Food Industry?
Yes. An important pH for the food industry is pH 4.6; this is the borderline between an acidic
food and a low acid food (Table 2.3).

• acid foods have pH of 4.6 or less

• low-acid foods have pH greater than 4.6

Acid foods will not support growth of disease causing microorganisms. This aspect will be
discussed in more detail later in the course.

Colours and Pigments in Foods

Many food systems are coloured by pigments naturally present in the food system:
Chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, is responsible for the green colour in apples,
lettuce, celery and broccoli. Chlorophyll a has a blue green hue (e.g. in the florets of fresh
broccoli) while chlorophyll b has a yellow green hue (stems of broccoli).
Carotenoids, a diverse group of pigments, can be subclassified into carotenes and
xanthophylls. Carotenoids naturally produce red, orange and orange-yellow colours in many
foods (e.g. tomatoes, carrots, pineapples, shrimp)
Anthocyanidins and anthocyanins (anthocyanidin complexed with glucose or other sugars).
These pigments are the predominant colour pigments in blueberries, cherries, cranberries,
plums and red cabbage. The anthocyanins are particularly sensitive to changes in pH, showing
marked changes in colour with pH changes in the food system.
As you can see in the above figure, the colour of an athocyanin is most stable and most highly
coloured at low pH values. The colour will be gradually lost as the pH increases. Notice that
at pH 5, the anthocyanin is almost colourless. The colour loss is reversible, and the red hue
will return upon acidification.

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Other pigments in food systems include hemoglobin and myoglobin (the red pigments in
blood and muscle).
All of the pigments noted above are sensitive to varying degrees to changes in the
environment (pH, presence or absence of oxygen, presence of metal ions, enzymatic
degradation) in the food system. Thus colour changes often occur in fresh fruits, vegetables,
meats and fish during storage, spoilage and as a result of processing and cooking.
In addition, there are a number of pigments, either those extracted from plants or
microorganisms, or synthetic pigments that are used as colouring agents in fabricated food
systems. These will be discussed in more detail in the section on food additives (Lesson 4).

Aroma Constituents
The aroma profile of foods is very complex. The aroma of food is detected when we inhale
volatile constituents of foods that react with the receptors in the olfactory regions of our
nasal passages.
Most of us have experienced the aroma of freshly brewed coffee; there are actually hundreds
of volatile compounds that have been identified in the aroma.
No single chemical compound can be attributed as being the sole source of the aroma of a
particular food product.

• It is the specific mixture of chemicals in a particular concentration that creates the aroma
that we associate with a high quality food product.
• Any change in that specific mixture of volatile compounds or their concentrations will
alter the aroma that we perceive.
• The volatile constituents that contribute to the aroma of foods are present in very low
concentrations but are nonetheless very important constituents of foods.
• The flavour constituents are either present as part of the food matrix (fresh strawberries)
or are modified (cooking of strawberries) or created (roasting of coffee) during
processing or cooking.

Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins are mainly classified into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamins are
organic compounds that make up a small portion of food; however, vitamins are very
important from a nutritional point of view because they are essential components of the
human diet as they carry out some very important tasks in the body.

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 • Water-soluble vitamins include vitamin C (ascorbic acid), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin,
pyridoxine, vitamin B12, and folacin. These vitamins are found within the water
(aqueous) phase of foods.
• Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E) are found within the fat (oil) portion
of foods
Although Vitamins do not contribute to the physical characteristics of food, some are actually
used as "food additives". Below are some examples of the two most common vitamins used
as food additives:

Food Additive
Vitamin Function
category

Ascorbic acid *Hasten oxidation and aging processes as in

Bleaching agents
(Vitamin C) flour whitening treatment

Ascorbic acid Act as antioxidant to slow down rancidity and

Preservatives
(Vitamin C) browning reactions

Tocopherols
Preservatives Antioxidant
(Vitamin E)

* Ascorbic acid converts to its oxidizing from during mixing

Minerals (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, zinc) are often associated with
various cellular components in tissue food systems and often are active participants in
chemical and biochemical reactions that affect the chemical properties and textural
characteristics of food systems.
Protein Denaturation

Term used to describe changes in the physico-chemical properties of soluble proteins. It can be
described as any modification in the conformation of a protein.

- Factors that can cause protein Denaturation.

• Heat
• Strong acids (low pH)
• Strong bases (High pH)

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 • Some solvents such as ethanol
• Conc solution of salts
• Phenolic substances.

Changes that may accompany denaturation

• Coagulation (Loss of solubility)

• Gel formation
• Higher Digestibility (Higher susceptibility to Enzyme hydrolysis)

Renaturation

• Reverse of denaturation (slow and practically irreversible).

Application

• Denaturation of Enzymes e.g. Blanching of fruit and vegetables.

• Pasteurization of milk etc.
• Preparation of cheese –Acidification of milk proteins souring of milk (yoghurt)
• Flavour and texture modification though exposure of – SG groups eg
• Eggs, meta/wheat proteins.

Nutrient stability

Nutrient stability refers to the length of time a nutrient remains in a food product at a desired
level. If you are declaring nutrients on your product's label, then you need to understand
the stability of your product's nutrients.

Nutrient stability refers to the length of time a nutrient remains in a food product at a desired
level. If you are declaring nutrients on your product’s label, then you need to understand the
stability of your product’s nutrients. This applies to a plethora of product categories including,
but not limited to, pet food, beverages, adult food products, infant formula, toddler food and
supplements.

