Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech ) (Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators)._.Page no. (1-3) ——eeeoooaananauepuoaneaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee Unit >» 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS GQ._ Define Mechatronics. Mechatronics word was used in Japan in late 1960 s Q Definition : The field of mechatronics deals with synergetic combination of Mechanical, Electronics, Computer technology and Control Engineering in the development of electromechanical products through integrated design approach, (1anFig. 1.1.1 : Domains of Mechatronics 1.1.1 Key Elements of Generic Mechatronics System UQ. _Drawa suitable block diagram and list the key elements in 2 generic Mechatronics system. ELEC | (MECHANICAL ELEMENTS ELECTRONICS sensors || actuators ‘SIGNAL + Solenoid CONDITIONERS| ves = Digital Analog jervo motors] hardware = Displacement. |] -DC Motors ~Power sensors Stepper Electronics -Flow sensors || Motors = Micro controler Proximity -PLC ‘COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY Digtal Architecture - Software Engg Control Engg Automation ~Aifical Inteligence ((a2)Fig. 1.1.2 : Generic Mechatronies System (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 21-22) (PS-78) fech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venture(Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators). 1. Sensors ‘They convert mechanical energy in electrical form. sn gauges, thermocouples, mation sensors, proximity sensor, flow sensors, switches Eg.st 2 Actuators Electrical actuators (also called as transducers) convert electrical energy to mechanical motion or action. Egg. Solenoid valve, D.C. motors, servomotors, stepper motor, Mechanical actuators convert mechanical energy to electric energy. . 3. Signal conditioner “The analog signals generated from sensors and actuators are continuous, time varying and may not be in suitable form, Also they are in millivolt range, distorted and weakened. ‘© Signal conditioners have 4 important roles to condition these signals. i, Isolation and impedance conversion, i, Noise reduction. iii, Amplification. iv, Linearization and conversion. 4, Digital Architecture «Microprocessor based digital controllers are commonly used in measurement and control industry © Conventional analog controller has been replace SP_¥ with computer software executing algorithms, © Digital architecture helps in adaptive self tuning, multivariable control with the help of microcontroller based system. ((a3)Fig. 1.1.3 : Digital Controller © Digital architecture consists of i. Computer and software ii, Interfacing devices. ‘YS. 1.1.3 Levels of Mechatronics System Modern days mechatronics systems can be divided in 4 categories. Modern days mechatronics 5} divided in 4 categori 1 (i) Stand alone {ip Sensor Micro control_] } [ (li) Large Mig. ! [vp anificalintetigence 109, Washing Machine ‘Actuator Distribution ||” e.g. Robotic assembly] ' | °” e.g. Humanoid Robots 6.9. Wire aircraft t line t (WA Fig. Lt. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e, academic year 21-22) (P5-78) rech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech. Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators) 1.1.2 Key Elements of Mechatronics Systems UQ. Discuss the role played by following four elements ina Mechatronics system, 1. Sensors They convert mechanical energy in electrical form. E.g. strain gauges, thermocouples, motion sensors, proximity sensors, flow sensors, switches. 2 Actuators Electrical actuators (also called as transducers) convert electrical energy to mechanical motion or action. Ex. Solenoid valve, D.C, motors, servomotors, stepper motor, Mechanical actuators convert mechanical energy to electric energy. 3. Signal conditioner ‘* The analog signals generated from sensors and actuators are continuous, time varying and may not be in suitable form. Also they are in millivolt range, distorted and weakened. * Signal conditioners have 4 important roles to condition these signals. i, Isolation and impedance conversion, ii, Noise reduction. iii. Amplification, iv. Linearization and conversion. 4. Digital Architecture * Microprocessor based digital controllers are commonly used in measurement and control industry. '* Conventional analog controller has been replace $P 4! with computer software executing algorithms. ‘* Digital architecture helps in adaptive self tuning, multivariable control with the help of, ‘microcontroller based system. (aD Fig. 1.3 : Digital Controller © Digital architecture consists of i, Computer and software fi, Interfacing devices. % 1.1.3 Levels of Mechatronics System ‘Modern days mechatronics systems can be divided in 4 categories, ‘mechatronics System can be divided in 4 categ () Stand alone | [Sensor Micro control | | [ (i) Large Mig. 1 [i Anica! intatigence ©. Washing Machine | ;| Actuator Distribution} ; | e.g. Robotic assembly! | | "e.g. Humanoid Robots iL. Wire airat |! ' (ang. LL academic year 21-22) (P5-78) ‘Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech (troduction lo Mechatronice, Sensors and Actualors)..Page no. (1-6) mt Me 4 Advantages, Disadvantages and Examples of Mechatronics Systems ol + Due to application of microcontroller units and computer peripherals such as video graphic cards, disk drive controllers, ‘mechatronics systems have many advantages in present days {Increased functionality of systems, Ui, Replacement of mechanical parts by electronics. ii, Very litle interface of operators, iv. High reliability and ety, ¥. Application of artificial intelligence. Vi. Controlting of system become easier. + There are some disadvantages of mechatronics, i, The initial cost is very high. i,_Repairing and maintenance is complicated. iii, Designing is complicated, iv, Replacement is difficult i, Digital cameras ii, Servo motors tii, iv. Microwave ovens ¥. Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) vi, Electronic Fuel Injection |. CNC MIC tools, Robots viii, Room air conditioner ix. Aircraft flight control system x. Photocopier SS > 1.2 MEASUREMENT CHARACTERISTICS, * We se various actuators and sensors in mechatronics system for measurement. The characteristics of the Sensors/actuators affect their measurement capabilites and suitability foreach applic on, * — Measurement characteristics are classified into two types * = i, Static characteristics ii, Dynamics characteristics 1.2.1 Static Characteristics { UQ Uist and define and four static characteristics for accessing the measurement performance of « capacitive proximity § EE sensor. * Static characteristics are used to measure static Process conditions. * All static performance characteristics are obtained from calibration process, 1. Range 1s he difference between minimum and maximum values of the quantity measured by the instrument, 8 LVDT has linear range of 0.005 10 4 25 inch range. (SPPU - New Sylabus wef academic year 21-22) (P5-78) Wlrech.eo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Se 2 Span Itis the difference between the maximum and minimum values of the quantity to be measured. Span = Maximum value of input ~ Minimum value of input 3. Error The deviation of true value from the desired value is called error. Error = Measured value - True value 4 Accuracy It is defined as the ability of an instrument to respond to a true value of a measured variable under the reference conditions. It refers to how closely the measured value agrees with the true value. The accuracy of an instrument can be specified in three ways, i. Percentage of full scale reading : If instrument has uniform scale, then accuracy is measured as % of full scale, Measured value — True value ercentage of full scale =" Viaximum scale vale ii, Percentage of true value : This is the most accurate method to specify accuracy. Hue wie, Measured value - True value Percentage of full-sewle = Frere iil, Percentage of span : Accuracy can be specified as the percentage of span. 5. Precision © Itis defined as the degree of exactness for which instrument is designed. * It refers to the repeatability or consistency of measurements when the measurements are carried out under identical conditions at short interval of time. | courate and Precise Precise not Accurate Neither Accurate ror Precise | | 14 | ave, a 2 Avealue | enor Value | | PA Eee eee True Value y T + [Frequency Let T @ ® © (W49)ig. 1.2.1: Precision and accuracy 6. Sensitivity * Itis defined as the ratio of magnitude of the output signal to the input signal. ‘+ Italso indicates the smallest change in the measured variable to which the given instrument responds, Output Sensitivity Taput (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) [el recneo Pubications..A SACHIN SHAH Venture- * Static sensitivity is defined as the slope of the calibration curve, 9 10. (SPPU - New Syllabus we academic year 21-22) (PS-78) Sensitivity = ape anal © Sensitivity doesn’t have any unique unit as unit of output and input changes, the unit of sensitivity is varying, e.g. mm per ohm, ohm per degree Celsius etc. © If the instrument has number of elements connected in series with static sensitivity $,, S:, Ss, then overall sensitivity is given as S = 8,x8,x8, Hysteresis * tis defined as the difference in the output for a given input when this value is approached from the opposite direction. ‘+ In mechanical instruments, loading and unloading ccurves do not coincide due to hysteresis error. + Hysteresis is observed in other processes also e.g. electrical, physical and chemical. ‘© The Fig. 1.22 indicates the deviation of unloading from the loading. It is mainly caused by stiction internal friction) or hysteresis damping. (iasFig, 1.2.2 : Hysteresis © To reduce or eliminate hysteresis error, we take observations in ascending and descending order and then calculate the arithmetic mean value. Repeatability + It is defined as the ability of the instrument to produce the same output for the same input under the same operating conditions. + Repeatability is specified for given period of time. + There is another term called as reproducibility which is specified on broad time horizon. Reproducibility © It is defined as the ability of the instrument to produce the same output for the same input, under the same operating conditions over broader time period. © Itmay be defined by following 2 terms, i. Stability : The mean reading of the instrument must get repeated at different interval of time. fi, Constaney : For constant input and varying other conditions in specific limits, output must get repeated. Resolution ‘© Itis the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument respond. * tis also defined as minimum and nonzero value of input signal to show appreciable increment of output. »|Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU (Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators), 11. Threshold © — Itis defined as the minimum value of input below which no output can be detected. ‘© Threshold is nonzero quantity due to internal friction, inertia of moving parts ete. 12, Drit ‘© The variation of change in output for a given input over a period of time is called as drift. i. If the output is observed at zero input, then its called as zero drift. ii, If there is change in output due to change in sensitivity of the instrument (like sensitivity to temperature, Pressure etc.) then its called as sensitivity drift. + The drift may be expressed as the percentage of full range output. 