MS 101

Discrete Mathematics Module 2

Chapter 1 – Sets

In 1880, the English logician John Venn At the end of the module, you will be able to:
devised a pictorial representation for sets and 1. illustrate sets and set operations using
their fundamental operations. This Venn diagram;
diagrammatic approach is considered very 2. describe Venn diagrams using set
convenient and essential in seeing mental relations and/or operations; and
images of abstract concepts like sets. These 3. learn and apply the inclusion-exclusion
visual representations are called Venn principle.
diagram.

1.4 Venn Diagram

In order to better understand set relations and set operations we now introduce Venn
diagrams. A Venn diagram is the pictorial representation of sets. Rectangles usually represent the
universal set while circles or any other convenient figures represent the subsets of the universal set.
The elements of a set are thought to be contained within the circle representing that set.

Example 24:
Describe the following Venn diagram is terms of 𝐴 and 𝑈. 𝑈
(a) Set 𝐴 is a proper subset of the universal set 𝑈.
or 𝐴
(b) If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, then 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 and there are elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈
and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.

Example 25:
Describe the following Venn diagram in terms of 𝐴, 𝐵, and
𝑈
𝑈.

(a) Sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are neither disjoint nor subsets of one 𝐴 𝐵

another. They do not make up the entire universal
set.
or
(b) There are elements 𝑥 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵. There are elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵.
There are elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴. There are elements 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵.

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Example 26:
Describe the following Venn diagram in terms of 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝑈
𝑈.
(a) Set A is a proper subset of B. Set B does not make
𝐴 𝐵
up the entire universal set.
or
(b) If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵. There are elements 𝑥 such that
𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴. There are elements 𝑥 such that 𝑥 ∉
𝐵.

Example 27:
Describe the following Venn diagram in terms of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and
𝑈
𝑈.
(a) Sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are neither disjoint nor subsets of one 𝐴 𝐵
another. Sets 𝐴 and 𝐶 are neither disjoint nor subsets
of one another. Sets 𝐵 and 𝐶 are neither disjoint nor 𝐶
subsets of one another. Sets 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 have
elements in common but they do not make up the
entire universal sets.
or
(b) There are elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶; elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶; elements 𝑥 ∈
𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶, and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵; elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶, and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴; elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, and 𝑥 ∉
𝐶; elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶; elements 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵; and finally elements
𝑥 ∉ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶.

Example 28:
Describe the following Venn diagram in terms of 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and
𝑈
𝑈.
(a) Sets 𝐴 and 𝐶 are disjoint. Set 𝐶 is a proper subset of 𝐵
𝐵. Sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are neither disjoint nor subsets of one 𝐴
𝐶
another. Sets 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 do not make up the entire
universal set.
or
(b) If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶, then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵. There are elements 𝑥 such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶. There are no 𝑥 such
that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶. There are 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵. There are 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵. There are 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴. Finally, there are ∉ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶

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Discrete Mathematics Module 2
We now use the Venn diagram to illustrate set operations.

Complement:
The shaded area of the figure represents the complement of 𝐴. If an element does not
belong to set 𝐴, then it must belong to the complement of 𝐴.
Symbolically, we write 𝐴′ = {𝑥 |𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}. 𝑈

Union of Sets:

The shaded area of the figure represents the union of

𝑈
sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. If an element belongs to either of the sets, it
will belong to their union. Symbolically, we write
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 |𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. According to the definition of the 𝑨
𝐴 𝑩
union of two sets, 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) if and only if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 or 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
That is,
if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)

Intersection of Sets:

The shaded area of the figure represents the

𝑈
intersection of sets 𝐴 and 𝐵. If an element belongs to both 𝐴
and 𝐵, it will belong to their intersection. Symbolically, we
write ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 |𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}. According to the definition of 𝐴 𝐵
the intersection of two sets, 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) if and only if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴
and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵. That is,
if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

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Discrete Mathematics Module 2
Difference of Two Sets:

The shaded area of the figure represents the 𝑈

difference of set 𝐴 minus set 𝐵. It is also the intersection of
set 𝐴 with the complement of 𝐵. Symbolically, we write 𝐴 − 𝐴
𝐴 𝐵
𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}. According to this definition of the
difference of two sets, 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 − 𝐵) if and only if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and
𝑥 ∉ 𝐵. That is,
if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 − 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 − 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 − 𝐵)
if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵, then 𝑥 ∉ (𝐴 − 𝐵)

Example 29:
Draw a Venn diagram and shade in the set (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′.