Nutrient stability and shelf life studies play an important role during the R&D and product
development stages. Some studies compare formulations and packaging material to determine
which provide the longest shelf life, and others focus on lowering the overages of a nutrient
added to a product to reduce the cost to the manufacturer. Accelerated studies on shelf-stable
products offer another route to meet R&D objectives.

In the development of new nutritional products, the final formulation and shelf life are
determined by the integration of nutrient and physical stability testing data.

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Nutrient stability under normal conditions of storage and use is one of the important factors
determining the effectiveness of a food-fortification programme. From a technical standpoint,
nutritional stability during formulation, preparation, and processing is very crucial in determining
the effective production of fortified foods.

The following factors relating to nutrient stability are important for the manufacturers of fortified
foods:

» The technologist needs to know the extent to which food processes and distribution systems
could affect nutrient retention; at the same time, the technologist needs appropriate data to
develop strategies for minimizing the losses caused by nutrient instability.

» The quality, legislative, and marketing specialists need adequate information on nutrient
stability, especially to enable them to make statements or claims on labels and advertising.

» The accountant needs to be aware of the stability data to establish and justify expenditures on
potential modifications of processing techniques, the cost of nutrient premixes, etc.

» The nutritionist needs to be aware of the stability data to assess the choices and, ultimately,
the supply of nutrient(s) for consumers. Nutrient stability is affected by physical and chemical
factors.

A wide range of physical and chemical factors influencing the stability of nutrients can be seen in
figure 1. Although many factors may cause serious nutrient degradation, measures can be
developed to minimize losses by applying proper technology, which includes application of a
protective coating for an individual nutrient; addition of antioxidants; control of temperature,
moisture, and pH; and protection from air, light, and incompatible metals during processing and
storage.

FIG. 1. Factors influencing the stability of nutrients

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To minimize nutrient losses, the use of lower combinations of time and temperature is desirable,
which can be achieved by either increasing the surface area or reducing the pressure during the
drying process.

Overage is the use of kinetic data on nutrient stability to calculate the amount of added nutrient
so that the anticipated level of the nutrient at the end of the product's shelf life is in accordance
with the level indicated on the label.

Nutrient Drug Interaction

Diet and drugs are both necessary to treat and cure diseases. But some drugs may have adverse

effect on the utilisation of some nutrients. So it is necessary to understand their relationship and

maximise their utility by judicious planning.

Interaction between diet and drugs is significant in

(a) Those who need long term drug therapy.

(b) Those who are malnourished.

(c) Those suffering from chronic diseases.

(d) Those who have undergone surgery.

(e) Those who are obese

(f) High-risk segments of population

High Risk Segments of Population

These include developing fetus, infants (especially premature ones), pregnant women,
chronically ill persons and elderly persons

• In late pregnancy increased concentrations of the transport protein for most drugs results
in drug concentration in the fetus.
• Young children (including infants) have high requirements of nutrients per kg body
weight; hence drugs that decrease absorption or increase excretion of a nutrient affects
them adversely.
• Many elderly persons suffer from chronic diseases and have to take several drugs for
prolonged periods. Their food intake is often inadequate. They may take wrong drugs at
times. Thus this segment of elderly need special assistance to avoid adverse nutrient drug
interaction.

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Some commonly used drugs include analgesics (pain killers), cough, cold, sinus and allergy drugs,
digestive aids, antacids, sleep aids (sedatives), appetite suppressants, diuretics, antibiotics etc.

Many of these drugs are available without prescription. In addition, health enthusiasts take
vitamin and mineral pills in the belief, if a little is good, a higher amount may be better for health.
These create a scenario for an undesirable nutrient-drug interaction.

Nutrient Absorption

Most nutrients and drugs are absorbed in the small intestine. Hence it is the major site for
nutrientdrug intervention.

The absorption of nutrients may be adversely affected by drugs, if the transit time is altered.

Laxatives tend to reduce nutrient absorption by reducing the transit time. If the pH of stomach
contents is increased due to drugs (e.g. antacids), the absorption of iron, calcium, zinc and folates
is reduced.

Fat and fat-soluble vitamins are poorly absorbed, when drugs are taken to reduce cholesterol by
the patient; neomycin (an antibiotic) has the same effect.

High doses of antacids (aluminium or magnesium hydroxide) can cause phosphate depletion,
leading to muscle weakness, loss of appetite (anorexia) and even congestive heart failure.
Diuretics (thiazide and furosemide) can cause sodium, potassium and magnesium depletion
leading to loss of appetite and muscle weakness.

Drug Absorption

A drug is a chemical, which interacts with the metabolic process in the body to bring about a
desirable effect. Drug action can occur only after it is dissolved, carried to the target site and
absorbed.

About 75 per cent of oral drugs will generally be absorbed in 1 to 3 hours.

The metabolism of many drugs and a variety of foreign compounds is carried out by the
mixedfunction-oxidase system (MFOS). Almost all nutrients are components of the MFO system.
These include proteins, lipids, B-complex vitamins (nicotinic acid, riboflavin and pantothenic
acid), fat soluble vitamins (A and E) and minerals (iron, copper, calcium, zinc and magnesium).

When food enters the stomach, the gastric pH is lowered by dilution and stomach emptying is
delayed. These factors may reduce the absorption rate and hence the effectiveness of the drugs.
In view of this, it is advisable to take pain relievers (analgesics), fever reducing drugs

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(antipyretics), antiinfectives for acute infections and antihistamines on an empty stomach for
rapid recovery. Aspirin and antibiotics are also better absorbed in a fasting state.