13. Dead zone Itis the largest range of values of a measured variable to which the instrument doesn’t respond. 14. Dead time Its the time taken by the instrument to begin its response for change in measured quantity. 15. Backlash It is the Jost motion or free play of the mechanical elements e.g. gears, linkages. m1 .2 Dynamic Characteristics ‘+ The behaviour of an instrument under the time varying input-output conditions is called the dynamics response. ‘* The analysis of dynamic response is called ‘dynamic analysis’ * Main dynamic characteristics are as follows. 1. Response time : It is defined as rapidity with which a measurement system responds to change in measured quantity. 2, Time constant : It is the measure of how fast a transducer react to change in input. 3. Rise time [90% or 95%] isthe time taken forthe output to rise to some specified percentage of the steady state output 4. Settling time : It isthe time taken forthe output to settle within some percentage. ‘DA 1,3. SENSORS * Asensor is an element in a measurement system that acquires a physical parameter and changes it into a signal. ‘* Various sensors are used to measure physical quantities such as position, force, distance, acceleration etc. strain, vibration, temperature, ‘* In most of the instruments, the signals are processed electronically. Hence for signal conversion in electronic form is done by Transducers, (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (PS-78) Tech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech, {Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators)....age no, (1-9) Unit onl * Many electrical transducers work on 3 passive quantities viz, Resistance, Voltage, capacitance, Optical ‘costes Potentiometer -—ohmmeter [Resistance [oxygen Light sensor [+ Seismometer Srrain gauge |-Vot metor temp detector | sensor Photocall ‘Acoustic wave Pressure gauge LGaivanometer Thermocouple '—CO, detector L_ infrared sensor sonacr Accelerometer ~ Ancalererreter Flow meter Humidity sensor (unig. 1.3.1 >> 1.4 MOTION SENSORS a ENCODER (Absolute and Incremental) a) Absolute Encoder © Absolute encoders have a unique code for each shaft eee, position Oise + Every position of an absolute encoder is distinctive, 05" ~ 10 ight eae detecors + The absolute encoder interprets @ system of coded shat Intertace siecrons tracks to create position information where no two [Absolute optical encoder intemal construction Positions are identical © Another feature is that absolute encoders do not lose position whenever power is switched off. = Construction and working © An absolute encoder (parallel absolute encoder) has multiple code rings with various binary weightings which provide a data word representing the absolute position of the encoder within one revolution. © A multi-tum absolute rotary encoder includes additional ‘code wheels and gears. * A high-resolution wheel measures the fractional rotation, and lower-resolution geared code wheels record the ‘number of whole revolutions of the shaft. conn Fig. 14 (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 21-22) (PE-78) Tech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. § Mech) (ntroducton to Mechatronic, Sensors and Actustors)._Paye no. (1-10) "© Applications (1) True position is not lost if power is lost or the system moves while power is switched off. (2) A continuous reading of position is not needed. (3). This is specifically useful in those applications, such as satellite-racking antennas, where position verification is key, b) Incremental Encoder (1) An incremental encoder produces equally spaced pulses from one or more concentric tracks on the code dise. 2) Each tracks has its own light beam, *® Construction and working (2) It consists of a pair of opaque discs, one is fixed and other is rotating and with pattern of windows on it (2) Each track has its own light beam, in Fig. 1.3.6 track dis care shown: So it needs 3 led sources and 3 light sensors, (3) When the disc rotates a light beam is alternately transmitted and stopped. The pulse get generated and counter counts the reading. (4) The number of pulses represent the angular displacement of the dise. vo O Light sensors "= Applications o o SS srr (2) Assembly Machines (2) Packaging Qa ) (3) X and Y Indication Systems (4) Printers (S) Testing Machines (6) CNC Machines Fixed dise 7) Robotics (8) Labeling Machines (9) Medical Equipment (10) Textiles (11) Drilling Machines (12) Motor Feedback "Advantages cf an Encoder (1) Highly reliable and accurate (2) Low-cost feedback (3) High resolution (4) Integrated electronics (a2Fig. 1.4.2: Basic incremental encoder (5) Fuses optical and digital technology (6) Can be incorporated into existing applications (7) Compact size *@ Disadvantages of an Encoder (1) Subject to magnetic or radio interference (Magnetic Encoders) (2). Direct light source interference (Optical Encoders) (3) Susceptible to dir, oil and dust contaminates (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e academic year 21-22) (PS-78) fech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech.) Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators)....Page no. (1 4) Unit 1.4.2 LIDAR (Laser Imaging, Detection, and Ranging) I * Tris a method for determining variable distance by targeting an object with a laser and measuring the time for the ol reflected light to retur to the receiver. * Lidar can also be used to make digital 3-dimensional representations of areas on the earth's surface and ocean bottom, ue to differences in laser return times, and by varying laser wavelengths. * Lidar sometimes is called 3D laser seanning, a special combination ofa 3-D seanning and laser scanning "© Components used In LIDAR (2) Laser Beams : For non-scientific applications wavelength range is 600-1000 nm, For military application its 1550 nm. * “9 (1am =10” m) (2) Phased Array : [It illuminate any direction by using a microscopic array of individual antennas. (9) Photodetector : Main photodetector technologies used in lidar are solid state photodetectors, such as silicon avalanche photodiodes, or photomultipliers, (@ Position and navigation system : airplanes or satellites require instrumentation to determine the absolute position and orientation of the sensor. ® Sensor Distance, & rn * Lidar uses active sensors that supply their own illumination sig! source 4 + The energy source hits objects and the reflected energy is E | detected and measured by sensors, ss + Distance to the object is determined by recording the time ew between transmitted and backscattered pulses and by using z the speed of light to calculate the distance travelled. (9g. 143 © Applications (2) Agricultural © Agricultural Robots for seed and fertilizer dispersions, sensing techniques. + Itean create a topographical map of the fields. ‘* _ Itis used to monitor insects in the field, * Controlling weeds requires identifying plant species. This can be done by using 3-D lidar and machine learning (2) Archa logy © Planning of field campaigns, ‘* Mapping features under forest canopy, and overview of broad, continuous features indistinguishable from the ground. (3) Autonomous vehicles Use lidar for obstacle detection and avoidance to navigate safely through environments. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 21-22) (PS-78) lrocreo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech. (a) (Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors Actuators) 2 Lidar speed guns are used by the police to measure the speed of vehicles 1.4.3 Eddy Current Sensor speed limit enforcement purposes, * Eddy current sensors uses the principle of eddy current formation to sense displacement. * Eddy currents are formed when a moving or changing magnetic fleld intersects a conductor or vice versa. * The relative motion causes a circulating flow of electrons, or currents, within the conductor. These circulating eddies of current create electromagnets with magnet fields that oppose the effect of applied magnetic field. ‘+ The stronger the applied magnetic field, or greater the electrical conductivity of the conductor, or greater the relative velocity of motion, the greater the currents developed and greater the opposing field. + Eddy current probes senses this formation of secondary fields to find out the distance between the probe and target material YS 1.4.4 MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems) Accelerometer * MEMS accelerometer are micro electro mechanical systems that measure the static or dynamic force of acceleration. [tis an electromechanical device used to measure acceleration forces. Such forces may be static, like the continuous force of gravity or, as is the case with many mobile devices, dynamic to sense movement ot vibrations. © Working Principle ‘* All accelerometers work on the principle of a mass on a spring, It can sense even the vibration on a micro-scale. In this type of accelerometer, the changes in capacitance are detected instead of a change in resistance. Most of the mobile devices use this MEMS accelerometer. © According to Newton's law of Inertia the mass wants to remain stationary due to its inertia and therefore the spring is stretched or compressed, creating a force which is detected and corresponds to the applied acceleration, ‘© Itcan also measure static forces like gravity or dynamic forces which are in phones and laptop devices 5 MEMS Accelerometer Construction Vibration r Vibration \ Seismic mass: @) (0) Fig. 1.45 (SPPU - New Syllabus w..f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) jech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH Venture% 1.4.5 Position Sensors + These are used to determine the position of objects with reference to any reference point. ‘* In discrete manufacturing position sensors have following roles : i, Detect the presence ii, Identify the part ii Measure the size, position of part.