Conceptual Reflection 5

1 Feedback (Metcalfe, 2017)

Feedback objectively assesses a person's performance or conduct, identifying

strengths and weaknesses and offering steps to achieve goals. Assessments measure a

person's knowledge, skills, abilities, or performance in a specific field. It aims to

improve learning and instruction by determining student needs by measuring what

they know and can do. Assessment helps students focus, identify strengths and

weaknesses, provide feedback for development, and encourage metacognition.

Feedback plays a significant role in assessment because it provides the learner with

clarified learning objectives, guidance on improvement, and motivation and promotes

self-reflection.

2 Formative Assessment (Metcalfe, 2017)

Formative assessment is used throughout learning to identify strengths and

weaknesses, guide instruction, and alter learning tactics in real-time to improve

learning results. Active learning engages students in group discussions, problem-

solving exercises, and hands-on projects with an aim of deepening their understanding

and learning, thus, promoting deeper learning, better comprehension, and long-term

retention. The formative assessment facilitates active learning by giving students and

teachers real-time feedback on their learning practices.

3 Errorless Learning (Metcalfe, 2017)

Errorless learning is a teaching method that minimizes learning errors by

giving students the right answer; it is often used with students with cognitive or

learning disabilities but can also be used with other students. Personalized learning

caters to individuals' specific requirements, interests, and learning methods,

effective teaching must consider these. Therefore, personalized learning improves

education by meeting each student's needs. Educators can create a supportive, error-

free learning environment for each student by combining personalized learning with

errorless learning, which can boost student motivation, engagement, and performance.

4 Hypercorrection effect (Metcalfe, 2017)

The hypercorrection effect occurs when people are sure their inaccurate answer is

correct and remember rectified information. In education, students confident in their

inaccurate answers may recall corrections better. The learning activity related to the

hypercorrection effect is in-class activities that aim to engage students and help them

apply and practice what they are learning through group discussions, problem-solving

exercises, hands-on experiments, and debates. In-class activities give students an

interesting and dynamic learning experience that helps them grasp and master the

topic and build critical skills and competencies. The hypercorrection effect can assist

students in recalling corrected material and overcoming misconceptions in in-class

activities.

5 Prediction Error (Metcalfe, 2017)

The prediction error is the difference between an event or phenomena

expected and observed outcomes. Assignments assess and reinforce learning

objectives, give students practice and application opportunities, and stimulate deeper

engagement with the subject matter. Prediction errors can directly evaluate

performance in particular assignments and indirectly encourage learning and improve

performance in others. Assignments learning activity effectively achieves its goal

through learning assessment, reinforcement, critical thinking, and collaboration.

Error management training in the classroom can assist students in learning

how to handle academic mistakes. The class activity related to error management

training is classroom discussions, whose main goal is encouraging students to discuss

the course material with peers and professors. Classroom discussions can help error

management training achieve its aims by raising awareness of errors, offering an

opportunity to correct them, and encouraging ongoing learning and progress.

7 After-Action Review (AAR) (Metcalfe, 2017)

After-Action Review can help students evaluate their learning and improve,

especially after a significant project or exam; thus, helping students assess their

performance and suggest areas for improvement. The classroom activity related to

AAR is the group debriefing session, whose main goal is to encourage reflection,

conversation, and learning among the students. Therefore, group debriefings and

After-Action Reviews encourage student reflection, discussion, and learning.

8 Explanatory Questioning (Roediger et al., 2012)

Explanatory questioning uses open-ended inquiries to help the respondent

explain a topic or issue and seeks to clarify, broaden, or contextualize a response. The

learning activity related to explanatory questioning is problem-based learning, which

aims to engage students in real-world problem-solving. If an assessment does not

match learning objectives, problem-based learning may fail because it does not

challenge learners to demonstrate their comprehension of the topic or apply their

knowledge meaningfully; they may not perceive the value of the learning activity and

may not be encouraged to engage fully. Addressing this issue requires Carefully

developing and implementing PBL with clear learning objectives, relevant and
challenging challenges, proper assistance and guidance, and suitable assessment

procedures.

9 Retrieval Practice (Roediger et al., 2012)

Retrieval practice improves long-term memory by recalling knowledge

through self-quizzing, flashcards, practice tests, and other active recall methods.

Retrieval practice relates to assignments that aim to foster academic growth and

learning. If assignment instructions are precise, students may understand the work's

goal. In addition, assignments that are too easy or do not require learners to apply

their knowledge or skills may not challenge or motivate them. It is crucial to carefully

create and administer assignments with clear learning objectives and results, precise

and unambiguous instructions, appropriate levels of challenge, timely and

constructive feedback, and sufficient support and resources for learners.