Almost a billion dollars is spent each year in the United States of America on antacids, making
these products among the most popular over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. These tablets and liquids
are gulped down for the relief of heartburn, sour stomach and indigestion. Antacids may also be
prescribed to treat stomach ulcers.

Although many consumers take antacids almost casually, these drugs are not as harmless as they
may seem. Antacids can affect the way other drugs behave in the body. They can speed the
absorption of some prescription drugs, possibly causing an overdose, or slow it for others thus
reducing their effectiveness.

Some nutrients and food components can decrease food absorption and hence its effectiveness.

These include amino acids from high protein diet, dairy products and iron from iron supplements.

Therefore, it is advisable to time intake of food and drugs at appropriate intervals, since one
needs both for proper recovery.

Effect of Drugs on Food Intake

Food intake is affected by drugs taken by the patient. The effects can include decrease or increase
in appetite and taste, nausea and vomiting. For example, antacids, caffeine, cough medicines,
antihistamines can decrease appetite.

Drugs taken to reduce weight are intended to reduce appetite. But their effectiveness is reduced

rapidly. Hence their utility in weight reduction regimen is limited.

Antibiotics and many chemotherapy agents (for cancer) may cause diarrhea or vomiting and thus

reduce food intake.

Some drugs may be a source of nutrients which may not be appropriate for some patients. For
example, cough medications may contain sugar; antibiotics and antacids may contain sodium.

Nutrient Metabolism

Some drugs used as anticonvulsants may cause calcium loss and folate deficiency. Calcium loss
may lead to osteomalacia on prolonged use of anticonvulsants. Hence the need for nutrient
supplements with these drugs. In contrast, the effectiveness of some drugs such as levadopa and
coumarin is reduced due to vitamin supplements (pyridoxine and vitamin K) respectively.

25
Some drugs block enzymatic action involved in DNA synthesis and thus lead to the death of a cell.
This is the principle used in the chemotherapy of cancer.

Two common antivitamins, used as drugs, are the folate antagonists, methotrexate (MRX) (used
in the treatment of leukemia and rheumatoid arthritis) and pyrimethamine (used in the
treatment of malaria and ocular toxoplasmosis). These drugs displace folic acid from the related
enzyme and the unbound folic acid is excreted. In the absence of folic acid, DNA synthesis is
inhibited, cell synthesis stops and the cell dies. Isoniazid, which is used in the long-term treatment
of TB, forms a complex with the B-vitamin, pyridoxine, which may lead to its deficiency in some
patients. Anticoagulants used in treatment are intentional vitamin K antagonists. The acidity of
the gastrointestinal tract also affects drug disposition. A more acidic environment reduces the
availability of penicillin and isoniazid but increases the absorption of tetracyclines. Food
decreases, delays or enhances the absorption of some antibiotics.

Alcohol

Alcohol is not prescribed as a drug. But it is a chemical, which affects nutrition in many ways. It
yields 7 calories/gramme, but not much of other nutrient. It is a habit-forming drink; hence its
use is best avoided

Alcohol can cause nausea and thus decrease appetite. Alcohol abuse commonly results in
deficiencies of thiamin, folate, vitamin B6, vit. A and zinc.

Caffeine

Caffeine, an addictive chemical, is present in tea, coffee, soft drinks and chocolates, which are

consumed by all age groups. It is reported that an average healthy person can take moderate
amounts of caffeine without any harmful effects.

An intake of 1000mg/day or more of caffeine can cause diarrhea, headache, heartburn and
sleeplessness.

Even in smaller amounts, caffeine can act as a diuretic. It can also increase a basal metabolic rate
and heart rate.

More than 1000 over-the-counter drugs, which need no prescription, contain caffeine. These
drugs include those used to increase alertness and avoid sleepiness, headache and cold remedies
and even weight-control drugs.

It is important to note that caffeine does not reverse the effects of alcohol, as it is commonly
believed and hence does not help in ‘sobering up’ after excessive intake of alcohol.

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MAOI Inhibitors

The most harmful drug-nutrient interaction is the one between the enzyme Monoamine Oxidase

Inhibitors and blood-pressure elevating (pressor) amines, especially tyramine.

MAOI (Monamine Oxidase inhibitors) are used as drugs. These include antidepressants,
antimicrobials, antineoplastics and antihypertesnsive drugs.

Normally, the enzyme MAO (Monoamine Oxidase) inactivates the pressor agents and thus
prevents the release of excess of norepinephrine, a hormone. The MAOIs block this reaction and
the levels of norepinephrine rise unchecked. This can lead to reactions such as headaches,
hypertension, palpitations etc. Major strokes have been reported in extreme cases. The severity
of reaction is affected by the dosage of the drug and the level of dietary tyramine.

The tyramine content of foods is increased by aging ( as in fermentation or spoilage). Hence it is

best to take fresh foods in diet, when a person is on MAOI therapy. It is also advisable to avoid
foods stored for long periods and those likely to have bacterial contamination. Alteration to
restrict tyramine in the diet must be made some days before starting MAOI therapy and be
continued for 3 – 4 weeks after the therapy.