(A) Potentiometer UQ. Uist and define four static characteristics for accessing the measurement performance of a rotary potentiometers. Een) A potentiometer can be used to convert rotary or linear displacement into a voltage. It is classified into follo% 1. Linear potentiometer 2._—_-Rotary potentiometer ig two types ‘ Working principle potentiometer * “The resistance of wire changes with its length”. The potentiometer consists of a resistance wire with sliding contact (wiper). The motion of wiper may be linear or rotary, ‘The wiper is connected to the object; whose displacement is to be measured. As resistance change with length, voltage is directly proportional to wiper position. (aNFig, 1.4.7 : Linear Potentiometer (ASFig. 1.4.8 : Rotary Potentiometer (SPPU- ( New Syllabus w.e academic year 21-22) (P5-78) & Tech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureSF Advantages of potentiometer 1. Simple and economic 2, Useful for large amplitude of displacements 3, Electrical efficiency is high 4, Simple in operation [Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) haractristcs for aceessing the measurement performance of @LVDT. List and define four stat truction and working LVDT ) and two secondary coils Itis electromagnetic transducer used to measure linear displacement,Cons ¢Itconsisis of an iron core, which can move freely within a primary (power coil + Number of wounds of primary and secondary coils are exactly same. ‘+The nature of wound is opposite in direction. +The secondary coils are connected in series configuration and equally spaced. + When the iron core is at centre, emf generated in primary and secondary coils are equ is zero. + When coil moves in any direction, the voltage in primary cols larger than secondary coils. The difference in voltage is proportional to displacement of core. al and opposite. The next voltage Input voltage ‘Secondary 1 Secondary2 Core Displacement (a1aFig. 1.49 : Construction of LYDT (anFig. 14.10: LVDT output characteristics © advantages of LVOT 1. Ithas typically high range of displacement ~ 1m, 2. _ Hysteresis losses are low. 3. Resolution upto 0,003 mm is possible. 4, Less power consumption. ‘Output is highly linear and accurate. D1 1.5 PROXIMITY SENSORS + They are pilot devices used to detect the object nearby without making any physical contact. © They come under noncontact type sensor. «Basically they work on optical, inductive or capacitive principle, Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venture (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (PS-78)((ntroduction to 1.5.1 Optical Proximity Sensors u * Optical sensors use a light source and light sensor. * An optical sensor used for detecting the presence of an objec is called as optical proximity sensor Light Emitting 8. photoelectric proximity sensor. Element + The ig. 15.1 shows the photoelectric opial proximity sensor. ag, © Light is emitted from light emitting element. TRacalver Reflected © It gets reflected by the target. seanareen ight lemen ‘* The light receiving element receives the light. Fig. 1.5.1 : Optical proximity sensor * Transmitter and receiver are contained in same housing, The reflected signal is processed to predict the exact location of the object, % 1.5.2 Inductive Proximity Sensors + Itconsists of a coil wound around a ferrous metal core, detector circuit and solid state output. * Due to supply voltage, oscillator produces high _O/@Ct (C = | + frequency field. If metallic object come neat to this (( X OAS, }- Ee field, eddy current get induced on the surface of Oscillator Detector. Output object. (ontaFig. 1.52; Inductive Proximity Sensor * The oscillator losses energy and voltage drop is detected by detector. % 1.5.3 Capacitive Sensor * Capacitive proximity sensors are used to detect conductive (metallic) and non metallic objects. ‘* Two capacitor plates are separated from each other by specific distance. TA =z ‘+ Depending on the distance, the capacitance gets changed. ' * One plate act as switch and other is the object whose proximity is to be Sensor tip detected. (1At4)Fig. 15.3 : Capacitive sensor aS ee )y 1.6 TEMPERATURE SENSOR © a a ee es oe 1.6.1 Pyrometer * Pyrometers act as photo-detector because of the property of absorbing ene! any wavelength. "gy and measuring of EM wave intensity at Based on the spectral range, pyrometers are classified into L-color pyrometers, Pyrometer 2-color pyrometers, and high-speed (SPPU-- New Sylabus wie academic year 21-22) (P5-78) [eal rect-Neo Publications. SACHIN SHAH Venture= Working of Pyrometer ‘The pyrometer has two basic components, (1). Optical System (2) Temperature Detector ‘The optical system will capture the energy emitted from the object. Then the radiation is sent to the detector, which is} very sensitive to the waves of radiation, The temperature of the Black body detector analyzed by using the level of radiation is directly (emperature detect Proportional to the object's temperature, (anFig. 1.6.1 5 Pyrometers are classified Into 2 types : (2) Optical Pyrometers (b) Infrared / Radiation pyrometers. %®_1.6.1(A) Optical Pyrometers * Optical pyrometers are capable of providing a visual ‘comparison between a calibrated light source and the targeted object’s surface. © When the temperature of the filament and the object's surface is the same, then the thermal radiation intensity caused due to the filament merges and into the targeted object's surface and becomes invisible. ‘+ The current passing through the filament is converted into a temperature level. unig. 162 ptical Pyrometer ‘3 1.6.1(B) Infrared / Radiation Pyrometers ‘+ Pyrometer also is known as an Infrared thermometer or Radiation thermometer or non-contact thermometer used to detect the temperature of an object's surface temperature, which depends on the radiation (infrared or visible) emitted from the object. + They are designed to detect thermal radiation in the infrared region, which is usually at a distance of 2-14 um. © Infrared pyrometers are made up of pyroelectric materials like Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), triglycine sulfate (TGS), and lithium tantalate (LiTaO3). (199)Fig. 1.6.3 (SPPU - New Syllabus w. wcademic year 21-22) (P5-78) Wlrecr.neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH Ventu®| Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem. § - Mech. introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators)....Page no. (1-17) wo @ @) @ a @) = a @Q) @ “@ () © oO (MOFig. 1.6.4 : Infrared Pyrometer Advantages of pyrometer Non-contact measurement of the temperature of the object. (For detection of infections such as COVID-19 etc.) thas a fast response time. Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object. Itcan measure different types of object's temperature at variable distances. Disadvantages of pyrometer Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different conditions like dust, smoke, and thermal radiation Applications of pyrometer To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater distance. In metallurgy industries In smelting industries Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the ballon Steam boilers to measure steam temperature To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials To measure furnace temperature. — SS m 1.7 FORCE / PRESSURE SENSORS eee Force is the physical quantity which produced stress and strain in the object. We have studied in physics and strength of Materials that, within elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain, — Hooke’s Law. Stress can’t be directly measured, hence indirectly from strain, the stress and force can be calculated, (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) fect-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU Mech. (|ntroduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators). 0. (1418) W 1.7.1 Strain Gauge The ratio of change in length to the original length is called strain. Resistance strain gauge is a transducer that exhibits the change in electrical resistance, when it is stretched or strained. © Ifa metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes because resistance or wire per unit length js inversely proportional to the cross sectional area fy R= eg specification indicates the relation between strain and change in resistance as below AR R GF x strain (GF = Gauge factor] Strain gauges are of three types : fou Connection’ leads (a) Bonded grid (b) Bonded helical —_(c) Metal foil gauge wound gauge (amnFig. 17.1 : Strain gauged cantilever beam Strain Gauges Lond (nog. 1.7.2 (AM@Fig. 1.7.3 : Wheatstone bridge In Wheatstone bridge, circuit with single active resistance gauge, (R,.), the unloaded output voltage is % 1.7.2 Plezoelectric Sensor © A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure changes in pressure, acceleration. temperature, strain, or force by converting them to an electrical charge. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) [Bl rech.Neo Pubicatins..a ‘SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech.) fotroducton io Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators). Page no. (1-19) © The prefix piezo is Greek for press or squeeze, Unit * The ability of piezoelectric material to convert mechanical stress into electrical charge is called a piezoelectric effect. Generated piezoelectrcity is proportional to the pressure applied to solid piezoelectric crystal materials SF Materials used (1) Plezoelectric ceramics (such as PZT ceramic) (2) Single-crystal materials (such as quartz) \ Piezoelectric effect is reversible effect means when we applied mechanical stress to the piezoelectric material we get some electrical charge at output, Same as when we feed electrical charge to the sensor it gets stretch or compresses. (Aig. 1.7.4; Piezoelectric Sensor - ‘© Applications (1) Production and detection of sound. (2). Generation of high voltage (3). Electronic Frequency generation (4) Microbalances (5) Ultra-fine focusing of optical assemblies (6) Everyday applications like cigarette lighters > 1.8 FLOW SENSORS ‘© In fluid mechanics, we have studied different flow measuring devices based on Bernoulli's equation, © In-venturimeter, orificemeter, pitot tube etc. Velocity of flow is measured with the help of change in pressure and using basic continuity equation. Q = AxV * One can get flow rate of the fluid. Also rotameter, vortex flow meter etc. are mechanical flow measurement devices. 2 1.8.1 Electromagnetic Flowmeter * Electromagnetic flowmeter is unique sensor which cause no head loss while measuring flow. Also if the liquid having solid suspensions it works well. © The pipe is lined with a non-conducting material and 2 mb electrodes are mounted with the non-conducting well. Electrodes © Electromagnetic coil surrounds the flow path with uniform magnetic field, © Faraday’s law - The voltage produced by a conducting fluid flowing through a magnetic field is directly proportional to } the velocity of fluid (w2nFig. 1.8.1 : Electromagnetic Flowmeter (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e. academic year 21-22) (P5-78) Tech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators)....Page no, © Advantages Electromagnetic Flowmeter 1, No head loss while measurement 2, Linear voltage output. 3, Noeffect of pressure, temperature and viscosity on reading. 4. Very slow velocity also can be measured accurately, tF Disadvantage Electromagnetic Flowmeter 1, Not suitable for hydrocarbons due to low conductivity. 2 Ultrasonic Flowmeter + Ultrasonic flow meter measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound waves along the fluid flow path, ‘© Fluid motion influences the propagation of these sound waves, which may then be measured to infer fluid velocity ‘© Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flow meters exist: A). Doppler and B) Transit-time. * Both types of ultrasonic flowmeter work by transmitting a high-frequency sound wave into the (=== fluid stream (the incident polse) and analyzing the =|, 8g received pulse, Fuid tow => A Doppler flowmeter bounces sound waves off of © 9 bubbles or particulate material in the flow stream, measuring the frequency shift and inferring fluid velocity from the magnitude of that shift. Fig. 182 5 Advantages of Uitrasonic Flow Meter 1, _It-does not block the path of liquid flow. ‘The ofp of this meter is different for density, viscosity & temperature of the liquid. 3. The flow of liquid is bidirectional 4, ‘The dynamic response of this meter is good. 5. The output of this meter is in analog form 6. Conservation of energy 7. Itis appropriate for huge quality flow measurement 8, _It is handy to fit and maintain 9. Versatility is good 10, ‘There is no contact to liquid 11, There is no leakage risk 12, There are no moving parts, pressure loss 13. High accuracy © Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flow Meter 1. It is expensive as compared with other mechanical flow meters, 2. Design of this meter is complex. 3. Auditory parts of this meter are expensive. 4, These meters are complicated as compared with other meters, thus it requires specialists for maintaining and repairing these meters (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (PS-78) [Bal rech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mach ) (introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators)... Page no. (1-21) 5. It eannot measure cement or concrete pipes one they rusted 6. It doesn’t work once the pipe contains holes or bubbles in it 7. Can't measure cement/concrete pipe or pipe with such material lining *@ Applications 1. These meters are used in wastewater and dirty liquid applications 2. These meters are used wherever chemical compatibility, less maintenance, and low-pressure drop are required. 3. These meters are used to measure the velocity of a liquid through ultrasound to analyze volume flow. 4. ‘These meters measure the disparity between the transit time of ultrasonic pulses which transmits with the direction of liquid flow 5. The applications of these meters range from process to custody flow 6. This is one kind of device for volumetric flow measurement for liquids as well as gases. 7. These are excellent alternatives for both vortex & electromagnetic flowmeters. %® 1.8.3 Hot-Wire Anemometer Pipe © The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for Hest, measuring the velocity and direction of the fluid. This Gas can be done by measuring the heat loss of the wire flow placed in the fluid stream. The wire is heated by electrical current. whic! * Construction: It consist of main two parts (1) Conducting wire (2) Wheat stone bridge. © The conducting wire is housed inside the ceramic body. The wires are taking out from the ceramic body and connecting to the Wheatstone bridge. The wheat 7 1 c stone bridge measures the variation of resistance. Rheostat Battery (iaiaFig. 1.83 5 Working The working is based on two types : (1) Constant current method (2) Constant temperature method > (1) Constant Current Method © The hot wire anemometer is kept in the fluid flow where here speed of the liquid flow can be calculated, From the wire, a constant magnitude level of current is passed. © The wheat stone bridge is maintained at a steady voltage level. When the wire is placed in the liquid flow, then + heat transfer takes place to liquid from the wire. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.o.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) ‘ech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH Venture : t© The heat has a direct relation to the wire’s resistance, when heat value reduces, the wire’s resistance also gers decreased. ‘© The wheat stone bridge calculates the change in resistance value that is equivalent to the liquid’s speed flow, > (2) Constant Temperature Method © In this method, the wire gets heated up by the electric ccurrent, the hot wire anemometer is Kept in the fluid flow where here speed of the liquid flow can be calculated, ‘+ When the wire is placed in the liquid flow, then heat transfer takes place to liquid from the wire. -The chang \ire’s temperature value also modifies the resistance value It is operated on the principle that the temperature level of the wire persists to be constant. The whole current that is required to bring the wire into the starting condition is similar to the gas speed flow. (asnFig. L84 Color Sensor - RGB Type A color sensor detects the color of the material. This sensor usually detects color in RBG scale. This sensor can categorize the color as red, blue or green. "F Working Principle of Color Sensor Three main types of equipment are used in color sensor. (1) A light source to juminate the material surface, (2) A surface whose color has to be detected and (3) The receivers which can measure the reflected wavelengths. © Colour sensors contain a white light emitter to illuminate the surface. © Three filters with wavelength sensitivities at 580nm, 540nm, 450nm to measure the wavelengths of red, green and blue colors respectively. Based on the activation of these filters, the color of the material is categorized. ‘© A light to voltage converter is also present in the sensor. The sensor responds to color by generating a voltage proportional to the detected color. caseFig. 1.8.5 5 Advantages of Color sensor (1) Ithelps in sorting of objects based on three color approach. (2) Automated system can be built using color sensors. (3) Powerful and large memory color sensor ICs are available at low cost. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) ¥ Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venture) () = a (2) @ Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem. {Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators). Itis easy to change or modify manufacturing setups without even re-programing the sensor device. U ‘This is beneficial in low volume manufacturing applications having frequent color variations. 2 Disadvantages of Color sensor ‘The approach is costly for small scale industries. It does color matching or identification in applications requiring only pass/fail output. Operating distance range of the color sensors are matter of concern. This needs to be choosen appropriately with rigorous testing in the setup. 1 Biosensors A Biosensor is a device, which converts a Biological signal into a more useful electrical signal. A Biosensor is an analytical device that detects changes in Biological processes and converts them into an’electrical signal Working of Blosensors The combination of biological sensitive element and a transducer will convert the biological material into a ‘corresponding electrical signal. Depending on the type of enzyme, the output of the transducer will be either current or voltage. Signal Conditioning Unit : If the output is voltage, then well and good. But if the output is current, then this current should be converted into equivalent voltage (using an Op-Amp based current to voltage converter). The output voltage signal is usually very low in amplitude and superimposed on a high frequency noise signal. Fig. 1.8.6 ‘academic year 21-22) (PS-78) ‘Tech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatroni lech.) (Introduction to Mechatronics, Ser (SPP I & 1,8.5(A) Enzyme * The term Biological process can be any biological element or material like enzymes, tissues, microorganisms, cells, acids, SSSA Tigger electrode etc, “ ‘+ Glucometers are a type Biosensors, which measure the concentration of glucose in blood. (wsoFig. 