First, we shade in the set 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 with horizontal lines.

𝑨
𝐴 𝑩

Then we shade the complement (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ with vertical lines.

𝑨
𝐴 𝑩

(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′

(Observe that the horizontal lines were removed.)

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Discrete Mathematics Module 2
Example 30:
Draw a Venn diagram and shade in the set 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶).

First, we shade in set 𝐴 with horizontal lines, and then set 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 with vertical lines.

𝑈
𝐴 𝐵

The intersection of 𝐴 and 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 is the region where the horizontal and vertical lines intersect.

𝑈
𝐴 𝐵

𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)

This technique is convenient when the set in question is relatively simple. However, if the set
notation is more complex, then this method can become confusing. Let us examine the Venn
diagram for two sets. We see that when there are two sets, the diagram has four distinct regions,
which can be arbitrary numbered as follows:

𝑈
𝐴 𝐵
2 1 3
4

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Example 31:
Construct the Venn diagram and shade the set [(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐴)]′. Verify the result by the use of
a membership table.

Since there are two sets, A and B, we use the following figure:

𝑈
𝐴 𝐵
2 1 3
4

We have 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, 𝐴 = {1, 2} and 𝐵 = {1, 3}. First, we find 𝐵′ and then intersect it with
𝐴: 𝐵′ = {2, 4} and 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ = {2}. Next, we find 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴: 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴 = {1}. Now we unite 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ and 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴:
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐴) = {1, 2}.
Finally, we find the complement of it: [(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ) ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐴)]′ = {1, 3}. We shade in the appropriate
region, {3, 4}, below:

𝐴 𝐵
1
2 3
4

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Now we examine the Venn diagram for three sets. We see that the diagram has eight distinct
regions which can be arbitrarily numbered as follows:

𝑈
𝐴 2 𝐵
4 𝟏 6
3 5
𝐶 7
8

Example 32:
Construct the Venn diagram and shade in the set [(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶 ] ∪ [(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) ∪ 𝐴]. Verify the result by
the use of a membership table.

Since there are three sets involved, we use the following diagram:

𝑈
𝐴 2 𝐵
4 𝟏 6
3 5
𝐶 7
8

We have 𝑈 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, 𝐵 = {1, 2, 5, 6}, 𝐶 = {1, 3, 5, 7}. First, we
find 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {1, 2}. Next, we find (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶: (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶 = {2}. Now, we find 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 and unite
it with 𝐴: 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 = {1, 5} and (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) ∪ 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Finally, we unite (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶 with (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) ∪
𝐴: [(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝐶 ] ∪ [(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) ∪ 𝐴] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. We shade the appropriate region, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}:

𝑈
𝐴 2 𝐵
4 𝟏 6
3 5
𝐶 7
8

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Example 33:
Determine if the following statement is true: (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′.

We shall solve this example by the use of Venn diagrams. If the shaded region of one set
corresponds precisely with the shaded region of the other set, the two sets are equal.

Construct a Venn diagram for (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ :

𝐴
𝐴 𝐵

Now construct a Venn diagram for 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′:

𝑨
𝐴 𝑩

Comparing the Venn diagrams, we say, (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ ≠ 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′.

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1.5 Counting Principle of Finite Sets

A set is said to be finite if it contains exactly 𝑚 distinct elements where 𝑚 denotes some non-
negative integer. Otherwise, a set is said to be infinite. The notation 𝑛(A) or |𝐴| will denote the
number of elements in a finite set A.
First, we begin with a special case.

Lemma 1: Suppose A and B are finite disjoint sets. Then A ∪ B is finite and
𝑛(A ∪ B) = 𝑛(A) + 𝑛(B)

Special Cases of Disjoint Unions

There are two special cases of disjoint unions which occur frequently.

(1) Given any set A, then the universal set U is the disjoint union of A and its complement A’.
Thus, by Lemma 1,
𝑛(U) = 𝑛 (A) + 𝑛(A’)

Accordingly, bringing 𝑛 (A) to the other side, we obtain the following useful result:

Theorem 1: Let A be any set in a finite universal set U. Then

𝒏(A’) = 𝒏(U) – 𝒏(A)

For example, if there are 20 male students in a class of 35 students, then there are 35 – 20 =
15 female students.

(2) Given any sets A and B, we show that A is the disjoint union of A – B and A ∩ B.
See figure below:

𝐴
𝐴 𝐵

𝐴−𝐵 𝐴∩𝐵

Thus, Lemma 1 gives us the following useful result.