Precautions to be taken

The unrestricted buying and ingestion of drugs bought over the counter is a cause of concern in
developing countries like India where there is little supervision of the sale of drugs, especially for
those needing a medical doctor’s prescription. Nutrient absorption can be reduced in such
situations and in extreme cases may lead to incompatability reactions endangering life. This is
more so with elderly persons as they are prone to taking drugs for various ailments.

In conclusion to quote Sizer and Whitney (1997)(1) “ When you need to take a medicine, do so
wisely. Ask your physician, pharmacist or health care provider for specific instructions about the
doses, times and how to take them – for example, with meals or an empty stomach. If you notice
new symptoms or if a drug does not seem to be working well, consult your physician.

Foodborne Illness

Foodborne illness is caused by consuming contaminated foods or beverages. Many different

disease-causing microbes or pathogens can contaminate foods, so there are many different types
of foodborne illnesses.

Causes and Symptoms of Foodborne Illness

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Most foodborne diseases are infections caused by a variety of bacteria, viruses, and parasites.
Other diseases are poisonings caused by harmful toxins or chemicals that have contaminated
food.

Of note many foodborne pathogens also can be acquired through recreational or drinking water,
from contact with animals or their environment, or through person-to-person spread.

Symptoms of Foodborne Illness

Common symptoms of foodborne illness are diarrhea and/or vomiting, typically lasting 1 to 7
days. Other symptoms might include abdominal cramps, nausea, fever, joint/back aches, and
fatigue.

What some people call the “stomach flu” may actually be a foodborne illness caused by a
pathogen (i.e., virus, bacteria, or parasite) in contaminated food or drink.

The incubation period (the time between exposure to the pathogen and onset of symptoms) can
range from several hours to 1 week.

Causes of Foodborne Illness

Commonly recognized foodborne infections are:

Campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter)

Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium)

Cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora spp.)

Escherichia coli O157:H7 Infection (E. coli O157) and Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS)

Giardiasis (Giardia)

Listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes)

Norovirus Infection (aka Norwalk virus, calicivirus, viral gastroenteritis)

Salmonellosis (Salmonella)

Scombroid Fish Poisoning

Shigellosis (Shigella)

Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)

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Vibrio Infection (Vibrio parahaemolyticus)

Yersiniosis (Yersinia species)

Foods Associated with Foodborne Illness

Raw foods of animal origin, that is, raw meat and poultry, raw eggs, unpasteurized milk, and raw
shellfish are the most likely to be contaminated.

Fruits and vegetables can also be contaminated with animal waste when manure is used to
fertilize produce in the field, or unclean water is used for washing the produce.

Raw sprouts are particularly concerning because the conditions under which they are sprouted
are ideal for growing microbes.

Unpasteurized fruit juices or cider can also be contaminated if there are pathogens on the fruit
that is used to make it.

Any food item that is touched by a person who is ill with vomiting or diarrhea, or who has recently
had such an illness, can become contaminated. When these food items are not subsequently
cooked (e.g., salads, cut fruit) they can pass the illness to other people.

Diagnosis of Food-borne Diseases A variety of infectious and non-infectious agents should be

considered in patients suspected of having a food-borne illness. However, establishing a
diagnosis can be difficult, particularly in patients with persistent or chronic diarrhea, those with
severe abdominal pain and when there is an underlying disease process. The extent of 27
diagnostic evaluation of food borne diseases can be based on clinical features (history and
physical examination), environmental assessment and laboratory investigations.

29
Food safety, Good Manufacturing Practices, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point.

FOOD SAFETY

Food Safety refers to handling, preparing and storing food in a way to best reduce the risk of
individuals becoming sick from foodborne illnesses.

Food safety is a global concern that covers a variety of different areas of everyday life.

Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and promoting
good health.

Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances, causes more
than 200 diseases – ranging from diarrhoea to cancers.

An estimated 600 million – almost 1 in 10 people in the world – fall ill after eating contaminated
food and 420 000 die every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy life years (DALYs).

US$110 billion is lost each year in productivity and medical expenses resulting from unsafe food
in low- and middle-income countries.

Children under 5 years of age carry 40% of the foodborne disease burden, with 125 000 deaths
every year.

Diarrhoeal diseases are the most common illnesses resulting from the consumption of
contaminated food, causing 550 million people to fall ill and 230 000 deaths every year.

Food safety, nutrition and food security are inextricably linked. Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle
of disease and malnutrition, particularly affecting infants, young children, elderly and the sick.

Foodborne diseases impede socioeconomic development by straining health care systems, and
harming national economies, tourism and trade.

Food supply chains now cross multiple national borders. Good collaboration between
governments, producers and consumers helps ensure food safety.

The evolving world and food safety

• Safe food supplies support national economies, trade and tourism, contribute to food and
nutrition security, and underpin sustainable development.
• Urbanization and changes in consumer habits, including travel, have increased the number of
people buying and eating food prepared in public places. Globalization has triggered growing
consumer demand for a wider variety of foods, resulting in an increasingly complex and longer
global food chain.

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• As the world’s population grows, the intensification and industrialization of agriculture and
animal production to meet increasing demand for food creates both opportunities and
challenges for food safety. Climate change is also predicted to impact food safety.
• These challenges put greater responsibility on food producers and handlers to ensure food
safety. Local incidents can quickly evolve into international emergencies due to the speed and
range of product distribution. Serious foodborne disease outbreaks have occurred on every
continent in the past decade, often amplified by globalized trade.