18.7 * They consists of atest strip, which collect a small sample of blood to analyze the glucose levels. This particular sensor implements the Electroenzymatic approach ie. oxidation of glucose. WS 1.8.5(B) ECG/EKG © Electrocardiography (Elektro-kardiographie) is the process of producing an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG). Itis a graph of voltage versus time of the electrical activity of the heartusing electrodes placed on the skin. ‘* There are three main components to an ECG: the P wave, which represents the depolarization of the atria; the QRS complex, which represents the depolarization of the ventricles; and the T wave, which represents the repolarization of the ventricles. ‘The theory is based on electromagnetics and divided into the four following points : (1) Depolarization of the heart towards the positive electrode produces a positive deflection (2) Depolarization of the heart away from the positive electrode produces a negative deflection (3) Repolarization of the heart towards the positive electrode produces a negative deflection (4) Repolarization of the heart away from the positive electrode produces a positive deflection * Thus, the overall direction of depolarization and repolarization produces positive or negative deflection on. | each lead’s trace. © Electrodes are the actual conductive pads attached to the body surface. ‘© Commonly, 10 electrodes attached to the body are used to form 12 ECG leads. Fig. 188 ‘%&_ 1.8.5(C) Electromyography (EMG) © — Electromyography (EMG) is an electrodiagnostic medicine technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. © EMG is performed using an instrument called an electromyograph to produce a record called an electromyogram. An electromyo graph detects the electric potential generated by muscle cells when these cells are electrically of neurologically activated. The signals can be analyzed to detect medical abnormalities, activation level, or recruitment order, or to analyze the biomechanics of human or animal movement. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) Tel rech-teo Pubicatons..A SACHIN SHAH VenueMechatronics (SPPU - Sem.5 ) Liroducton fo Mechatronics, Sengors and Actuators). Page no. (1-25) a @ @ @) In Computer Science, EMG is also used as middleware in gesture recognition towards allowing the input of physical action to a computer as a form of human-computer interaction. There are two kinds of EMG Surface EMG - Surface EMG can be recorded by a pair of electrodes or by a more complex array of multiple electrodes. More than one electrode is needed because EMG recordings display the potential difference (voltage difference) between two separate electrodes, Intramuscular EMG.- A monopolar needle electrode like a fine wire inserted into a muscle with a surface electrode as a reference; or two fine wires inserted into muscle referenced to each other is used in Intramuscular EMG. (WamnFig. 1.8.9 : Process of EMG Block Diagram ‘Applications Rehabilitation devices, (2) Prosthetic arm/leg control, Assistive technology, (4). Symptom detection for neuromuscular disorder. > 1.9 ACTUATORS a UQ._ Using suitable sketch explain construction and working of stepper Motor. (SPPU - New Syllabus ‘Sensors and transducers are the inputs to mechatronies system, Drivers and actuators provide the output ofthe system. ‘Actuators are considered as only energy conversion devices. Electric motors are the devices that receive electric energy and convert it into mechanical output normally in rotary motion, Most commonly we use DC motors, A.C. motors which we have studied in Electrical Engineering Subject. In mechatronics systems we will study stepper motor and servo motors in details 1.9.1 Stepper Motor Sees Itis a rotating machine which converts a D.C. voltage pulse into a series of discrete (stepped) rotations Each stepped position is an equilibrium position without further excitation. Hence itis ideal for digital control. ‘The torque produced is small it can be used for accurate positioning 8. Computer printers, robots, machine tools etc. Step angle = 360/Number of steps per revolution Stepper motors are broadly of 3 types Variable Reluctance type Hybrid type Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venture 18 academic year 21-22) (PS-78)* The number of poles taken in above diagram is 6, 60° each step. * Rotor has number of teeth of soft iron, always less than stator pole, hence taken = 4, | © The stator has number of poles which gets activated by series of ‘coils. © When 1 pairs of poles get activated, a magnetic Field is produced and rotor will align itself to give least magnetic reluctance. © Tomove the rotor, next pair 2 ~ 2 is switched and rotor lines up with those poles. pcre ‘Amplitude I CL [time (12H)Fig, 1.9.1 : Simple variable reluctance 30° step stepper motor (1a22)Fig. 1.9.2 : Pulse train for clockwise rotation %_1.9.1(B) Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor | * PM stepper motor operates on the principle of interaction Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor | between an electromagnetic field (stator) and permanent magnet Phase 1 | (rotor) | © Consider that phase 2 is lagging behind phase 1. ‘* Phase 1 is activated so north pole of PM is aligned with 5 pole if phase 1. In this case PM will be vertical. © Now phase 1 is off and phase 2 is activated. Then PM is aligned Phase 2 with phase 2 is horizontal direction. The rotation will be clockwise. If the rotations are to be reversed then phase 2 will lead phase 1 (1A23)Fig. 1.9.3 : Two phase PM stepper motor "= Applications rmanent Magnet Stepper Motor ‘© Computer and computer peripherals such as printers, CD ROM’s etc. *® —M/Ctools, CNC M/ CS, Robotic arms ete. ©¥ Advantages Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor 1. Error is minimum and non-cumulative. 2. Feedback loop not required, but it can work with analog and digital feedback. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) Tel tech-c Publications. SACHIN SHAH VertueMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. § - Mech.) Ainwoduction te Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuatrs)...Page no (1-27) 3. Precise positioning and repeatable movement. Unit 4. Rotation angle is proportional to the input pulse. 5. No need of gear reduction, as very low velocities can be generated. 5 Disadvantages Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor 1. Lowefficiency -2._Resilience problem 3. Not easy to operate at high speeds. ‘WB 1.9.2 Servo Motors ; these are suitable for use in a closed —loop control system. ‘© Servo motors are not specific class of motor + Itis a rotary actuator that allows precise control of angular position, velocity, acceleration with the help of position feedback sensors. " DC servomotor Ry L a : OE (u26Fig. 194 + D.C. Servomotor (uosPig. 19.5: DC servomotor Block diagram + InDC servomotor, both angular position and speed is measured and compared with the required output. ‘+ The error is compensated using analog or digital hardware. 5 A.C. Servomotor ‘> Itis two phase induction motor. ‘¢ It is used in low-power servo mechanisms. ‘+ Ithas two stator windings, displaced by 90° electrically. # Reference phase is excited by fixed voltage and control contri phase by variable voltage © When the motor is energized, it produced a resultant Flux. This flux induces voltage in the rotor causing current. © The interference of rotating magnetic field and rotor current produces a torque on the rotor. (12mg. 1.9.6 (SPPU-- New Syllabus we, academic year 21-22) (PS-78) [bl rech-eo Publications. SACHIN SHAH Venturea 3 a) (2) @ (4) = a) 1.9.3 Solenoids AA solenoid is used to convert electrical signals to mechanical ON/ OFF signals Ttis normally used as linear actuator. pci Construction and working Solenoids ; tis made up of a coil with a movable iron core YA (Ctr ere Core material is ferromagnetic cou When the coi is energized, the core i pulled inside the coil. Supply votage The amount of force by which the core is pulled, depends upon the ‘number of coils and the amount of current flowing in the circuit. (a2nFig. 1.9.7: Solenoid valve 1.9.4 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators 1.9.4(A) Hydraulic Actuator Electro-hydraulic actuators operate a piston with pressurized oil Hydraulic actuator system uses the concept proposed by Pascal ‘generally known as Pascal's Law or Pascal's Principle. Cylinder Pascal's Law states that the pressure applied at a specific point to 4 confined fluid in a container is transmitted equally in all the ison. directions within the fluid as well as the walls of the container without any loss. Hydraule supply ‘A motorized pump sends fluid from a reservoir through a control retar'ine valve(s) to opposite sides of a cylinder. The high power density of this system allows for high thrust, and fast operating speeds. Bin Electro-hydraulics tend to have a high initial price. It operates in a way that difference in pressure created at the two regions of the main cylinder leads to the occurrence of Sey translational motion of the piston. (aFig. 19.8 Advantages of Hydraulic Actuators Infinitely variable control of gear-ratio in a wide range and an opportunity to create the big reduction ratio, Small specific weight, i. the weight of a hydro actuator is in ratio to transmitted capacity. (0,2...0, 3 kg / kW) Opportunity of simple and reliable protection of the engine from overloads. ‘Small sluggishness of the rotating parts, providing fast change of operating modes, Disadvantages of hydraulic actuators Efficiency of a volumetric hydraulic actuator is a little bit lower, than efficiency of mechanical and electric transdusers (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) ‘Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venture(Introduction to Mechatroni Sensors and Actuator Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem_5 - Mech. (2) Conditions of operation of a hydraulic actuator (temperature) influence its characteristics. (3) Efficiency of a hydraulic actuator is alittle reduced. (4). Sensitivity to pollution of working liquid. "© Applications (1) Hydraulic jack (2) Hydraulic brake (3) Hydraulic ram (4). Used as sensor (5) Close loop velocity controlling (6) Highly precise positioning for heavy loads %_1.9.4(B) Pneumatic Actuators © They can utilize a cylinder, diaphragm, or rotary vane design. © Compressed air acts upon a piston or paddle to move it in one direction. A counterforce, consisting of a spring or a second ‘volume of compressed air, is applied to the opposite side of the piston or paddle to reverse or maintain position. © For industrial control, a pneumatic actuator requires positioning electronics, and an instrument air system. ‘© The major components of the pneumatic system: (2) Flow Control Valve (2) Diaphragm 3) Compressor (A) Storage Reservoir (5) Spring os —7 (1) Pneumatic actuators offer operation up to a wide temperature range , 0 to 200°C. (2) offers ease of construction and requires less maintenance, (3). These actuators are fire and explosion-proof. (4) Pneumatic actuators are less costly and low weight devices. 