10 Spacing (Roediger et al., 2012)

Spaced repetition, or scattered practice, is an excellent study method

that breaks up study sessions into shorter, more regular ones over time rather than

trying to memorize everything at once. The learning activity related to spacing is

assignments whose main goal is to allow students to apply classroom information to

real-world problems. Assignments fail to achieve their goals due to poor alignment

with the objectives, unclear instructions, and lack of effective feedback. According to

Roediger (2012), teachers can implement distributed practice by having students

review material from prior lectures at the start of each class and by having students

completing homework assignments that incorporate items from previous chapters.

11 Interleaving (Roediger et al., 2012)

Interleaving is a learning technique that involves mixing up different types of

time. Interleaving in discussion groups can help students build critical thinking and

communication skills across various topics. Group discussions encourage learning by

sharing ideas and opinions, which can foster creativity, critical thinking, and

communication. Group discussion fails to achieve its goals due to a lack of member

participation, preparation, and poor facilitation. Interleaving can address these

challenges by interleaving the topics to keep the discussions lively and interesting,

promoting participation from all students.

12 Test-enhanced Learning (Roediger et al., 2012)

Test-enhanced learning uses practice exams or quizzes to increase long-term

memory and retention, which requires students to recall and solidify information,

making it a valuable learning tool. The learning activity related to test-enhanced

learning is quizzes and practice tests, which aim at helping students recall and

integrate material to improve long-term memory and detect knowledge gaps,

strengthen links between topics, and improve recall. Practice tests or quizzes fail to

achieve their goals due to poor test design and over-reliance on memorization. Instead

of studying all at once, spaced repetition spreads out practice sessions. By spacing out

practice sessions, learners can strengthen connections and increase long-term memory

and retention.

13 Cognitive Theory of Learning (Roediger et al., 2012)

Psychologists use the cognitive theory of learning to study how people learn

and assume that observation, attention, memory, and reasoning cause learning. This

concept relates to reflection learning activity which involves reflecting on past

learning, identifying what was learned, and applying it to new situations to develop
metacognition. Reflection fails to achieve its learning objectives due to a lack of time,

opportunity, motivation, and support. According to the cognitive learning theory,

active involvement and reflection build knowledge; thus, structured exercises can help

students reflect on their learning.

14 Cultural Differences (Bias) (Press, (2018) as cited in HPL2, Ch. 7)

Diverse cultures have diverse values, beliefs, and actions, and these variations

can occur owing to different causes such as geography, history, religion, language,

ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic level. Research questions fail terribly in

achieving the intended goals due to poorly refined research questions, insufficient

resources, bias, and subjectivity. Research questions will need help in achieving the

goals because objective measures, data collection methods, and multiple perspectives

may contribute to cultural bias.

15 Self-regulated Learning (Press, (2018) as cited in HPL2, Ch. 7)

Self-regulated learning involves learners monitoring, regulating, and

controlling their cognitive and motivational processes and requires goal setting,

planning, organizing, monitoring progress, and adapting techniques. Self-assessment

involves evaluating one's performance or comprehension of a subject or skill by

setting objectives, tracking progress, and reviewing strengths and shortcomings. This

learning activity fails to improve the learner's learning outcomes due to a lack of

determination and commitment toward achieving the goal. Self-assessment fails due

to a lack of self-regulation during the learning process. The learner's ability to

monitor, establish goals, and change their learning tactics may be limited if they need

more self-regulation skills.

16 Collaborative Learning (Press, (2018) as cited in HPL2, Ch. 7)

and involves working in teams to solve problems, finish projects, or discuss and

analyze material. Multitasking is an ineffective learning activity that students usually

apply during collaborative learning, which results in cognitive overload and the

inability of learners to retain information. The intended goal that this learning activity

will fail to achieve is comprehension during collaborative learning. Multi-tasking is

an awful learning activity for achieving comprehension because it decreases

motivation, negatively impacting collaborative learning.

Metcalfe, J. (2017). Learning from errors. Annual Review of psychology, 68, 465–489.

Press. (2018). Read "How People Learn II: Learners, Contexts, and Cultures" at

NAP.edu. In nap.nationalacademies.org. The National Academies Press.

https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/24783/chapter/9

Roediger III, H. L., & Pyc, M. A. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve

education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational

practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(4), 242-

248.