Principles of food safety

The principles of food safety aim to prevent food from becoming contaminated and causing food
poisoning. This is achieved through a variety of different avenues, some of which are:

▪ Properly cleaning and sanitising all surfaces, equipment and utensils

▪ Maintaining a high level of personal hygiene, especially hand-washing

▪ Storing, chilling and heating food correctly with regards to temperature, environment and
equipment

▪ Implementing effective pest control

▪ Comprehending food allergies, food poisoning and food intolerance

Regardless of why you are handling food, whether as part of your job or cooking at home, it is
essential to always apply the proper food safety principles. Any number of potential food hazards
exist in a food handling environment, many of which carry with them serious consequences.

Under food safety law, the key elements of food safety are:

• Ensuring everyone follows good food hygiene practices. This includes personal hygiene, safe handling
of food, preventing cross-contamination, cleaning procedures, allergen control, safe storage of food,
and cooking temperatures.
• Implementing appropriate food management systems. This refers to the overarching system that
keeps food and the premises safe and hygienic. The main aspect is HACCP, but it also refers to record
keeping, labelling, traceability, supply and delivery, and staff training.
• Maintaining hygienic premises. The maintenance of the building is another key aspect of risk
prevention. This includes the general cleanliness and upkeep of the building, having an appropriate
layout, suitable lighting, ventilation, pest control, and waste management.

Food safety: a public health priority

Unsafe food poses global health threats, endangering everyone. Infants, young children, pregnant
women, the elderly and those with an underlying illness are particularly vulnerable. Everyone can
contribute to making food safe. Here are some examples of effective actions:

31
Policy-makers can:

• build and maintain adequate food systems and infrastructures (e.g. laboratories) to respond to
and manage food safety risks along the entire food chain, including during emergencies;
• foster multi-sectoral collaboration among public health, animal health, agriculture and other
sectors for better communication and joint action;
• integrate food safety into broader food policies and programmes (e.g. nutrition and food
security);
• think globally and act locally to ensure that food produced domestically remains safe when
imported internationally.
Food handlers and consumers can:

• know the food they use (read labels on food packages, make informed choices, become familiar
with common food hazards);
• handle and prepare food safely, practicing the WHO Five Keys to Safer Food at home, or when
selling at restaurants or at local markets;
• grow fruits and vegetables using the WHO Five Keys to Growing Safer Fruits and Vegetables
to decrease microbial contamination.

HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP)

HACCP: A system which identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards which are significant for
food safety.

Principle 1 - Conduct a Hazard Analysis

The application of this principle involves listing the steps in the process and identifying where
significant hazards are likely to Occur. The HACCP team will focus on hazards that can be
prevented, eliminated or controlled by the HACCP plan. A justification for including or excluding
the hazard is reported and possible control measures are identified.

Principle 2 - Identify the Critical Control Points

A critical control point (CCP) is a point, step or procedure at which control can be applied and a
food safety hazard can be prevented, eliminated or reduced to acceptable levels. The HACCP team
will use a CCP decision tree to help identify the critical control points in the process. A critical
control point may control more that one food safety hazard or in some cases more than one CCP
is needed to control a single hazard. The number of CCP's needed depends on the processing steps
and the control needed to assure food safety.

Principle 3 - Establish Critical Limits

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A critical limit (CL) is the maximum and/or minimum value to which a biological, chemical, or
physical parameter must be controlled at a CCP to prevent, eliminate, or reduce to an acceptable
level the occurrence of a food safety hazard. The critical limit is usually a measure such as time,
temperature, water activity (Aw), pH, weight, or some other measure that is based on scientific
literature and/or regulatory standards.

Principle 4- Monitor CCP

The HACCP team will describe monitoring procedures for the measurement of the critical limit at
each critical control point. Monitoring procedures should describe how the measurement will be
taken, when the measurement is taken, who is responsible for the measurement and how frequently
the measurement is taken during production.

Principle 5 - Establish Corrective Action

Corrective actions are the procedures that are followed when a deviation in a critical limit occurs.
The HACCP team will identify the steps that will be taken to prevent potentially hazardous food
from entering the food chain and the steps that are needed to correct the process. This usually
includes identification of the problems and the steps taken to assure that the problem will not occur
again.

Principle 6 - Verification

Those activities, other than monitoring, that determine the validity of the HACCP plan and that
the system is operating according to the plan. The HACCP team may identify activities such as
auditing of CCP's, record review, prior shipment review, instrument calibration and product testing
as part of the verification activities.

Principle 7 - Recordkeeping

A key component of the HACCP plan is recording information that can be used to prove that the
a food was produced safely. The records also need to include information about the HACCP plan.
Record should include information on the HACCP Team, product description, flow diagrams, the
hazard analysis, the CCP's identified, Critical Limits, Monitoring System, Corrective Actions,
Recordkeeping Procedures, and Verification Procedures.

HACCP Does not Stand Alone

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The application of HACCP does not stand alone in a food processing facility. The plan must be
built on other food safety programs. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) that are practiced by
the processing facility will support HACCP plan and will address food safety and food quality
issues that are not critical for the reduction of food safety hazards. Sanitation Standard Operating
Procedures (SSOP's) are required in federally inspected meat and poultry operations and address
procedures for clean facilities, equipment and personnel that are necessary for all products
produced in a facility.

FOOD ADDITIVES

What are food additives?