5 Disadvantages (1). The output power delivered by the pneumatic actuator is lesser than the hydraulic actuator (2) The internal machine parts are not lubricated due to the use of air asthe fluid (3) The accuracy of the produced output is somewhat less in low-velocity operations. (4) These work efficiently only when used for specific applications. %_1.9.4(C) Linear Electrical Actuators * A linear actuator is a device or machine that converts rotational motion into linear motion and linear movement. This can be done through electric AC and DC motors. }Tech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH Venture (SPPU - New Syllabus w. ‘academic year 21-22) (P5-78)electric actuators and generators (LEAGs) are electromagnetic devices which develop directly Short-traye Progressive /oscillatory linear motion. "Working Principle sant Co het ena * The motor and the screw, converts the rotary motion of the motor shaft into the linear motion of the piston rod of the electric linear actuator. * The variation in gear box helps in achieving various configuration of motions like inline actuation (spur gears) or perpendicular actuation (evel gears), (1) Rod type screw drive actuators (2) Rodless screw drive actuators (3) Rodless belt drive actuators (aan Fig. 1.9.10 Advantages (1) Electric linear actuators are of high efficiency, low noise, clean and zero-pollution in operation. (2) They doesn’t not require a compressor or a hydraulic station, only electricity required. (3) Electric linear actuators can reach precise positioning, hence it is perfect replacement of the pneumatic cylinder and the hydraulic cylinder. Applications | (1) Machine tool sliding tables (2) Penrecorders (3) Free piston power machines (4) Compressors, pumps (5) Electromagnetic valve actuators (6) Active shock absorbers, vibrators, 1.10 SELECTION OF SENSORS AND ACTUATORS Sensors are selected on following Factors : 1. | Natural of Output required from the sensor (Analog of digital) Nature of Measurement required Accuracy of sensors Cost of sensors Power requirement Speed response of sensors Linearity of sensors Reliability of sensors Maintainability of sensors =>) )>]" =) s Environmental conditions Signal conditioning requirement nture (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) [el recn.nco Publications. SACHIN SHAH Vo 4: py ot.it SOLVED EXAMPLES UEx.1.11.1 Following resistance values of a RTD were measured at @ range of temperatures. Determine measurement sensitivity, of the RTD. (Introduction to Mechatroni © sotn. : ‘Maximum output range (i) Sensitivity = (eo 10-0 . = TR CIsoy 70.033 volts! 10, (liyThe average resolution = 755 Resistance in@ | 307 | 314 | 321 | 326 = 0.0533 V/ turn of wire Temperature In °C | 200 | 230 | 260 | 290 ex. 1.11.5 (CURES N TENET RNTEN ‘A potentiometer which is used to measure the rotational © sotn.: position of a shaft has 850 turns of wire. The input range is ._._ change in output _ 314-307 Measurement sensitivity = Sse SO! = 355999 | ftom ~ 160" to + 160". The curpur range is trom 0 V t9 1 Measurement sensitivity = 39 = 0.2332/°C Vex 112 SEES) ‘A potentiometer measures angular position in a range of 0 - 270°. If the full scale resolution is 0.1%, determine the ‘smallest measurable change in angular position, Soin. : = 270-0=270° ot 100 Range of potentiometer Full scale resolution = 0.1% Smallest measurable) _ 0.1 \ (cage in ang Poston)" 160%*279= 027 Vex. 1.11.3 ‘A Wheatstone bridge requires a change of 10 ohms in the unknown arm of bridge to produce a change in deflection of 4 mm of the Galvanometer. Determine the sensitivity of the instcument. Son, Sensitivity thange in output ‘change in input Vex. 1.11.4 SEER) AA potentiometer, used to measure the angular position of a ‘motor, has 750 turns of wite, The input range is from ~ 150° to + 150°, The output range is from 0 ~ 10 volts, Determine (i) The sensitivity (i) The average resolution (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) 12 V. Determine. (i) The sensitivity in volts per degree. : (i) The average resolution in volts. © son, Output range (1). The sensitivity = ern Input range 0375 volu * 12 @) Theaverage resolution = 955 ame 01411 volts per turn UEx. 1.11.6| The output of an LVDT is connected to a 10 A ammeter through an amplifier whose amplification factor is 200. An ‘output of 3 mA appears across the terminal of LVDT when the core moves through a distance of 0.75mm. Calculate the sensitivity of LYDT and that of whole setup. The rilliammeter scale has 100 divisions. The scale can be read to I/ 10 of-divisions. Determine the resolution of the instrument in mm, © soin, (1). Sensitivity of LYDT = 3x10 0.75 Output = "Input =4x 10° Aymm =Car") «CSrtvor) A Sensitivity of instrument al = 200x4x10=0.8 A/mm range of ammeter (3). | Scale division = sje Spaivisions [al reci-eo Pubicaons..A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech, 1A, = A soa (Toe minimum cument) / Reaging of») /valveot beset ) = (iat «(Miva Measured = hxo12001a Minimum value of measurement (4) Resolution = “Sensitivity of instrument Introduction to Mechatronics, Sensors and Actuators) © son. : Wes an Slider position ‘ow Maximum range of pot * Via | 60. Vou = 366% 10 = 10/6 = 1.66 volts Bx 111.9: A strain gauge is mounted on 6 mm dana ~| steel bar in the axial direction. The gauge has a trae Pe 120.2. The gauge factor of strain gauge is 1.6. The moda up of elasticity of steel is 209 GPa, Determine the force ant) = Og 700125 mm on the bar when gauge resistance increases by 0.3 0. UE 1.11.7 SUEDE Bison: 7 Apstemometer measure a range of 00 150 depres. tthe | Gauge factor = 48/R smallest measurable change in angular postion is 0.15°, arta » 2.1 INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL COMMUNCIATION se ee Ene cee ‘© Signal communication is the method of conveying information of any type from one device to another one. ‘s Inmechatronics signal is in the form of data from transducers or sensors. 21.1 Data Acquisition Systems (DAQ) eC ea UQ, Draw suitable biock diagram and explain working of a DAQ system. Unit ‘* DAQs basically consists of sensors to measure different physical parameters from a process, hardware to convert into digital form. ‘© Digital data can be processed in microprocessor. © DAQs also have functions of : 1, Datastorage 2. Data Display 3. Data Transmission “Analog Signal —*} Transducer to Buffer |» Computer oe Digital (1cn)Fig. 2.141: Single channel DAQ (1ca)Fig. 2.1.2 : Multichannel DAQ DAQ consists of following parts (1). Transducer/sensor (2) Signal conditioners (3) Multiplexer (4) Sample and hold circuit _(5) Analog to Digital converter (6) Microprocessor / Computer > () Transducer/sensor ‘These transducers measure various physical parameters such as current, voltage, temperature, displacement etc. > Q) Signal conditioners + The analog signals generated from sensors are continuous, time varying and may not be in suitable form. + Also they are in milivolt range, distorted and weakened. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e,f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) [Blrech-neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech. (Ds tion and Signal Communication) 10, © Signal conditioners have and important roles to condition these signals, (i) Isolation and impedance conversion (li) Noise reduction (iii) Amplification (iv) Linearization > (3) Multiplexer © Its a multiple electronics switch which sends analog signal one by one to sample and hold circuit and A ty converter ‘© Each signal is transmitted for specific time period. It is done in sequence, > (4) Sample and hold circuit © Itisa device to convert analog signal to amplitude modulated pulse. * _Itholds the sampled pulse signal over specified period of time. > (8) Analog to Digital converter ‘© The signals generated are in analog form. It is required to convert them into digital form for further processing i ‘microprocessor. © Hence A to D converters are used. The digital output from A to D converters are interfaced with microprocessor, > © Microprocessor / Computer The microprocessor processes the data. It consists of averaging linearization, amplifier gain control, interface control, ‘%& 2.1.2 Types of Signal Communication © The need of data communication is within computer as well as outside computer. Data transfer within the ‘computer happens in a parallel way with 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit parallel data path. © For longer distance data transfer, serial communication is required. © Broadly signal communication is divided as shown in Fig. 2.13, (ooFig. 