Theorem 2: Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then

𝒏(A – B) = 𝒏(A) – 𝒏(A∩B)

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For example, suppose an archery class A contains 35 students and 15 of them are also in
blowing class B. Then
𝑛(A – B) = 𝑛(A) – 𝑛(A ∩ B) = 35 – 15 = 20.
That is, there are 20 students in the class A who are not in class B.

Inclusion-Exclusion Principle
There is also a formula for 𝑛(A ∪ B) even when they are not disjoint, called the inclusion-
exclusion principle. Namely,

Theorem 3: Suppose A and B are finite sets. Then A ∩ B and A ∪ B are finite, and
𝒏(A ∪ B) = 𝒏(A) + 𝒏(B) – 𝒏(A ∩ B)

That is, we find the number of elements in A or B (or both) by first adding 𝑛(A) and 𝑛(B)
(inclusion), and then subtracting 𝑛(A ∩ B) (exclusion) since the elements in A ∩ B were counted
twice.

We can apply this result to get a similar result for three sets.

Corollary 1: Suppose A, B, and C are finite sets. Then A ∪ B ∪ C is finite and

𝒏(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 𝒏(A) + 𝒏(B) + 𝒏(C) – 𝒏(A ∩ B) – 𝒏(A ∩ C) – 𝒏(B ∩ C) + 𝒏(A ∩ B ∩ C).

Example 34:

Consider the following data among 110 students in a college dormitory:

30 students are on a list A (taking Accounting),
35 students are on a list B (taking Biology),
20 students are on both lists.

Find the number of students: (a) on list or B, (b) on exactly one of the two lists, (c) on neither list.

(a) We seek 𝑛(A ∪ B). By Theorem 3,

𝑛(A ∪ B) = 𝑛(A) + 𝑛(B) – 𝑛(A ∩ B) = 30 + 35 – 20 = 45
In other words, we combine the two lists and then cross out the 20 students’ names which
appear twice.

(b) List A contains 30 names and 20 of them are on list B; hence, 35 – 20 = 15 names are only
on list B. That is,
𝑛(A − B) = 𝑛(A) – (A ∪ B) = 30 – 20 = 10
Similarly, list B contains 35 names and 20 names are on list A; hence 35 – 20 = 15 names
are only on list B. That is,
𝑛(B − A) = 𝑛(B) – (A ∪ B) = 35 – 20 = 15
Thus, there are 10 + 15 = 25 students on exactly one of the two lists.

(c) The students on neither the A list nor the list B form the set A’ ∩ B’.
𝑛(A’ ∩ B’) = 𝑛(U) – 𝑛(A ∪ B) = 110 – 45 = 65.
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Venn diagram:
𝑈
𝐴 𝐵
10 20 15
65

Example 35:

Considering the following data for 120 mathematics students:

65 study French, 20 study French and German

45 study German, 25 study French and Russian
42 study Russian, 15 study German and Russian,
8 study all three languages

Let F, G, and R denote the sets of students studying French, German, and Russian,
respectively.

(a) Find the number of students studying at least one of the three languages, i.e.
find 𝑛(F ∪ G ∪ R).

𝑛(F ∪ G ∪ R) = 𝑛(F) + 𝑛(G) + 𝑛(R) – 𝑛(F ∩ G) – 𝑛(F ∩ R) – 𝑛(G ∩ R) + 𝑛(F ∩ G ∩ R)

= 65 + 45 + 42 – 20 – 25 – 15 + 8 = 100

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(b) Find in the correct number of students in each of the eight regions of the Venn diagram
of:

𝑈
𝑈
𝐹 𝐺
𝐹 12 𝐺
28 𝟖 18
𝑅 17 7
𝑅10
20

Using 8 study all three languages and 100 study at least one language, the remaining seven
regions of the required Venn diagram are obtained as follows:

15 – 8 = 7 study German and Russian but not French,

25 – 8 = 17 study French and Russian but not German,
20 – 8 = 12 study French and German but not Russian,
42 – 17 – 8 – 7 = 10 study only Russian,
45 – 12 – 8 – 7 = 18 study only German,
65 – 12 – 8 – 17 = 28 study only French,
120 – 100 = 20 do not study any of the languages.

(c) Find the number 𝑘 of students studying exactly: (1) exactly one language, (2) exactly two
languages.
(1) 𝑘 = 28 + 18 + 10 = 56
(2) 𝑘 = 12 + 17 + 7 = 36

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