Food additives are substances added to food to maintain or improve its safety, freshness, taste,
texture, or appearance. Substances that are added to food to maintain or improve the safety,
freshness, taste, texture, or appearance of food are known as food additives. Some food additives
have been in use for centuries for preservation – such as salt (in meats such as bacon or dried
fish), sugar (in marmalade), or sulfur dioxide (in wine). Food additives need to be checked for
potential harmful effects on human health before they can be used.
The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), is the international body
responsible for evaluating the safety of food additives. Only food additives that have been
evaluated and deemed safe by JECFA, on the basis of which maximum use levels have been
established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, can be used in foods that are traded
internationally.
Many different food additives have been developed over time to meet the needs of food
production, as making food on a large scale is very different from making them on a small scale
at home. Additives are needed to ensure processed food remains safe and in good condition
throughout its journey from factories or industrial kitchens, during transportation to warehouses
and shops, and finally to consumers.
The use of food additives is only justified when their use has a technological need, does not
mislead consumers, and serves a well-defined technological function, such as to preserve the
nutritional quality of the food or enhance the stability of the food.
Food additives can be derived from plants, animals, or minerals, or they can be synthetic. They
are added intentionally to food to perform certain technological purposes which consumers often
take for granted. There are several thousand food additives used, all of which are designed to do
a specific job in making food safer or more appealing. WHO, together with FAO, groups food
additives into 3 broad categories based on their function:
Flavouring agents – which are added to food to improve aroma or taste – make up the greatest
number of additives used in foods. There are hundreds of varieties of flavourings used in a wide
variety of foods, from confectionery and soft drinks to cereal, cake, and yoghurt. Natural
flavouring agents include nut, fruit and spice blends, as well as those derived from vegetables
and wine. In addition, there are flavourings that imitate natural flavours.

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Enzyme preparations - are a type of additive that may or may not end up in the final food product.
Enzymes are naturally-occurring proteins that boost biochemical reactions by breaking down
larger molecules into their smaller building blocks. They can be obtained by extraction from plants
or animal products or from micro-organisms such as bacteria and are used as alternatives to
chemical-based technology. They are mainly used in baking (to improve the dough), for
manufacturing fruit juices (to increase yields), in wine making and brewing (to improve
fermentation), as well as in cheese manufacturing (to improve curd formation).
Other food additives - are used for a variety of reasons, such as preservation, colouring, and
sweetening. They are added when food is prepared, packaged, transported, or stored, and they
eventually become a component of the food.
Preservatives can slow decomposition caused by mould, air, bacteria, or yeast. In addition to
maintaining the quality of the food, preservatives help control contamination that can cause
foodborne illness, including life-threatening botulism.
Colouring is added to food to replace colours lost during preparation, or to make food look more
attractive.
Non-sugar sweeteners are often used as an alternative to sugar because they contribute fewer or
no calories when added to food.
How do I know which additives are in my food?
The Codex Alimentarius Commission also establishes standards and guidelines on food labelling.
These standards are implemented in most countries, and food manufacturers are obliged to indicate
which additives are in their products. In the European Union, for example, there is legislation
governing labelling of food additives according to a set of pre-defined “E-numbers”. People who
have allergies or sensitivities to certain food additives should check labels carefully.
WHO encourages national authorities to monitor and ensure that food additives in food and drinks
produced in their countries comply with permitted uses, conditions and legislation. National
authorities should oversee the food business, which carries the primary responsibility for ensuring
that the use of a food additive is safe and complies with legislation.
Here are 12 of the most common food additives, plus recommendations for which ones to keep
out of your diet.
1. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)
Monosodium glutamate, or MSG, is a common food additive used to intensify and enhance the
flavor of savory dishes. It’s found in a variety of processed foods like frozen dinners, salty snacks
and canned soups. It’s also often added to foods at restaurants and fast food places.
2. Artificial Food Coloring
Artificial food coloring is used to brighten and improve the appearance of everything from candies
to condiments.
3. Sodium Nitrite

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Frequently found in processed meats, sodium nitrite acts as a preservative to prevent the growth
of bacteria while also adding a salty flavor and reddish-pink color. When exposed to high heat and
in the presence of amino acids, nitrites can turn into nitrosamine, a compound that can have many
negative effects on health.
4. Guar Gum
Guar gum is a long-chain carbohydrate used to thicken and bind foods. It’s widely used in the food
industry and can be found in ice cream, salad dressings, sauces and soups.
5. High-Fructose Corn Syrup
High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener made from corn. It’s frequently found in soda, juice,
candy, breakfast cereals and snack foods.
6. Artificial Sweeteners
Artificial sweeteners are used in many diet foods and beverages to enhance sweetness while
reducing calorie content.
7. Carrageenan
Derived from red seaweed, carrageenan acts as a thickener, emulsifier and preservative in many
different food products. Common sources of carrageenan include almond milk, cottage cheese, ice
cream, coffee creamers and dairy-free products like vegan cheese.
8. Sodium Benzoate
Sodium benzoate is a preservative often added to carbonated drinks and acidic foods like salad
dressings, pickles, fruit juices and condiments.
9. Trans Fat
Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat that have undergone hydrogenation, which increases shelf
life and improves the consistency of products. It can be found in many types of processed foods
like baked goods, margarine, microwave popcorn and biscuits.
10. Xanthan Gum
Xanthan gum is a common additive that’s used to thicken and stabilize many types of food such
as salad dressings, soups, syrups and sauces. It’s also sometimes used in gluten-free recipes to help
improve the texture of foods.
11. Artificial Flavoring
Artificial flavors are chemicals designed to mimic the taste of other ingredients. They can be used
to imitate a variety of different flavors, from popcorn and caramel to fruit and beyond. Animal
studies have found that these synthetic flavors could have some concerning effects on health.
12. Yeast Extract
Yeast extract, also called autolyzed yeast extract or hydrolyzed yeast extract, is added to certain
savory foods like cheese, soy sauce and salty snacks to boost the flavor. It’s made by combining
sugar and yeast in a warm environment, then spinning it in a centrifuge and discarding the cell
walls of the yeast.