2.1.3, %®_ 2.1.2(A) Parallel Communication ‘The data transmitted within microprocessor or computer through 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit or 64 bit parallel data path it known as parallel communication * Tetpermits high data transmission rate. © Bach bit require separate path. © Itis used for short distance communication, (SPPU - New Sylabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) 'ech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH Ventu®Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech. {Data Acquistion and Signal Commurication)..Page no. (2-5) 1 advantag 1. Itgives high data transmission speed. 2. Data is transmitted with single dock pulse, 5 Disadvantag Method is expensive as it needs ‘n’ number of lines for ‘n’ bit data, ‘%®_2.1.2(B) Serial Communication Unit ‘© The data transmitted through single line, over longer distance, single bit at a time with fixed time interval is known as serial communication. ‘© Inthis type only one wire and two conductors are needed, ' Advantage Duc to single communication line, it become cost effective over long distance. ' Disadvantage ‘Comparatively slower than parallel communication. Serial communication is divided into two types as follows : ‘Synchronous communication _2._ Asynchronous communicat > (1) Synchronous communication * Insynchronous communication, the transmitter and receiver have the common clock signal. © Itis used for short distances. © In this method separate start and stop bits are not used in data transmission © Advantage Faster than Asynchronous communication. ‘syn. clock cr DATA [DATA {As transmitter and receiver required common clock signal, 4 = vg See} $e, ee DATA Flow ated and costlier than asynchronous SF Disadvantage ‘communications. (09g. 2.14 : Synchronous communication > 2) Asynchronous communication © In asynchronous communication, separate start and stop bits are added in data characters to inform the receiver, where the data starts and where it ends. ‘© Due to additional bits, the band width consumption is more in asynchronous method. * Also idle time (gaps) increases the time required to send the data. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e. academic year 21-22) (P5-78) (Bl rech.neo Pubications.. SACHIN SHAH Venture(SPPU - Som. 5 - Mech.) (Data Acquisition and Signal Communication). ...Page no. (2- = advantages 1. Costis less than synchronous communication, for sh > Deesn’t need clock signal between sender and receiver lorter distance communication. 3. This mode is easy to implement. 1 Disadvantage { ‘Start Less efficient and slower than synchronous ‘communication. eed it communication (resiFig. 2.1.5 : Asynchronous ‘communication. Sr.No. Parallel communication 1, | Data transmitted in linear fashion, one bit at tine Data transmitted simultaneously, as a single character 2. _| Slower data transmission speed Faster data transmission speed 3, __| Single wire to transmit data “Multiple wires, running in parallel, transmit data 4. __| Data transmitted over farther distance Data transmitted over shorter distance ‘5. _| Reduced noise and interference Tncreased noise and interference 6. _ | Economical data transmission Expensive data transmission 7, _| Example : USB, SATA Example : IDE connectors, PCI expansion ports > 2.2 SAMPLING THEORY In Digital Signal Processing (DSP), sampling is defined as conversion of a continuous physical quantity to a digital number that represents the quantity’s amplitude, 1e or space. Sample itis the value or setof values at any point in Um continuous signal e.g. A to D converter. Sampler: it isa subsystem or operation that extracts sample from & (Von Fig. 22.1: Analog signal (scnFig. 22.2 : Sample data smes the analog signal is measured and converted into digital form per unit time © Sampling rate : This is the number of ti ¢Itis measured in (Hz) Hertz. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) & Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Venture |atronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech. (Data Acquistton and Signal Communication)..Page no. (2-7) "=F ata Acquisition System (DAQ) Q Definition : Data acquisition system is the system which measures different physical parameters from a process and converts it into digital form with the help of digital hardware, stdres the data, transmits and display in suitable form. WS 2.2.1 Bit Wideh ‘© When an analog signal is converted to digital, itis represented in digital form by series of binary number, each of which represents the signal value in a point of time, The number of binary digits or bits in each word is known as the bit width, ‘+ Most Significant Bit (MSB) : The MSB is the bit in a multiple-bit binary number with the largest value. This is usually the bit farthest to the left, or the bit transmitted first in a sequence. For example, in the binary number 1000, the MSB is 1, and in the binary number 0111, the MSB is 0. ‘© Least Significant Bit (LSB) : The LSB is the bit position in a binary integer giving the units value, that is, determining whether the number is even or odd. The LSB is sometimes referred to as the right-most bit. 10010101 e.g. the sampling rate of 44, 100 Hz at 16 bits is used in standard audio CD quality "= Resolution ‘The analog quantization size (or resolution) Q is defined as the full scale range of the ADC divided by the number of, ‘output states. Q Where (Vou ~ Vnix) is range of the ADC, nis bit of ADC. e.g. An ADC with 8 bits, has 256 values range since 2° = 256. % 2.2.2 Allasing ‘A problem with using too low of a sampling rate is that aliasing might occur. Aliasing is when the acquired signal gets distorted by a sampling rate that is too small. In this example, the original is sampled so slowly that the sampled signal looks like a completely different frequency that the original signal. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 21-22) (PS-78) [el rech.Nco Publictons..A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU Fig. 2.2.3 : Allasing due to low sampling rate To avoid aliasing, there are two approaches © One is to raise the sampling frequency to satisfy the sampling theorem. ‘© The other isto filter off the unnecessary high-frequency components from the continuous-time signal ‘We limit the signal frequency by an effective low-pass filter, called anti-aliasing prefilter, so that the highest frequency left in the signal is less than half of the intended sampling rate. | %._2.2.2(A) Nyquist Sampling Theorem/Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem / Cardinal Theorem of Interpolation Theory EOS: EXE: ‘© The sampling theorem states that we need to sample a signal at a rate at Jeast twice the maximum frequency component in order to retain all frequency components in the signal. $3 ‘Where, UQ. Define : Sampling theorem UQ. State and explain Nyquist Sampling Theorem. f, is the sampling rate (frequency), fax is the highest frequency in the input signal, and the minimum required rate (2fnq,) is called the Nyquist frequency. ‘WS 2.2.3 Sample and Hold Circuit ample and hold circuit. © Inanalog to digital conversion, sample and Hold’ circuit plays important role. © It samples the analog signal at particular instant and holds the value for some specific time. ‘Sampling rate os J t ‘capacitor (1¢®)Fig. 2.2.4 : Sample and hold circuit (109Fig. 2.25 : Voltage follower op-amp circuit (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78) Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Ventu@Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech. Data Acquisition and Signal Communication)... Page no. (2-9) ‘© Analog input is supplied through a voltage follower circuit to solid state switch. * Metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET) switch is used in § and H circuits, © Switch closes on sample pulse and opens on hold pulse. These pulses are generated by the control logie unit of ADC cireui © Holding capacitor gets charged to the value of an analog voltage when the switch is ON © Voltage on the holding capacitor acts as the input to the voltage follower in the output circuit. ‘* It can hold the charge during the holding period without decreasing its value, since it has high output impedance 4 '* S/H circuits are zero-order hold devices, ie, they hold current constant for next time interval. a Dy 2.3. INTERFACING OF SENSOR/ACTUATOR TO DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM + A data acquisition system typically consists of sensors, measurement hardware and microcontroller with software ‘+ Acomputer based data acquisition system (DAQ) use parallel ports to input or output bytes of data, * Many peripherals may require more than one part as the data word of peripherals may be longer than CPU. YS 2.3.1 Interfacing Requirements (1) Electrical buffering / Isolation ‘* The sensor/actuators or other peripherals may operate at different voltage/current levels. © Hence to isolate DAQ microcontroller from the peripheral power system, we need to use buffering system. (ii) Handshaking / Timing control ‘© When the peripherals and DAQ microprocessor have different data transfer rates, special lines are used to control the timings of data transfer. This process is called ‘Handshaking’ ‘© The peripherals send “data ready” signal to the Input output section of CPU, then CPU reads and recognises data and vice-versa (ili) ADC and DAC conversion © Output of sensor/actuators is analog and needs to be converted to digital form. ‘© Also digital outputs may have to be converted to analog signals to operate an actuator. %_ 2.3.2 Component Interconnection and Impedance Matching © When two electrical components are interconnected, the requirements are : (i) Electrical loading of signal source should be reduced. (ii). Sufficient power is required for the operations of actuators, signal communication and conditioning * The above conditions are satisfied by impedance matching amplifiers or transformers. * In many DAQ systems, the output impedance of the output amplifier is made equal to the transmission line impedance. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e academic year 21-22) (P5-78) fech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. 