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Food contamination
This refers to the presence of harmful chemicals and microorganisms in food, which can cause
consumer illness.
The food contamination could be due to naturally occurring contaminants in the environment or
artificially introduced by the human. The phases of food processing, packaging, transportation,
and storage are also significant contributors to food contamination. The implications of these
chemical contaminants on human health are grave, ranging from mild gastroenteritis to fatal cases
of hepatic, renal, and neurological syndromes. Although, the government regulates such chemicals
in the eatables by prescribing minimum limits that are safe for human consumption yet measures
still need to be taken to curb food contamination entirely. Therefore, a variety of food needs to be
inspected and measured for the presence of chemical contaminants.
The impact of chemical contaminants on consumer health and well-being is often apparent only
after many years of processing and prolonged exposure at low levels (e.g., cancer). Unlike food-
borne pathogens, chemical contaminants present in foods are often unaffected by thermal
processing. Chemical contaminants can be classified according to the source of contamination and
the mechanism by which they enter the food product.
Agrochemicals are chemicals used in agricultural practices and animal husbandry with the intent
to increase crop yields. Such agents
include pesticides (e.g., insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides), plant growth regulators, veterinary
drugs (e.g., nitrofuran, fluoroquinolones, malachite green, chloramphenicol), and bovine
somatotropin (rBST).
Environmental contaminants are chemicals that are present in the environment in which the food
is grown, harvested, transported, stored, packaged, processed, and consumed. The physical contact
of the food with its environment results in its contamination. Possible sources of contamination
and contaminants common to that vector include:[citation needed]

• Air: radionuclides (caesium-137, strontium-90), polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAH)
• Water: arsenic, mercury
• Soil: cadmium, nitrates, perchlorates
• Packaging materials: antimony, tin, lead, perfluorooctanoic
acid (PFOA), semicarbazide, benzophenone, isopropylthioxanthone (ITX), bisphenol
A
• Processing/cooking equipment: copper or other metal chips, lubricants, cleaning and
sanitizing agents
• Naturally occurring toxins: mycotoxins, phytohemagglutinin, pyrrolizidine
alkaloids, grayanotoxin, scombrotoxin (histamine), ciguatera, shellfish toxins
(see shellfish poisoning), tetrodotoxin, among many others.
Hair in food
There is a heavy stigma attached to the presence of hair in food in most societies. There is a risk
that it may induce choking and vomiting, and also that it may be contaminated by toxic
substances. Views differ as to the level of risk it poses to the inadvertent consumer.

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In most countries, people working in the food industry are required to cover their hair because it
will contaminate the food. When people are served food which contains hair in restaurants or cafés,
it is usual for them to complain to the staff.
There are a range of possible reasons for the objection to hair in food, ranging from cultural taboos
to the simple fact that it is difficult to digest and unpleasant to eat. It may also be interpreted as a
sign of more widespread problems with hygiene. The introduction of complete-capture hairnets is
believed to have resulted in a decrease in incidents of contamination of this type.
Processing contaminants
Generated during the processing of foods (e.g., heating, fermentation). They are absent in the raw
materials, and are formed by chemical reactions between natural and/or added food constituents
during processing. The presence of these contaminants in processed foods cannot be entirely
avoided. Technological processes can be adjusted and/or optimized, however, in order to reduce
the levels of formation of processing contaminants. Examples are: nitrosamines, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), heterocyclic amines, histamine, acrylamide, furan, benzene, trans
fat, 3-MCPD, semicarbazide, 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and ethyl carbamate. There is also the
possibility of metal chips from the processing equipment contaminating food. These can be
identified using metal detection equipment. In many conveyor lines, the line will be stopped, or
when weighing the product with a Check weigher, the item can be rejected for being over- or
underweight or because small pieces of metal are detected within it
Pesticide residues in food

Pesticide residue is defined by the World Health Organization as “any substance or

mixture of substances in food for man or animals resulting from the use of a pesticide
and includes any specified derivatives, such as degradation and conversion products,
metabolites, reaction products, and impurities that are considered to be of toxicological
significance.”

There are more than 1000 pesticides used around the world to ensure food is not damaged or
destroyed by pests. Each pesticide has different properties and toxicological effects. Many of the
older, less costly (off-patent) pesticides, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and
lindane, can remain for years in soil and water.

The potential health effects of hazardous chemicals, such as pesticides, allow them to
be classified as: carcinogenic (can cause cancer), neurotoxic (can cause damage to the
brain), or teratogenic (can cause damage to a fetus).

The toxicity of a pesticide depends on its function and other factors. For example, insecticides
tend to be more toxic to humans than herbicides. The same chemical can have different effects at
different doses, that is, the amount of chemical to which a person is exposed. Toxicity can also
depend on the route by which the exposure occurs, such as by swallowing, inhaling or direct

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contact with the skin. The same chemical can have different effects at different doses,
which depends on how much of the chemical a person is exposed to. It can also depend
on the route by which the exposure occurs, e.g. ingestion, inhalation or injection. None
of the pesticides currently authorized for use on food in international trade are genotoxic
(damaging to DNA, which can cause mutations or cancer). Adverse effects from these pesticides
occur only above a certain safe level of exposure. When people come into contact with large
quantities of pesticide, the result may be acute poisoning or long-term health effects that may
include cancer and adverse effects on reproduction.
Some of the older, less costly pesticides can remain for years in soil and water. Many of these
chemicals have been banned from agricultural use in developed countries, but they are still used
in many developing countries.
Pesticides play a significant role in food production. They protect or increase yields and may
increase the number of times each year a crop can be grown on the same land. This is
particularly important in countries that face food shortages.

To protect food consumers from the adverse effects of pesticides WHO reviews evidence and
develops internationally-accepted maximum residue limits.
Pesticides are used to protect crops against insects, weeds, fungi and other pests.
Pesticides are potentially toxic to humans and can have both acute and chronic health effects,
depending on the quantity and ways in which a person is exposed.
People who face the greatest health risks from exposure to pesticides are those who come into
contact with them at work, in their home or garden.
Prevention and control
• Nobody should be exposed to unsafe amounts of pesticide.
• People spreading pesticide on crops, in homes or in gardens should be adequately
protected. People not directly involved in the spreading of pesticides should stay away
from the area while spreading takes place, and for some time afterwards.
• Food that is sold or donated (such as food aid) should equally comply with pesticide
regulations, in particular with maximum residue limits. People who use pesticides when
growing their own food should follow instructions for use and protect themselves by
wearing gloves and face masks as necessary.
• Consumers can further limit their intake of pesticide residues by peeling or washing fruit
and vegetables, which also reduces other foodborne hazards such as harmful bacteria.
Consumer Concerns About Hormones in Food
What are hormones?

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Hormones are chemicals that are produced naturally in the bodies of all animals, including humans.
They are chemical messages released into the blood by hormone-producing organs that travel to
and affect different parts of the body. Hormones may be produced in small amounts, but they
control important body functions such as growth, development and reproduction. Hormones can
have different chemistry. They can be steroids or proteins. Steroid hormones are active in the body
when eaten. For example, birth control pills are steroid hormones and can be taken orally. In
contrast, protein hormones are broken down in the stomach, and lose their ability to act in the body
when eaten. Therefore, ordinarily, protein hormones need to be injected into the body to have an
effect. For example, insulin is a protein hormone. Diabetic patients need to be injected with insulin
for treatment.
Why are hormones used in food production?
Certain hormones can make young animals gain weight faster. They help reduce the waiting time
and the amount of feed eaten by an animal before slaughter in meat industries. In dairy cows,
hormones can be used to increase milk production. Thus, hormones can increase the profitability
of the meat and dairy industries.
Why are consumers concerned about hormones in foods?
While a variety of hormones are produced by our bodies and are essential for normal development
of healthy tissues, synthetic steroid hormones used as pharmaceutical drugs, have been found to
affect cancer risk. For example, diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic estrogen drug used in the
1960s was withdrawn from use after it was found to increase the risk of vaginal cancer in daughters
of treated women. Lifetime exposure to natural steroid hormone estrogen is also associated with
an increased risk for breast cancer. Hence, consumers are concerned about whether they are being
exposed to hormones used to treat animals, and whether these hormones affect human health.
What are the different hormones used now by the meat and dairy industries?
There are six different kinds of steroid hormones that are currently approved by FDA for use in
food production in the US: estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, zeranol, trenbolone acetate, and
melengestrol acetate. Estradiol and progesterone are natural female sex hormones; testosterone is
the natural male sex hormone; zeranol, trenbolone acetate and melengesterol acetate are synthetic
growth promoters (hormone-like chemicals that can make animals grow faster). Currently, federal
regulations allow these hormones to be used on growing cattle and sheep, but not on poultry
(chickens, turkeys, ducks) or hogs (pigs). The above hormones are not as useful in increasing
weight gain of poultry or hogs
Are hormone-treated animals healthy?
There is a concern that because of increased milking, hormone-treated cows may become more
prone to infection of the udders, called mastitis. This could lead to more antibiotics being used to
treat the cows, in turn leading to more residues of antibiotics to remain in the milk. Frequent
exposure to antibiotic residues through milk or dairy products is a health concern for people over
the long term. In the normal body, there are bacteria that live in the gut and mouth and help in the
digestion of food in the gut. These “friendly” bacteria do not normally cause disease since the

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immune system keeps them in check. However, if the immune system is weak, these “friendly”
bacteria can invade tissues and cause infection. Bacteria in the normal body that come across small
amounts of antibiotics frequently, can develop ways to survive the antibiotics and become
“antibiotic resistant.” In cases of infection and illness, it then becomes more difficult to control
such resistant bacteria with the available antibiotics.

Some healthy diet tips that also help reduce exposure to hormones used in food production
While currently available evidence does not indicate a link between eating meat, milk or dairy
products from hormone-treated animals and any health effects, adopting some known healthy diet
habits (see below) can help reduce exposure to hormones used in meat, poultry and dairy
production.
•Eat a varied diet, rich in fruits, grains and vegetables.
•Eat meats in moderation, well cooked, but not charred.
•Eat more lean muscle meat, less liver and fat.

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