5 - Mech (Data Acquisition and Signal Communication)... Page no, a D> 2.4 4 BIT SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION TYPE ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER 7 * An analog digital converter (ADC) i device that convert continuously physical quantity ta digital number represents the amplitude of quantity. © There are 3 types of ADC: (i) Flash type (ii) Ramp type iii) Successive approximation type ‘A 2.4.1 Successive Approximation ADC Baan Bee * tis most widely used analog to digital converter in mechatronics systems. * Fig. 24.2 shows the schematic representation of CG) successive approximation ADC. * The sampled analog signal from sample and hold circuit is given to OP-AMP which is working as comparator. * Initially registers are cleared, they all have zero bits. * Start conversion control (SC) signal is sent to control logic unit by microcomputer. * No new data will get accepted until conversion complete (cc) signal sent by control unit, * First approximation beings with clock pulse. The CLU will set the MSB of temperature resister to 1 and all other units 0. * It is supplied to DAC; the output of DAC will be compared with analog input. If (Analog input - DAC output) > 0, then MSB = 1 is set. If result is < 0, then MSB =0. * The same process is repeat, till all the bits are set. * Typically, conversion time is ‘n’ cycles since 1-bit conversion is done in I cycle, Fig. 24.1 © As analog input has infinitesimal resolution and the digital output has 1 LSB resolution the error is called 3 quantization error. ‘Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH Vent | (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.f academic year 21-22) (P5-78)(orig. 2.4.2 q = Advantages 0 1. _Itis faster than other ADC converters in the market. 2. Power consumption is low, 3. Design is compact. © Disadvantage High cost compared to other converters. > 2.5 DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS (DAC) ! uQ Drawa suitable diagram and explain the working of 4-bit R-2R type Digital to Analog converter. © Digital to analog converters convert digital input in analog output. In lots of applications, the digital output of microcomputer is to be converted into analog quantity, useful to drive small motors, actuators, S.V. ete. ‘* The output voltage of DAC is given by, V., b, Vv. Flat 5 +t Ba] ‘cale constant Where V, = reference voltage ; K,=: %& 2.5.1 4 Bit R-2R Ladder Type DAC (ern)Fig. 2.5.1 : 4 bit R-2R Indder DAC ‘© Fig. 2.5.1 shows R-2R register ladder network. This circuit uses registers of two types only having value R and 2R. * Each digital input b,, by, by, by adds in the weighted contribution to analog output. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 21-22) (P5-78) ‘Tech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureCommunication) Mech. (Data Acquisition Mechatronics (SPPU Equivalent output voltage is given by Val by, by, Mr [ned + ey + This network has some unique properties. (i) The circuit is easily scalable to any desired number of bits. (ii) Easy and accurate fabrication and integration is possible due to only 2 registers ar re used. (Gli) Output impedance is equal to R, hence signal processing design is simple. jv) This simple, effective, accurate and inexpensive design jn >>| 2.6 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER © Any amplifier can be used as current amplifier or voltage amplifier. © But in particular cases, one amplifier works better over another one, hence we classify them as current and voltage amplifier. Bw 26, Current Amplifier * An amplifier with low input resistance and high output resistance gives us high current gain, hence they are used as Mee current amplifier. ‘* Accurrent amplifier amplifies the input current by a fixed factor and feeds it to the succeeding circuit. © A current amplifier is built using two transistors as shown in Fig. 2.6.1. * Two transistors have B, and B, as current gains respectively. I, is input current and I,,.is output current Toy = By Balin (scr2)Fig, 2.6.1 : Two stage current amplifier ‘%& 2.6.2 Voltage Amplifier * An amplifier with high input resistance and low output resistance, gives high voltage gain. Hence they are used a voltage amplifiers. ‘© Voltage amplifiers are characterised by high impedance and Q, a Jow output impedance input y Mn * Itcan be constructed from Op-amp, BJT or MOSFET. © In Fig. 2.6.2, + Vocis the transistor’s collector voltage, Vy is Vou Re the input voltage Vou is output voltage and Ry is the transistor emitter resistor. (to19Fig, 2.62 : Voltage amplifier using transistor (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 21-22) (PS-78) ‘Tech-Neo Publications... SACHIN SHAH Ventu'@Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem.5 - Mech.) (Data Acquisition and Signal Communication)....Page no. (2-13 DATA STORAGE APPLICATIONS mi 2. ee _ YS 2.7.1 DAQ In Household ke DAQ has wide range of applications in Houschold Electric Applianc 1. In Musical Instruments - High fidelity audio, Music synthesis, Tone control 2. Toys and games, Digital telephone and television, 4. Powertools, Cars ~ adaptive driving control, anti-skid brake, engine control, navigation and global positioning, vibration analysis, anti-collision radar 6. Air conditioning devices - Using DAQ itis very easy to monitor and control these devices. sensor Humicity! Temperature sensor Fig. 2.7.1 : Schematic Diagram of Air conditioning System with DAQ- Sensors 2.7.2 Digital Pressure Gauge Digital pressure gauges make use of pressure sensors in order to convert pressure to an electronic signal. ‘© Working Principle of pressure gauge: ‘The most commonly used is a piezoresistive pressure sensor. This sensor consists out of a diaphragm that is equipped with piezoresistive elements, ‘The medium pressure causes the diaphragm to deflect, this deflection causes a change in cross-sectional area of the piezoresistive elements that is directly coupled to the electrical resistance. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.{ academic year 21-22) (P5-78) rech-Neo Publications...A SACHIN SHAH VentureApplied pressure (@AnFig. 2.7.2: Digital Pressure Gauge Schematic diagram ‘Signal conditioning for Digital pressure sensors Bridge-based pressure sensors are the most common pressure sensors, We need to consider Several signal conitnig ‘elements to make an effective bridge-based pressure measurement system: (2) Excitation to power the Wheatstone bridge circuitry (2) Remote sensing to compensate for errors ine tation voltage from long lead wires (3) Amplification to increase measurement resolution and improve signal-to-noise ratio (4) Filtering to remove extemal, high-frequency noise (S)_ Offset nulling to balance the bridge to output © V when no strain is applied (©) Shunt calibration to verify the output of the bridge to a known, expected value. ‘2.7.3 Digital Flow Measurement Digital flow meters are classified in following types, (2) Optical flowmeters : use light to determine flow rate. Small particles which accompany natural and industrial gases ‘pass through two laser beams focused a short distance apart in the flow path in a pipe by illuminating optics. Laser light is scattered when a particle crosses the first beam. The detecting optics collects scattered light on a photodetector, which then generates a pulse signal. (2) Thermal mass flowmeters : use combinations of heated elements and temperature sensors to measure the different between static and flowing heat transfer to a fluid and infer its flow with a knowledge of the fluid's specific heat and density. | (3) Magnetic flowmeters : use a magnetic field applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference ‘Proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The potential difference is sensed by electrodes aligned perpendicular to the flow and the applied magnetic field. The physical principle at work is Faraday’s law electromagnetic induction. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e/ academic year 21-22) (PS-78) 1ch-Neo Publications... A SACHIN SHAH VertuMech, ‘Mechatronics (SPPU - Sem. © Ultrasonic flowmeters: (A) Doppler : Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeters measure the Doppler shift resulting from reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the particulates in flowing fluid, (B) Transit time + Ultrasonic transit time fowmeters measure the difference of the transit time of ultrasonic pulses propagating in and against the direction of flow. © Laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) Uses Doppler effect. Utrasonic beams (Aa\Fig. 2.73 : Transit Time Ultrasonic Flowmeter 5 Advantages of Digital Flow Meter Digital Flow Meter has advantage over conventional flow meters such as (1) Digital display (2) Switch & analog electrical output (3) Readings unaffected by orientation (4) Installation position & pressure variation (5). Flow which is set value, total air consumption in a day can now be measured 2 2.7.4 Digital Video Broadcast (DVB) ‘+ Digital Video Broadcasting is a common standard for digital television and video used in many parts of the world © DVB standards include DVB-T for terrestrial television, DVB-C for cable television, and DVB-S for satellite television. © Advantages (1) DVB provides superior picture quality with the ‘opportunity to view pictures in standard format or wide screen (16:9) format, along with mono, stereo or surround sound. (2A9)Fig. 2.74 (2) It also allows a range of new features and services including subtitling, multiple audio tracks, interactive content, multimedia content - where, for instance, programmers may be linked to world wide web material (3) Open systems such as DVB allows the subscriber to choose different content providers and allows integration of PCs and televisions. (SPPU - New Syllabus w.e.t academic year 21-22) (PS-78) [al rech-ico Pubicains..A SACHIN SHAH VentureMechatronics (SPPU - Sem. Mech.) (Data Acquis Signal Communicasen) Page ¢ ¢ WW 27.5 AM/FM Automated Mapping/Facilities Management clectric, water and telecommunications “The term AM/FMIGIS mostly refers to GIS software utility network data “This data is stored in an underlying GIS database wh and the attributes. Automated management system is capable of sorting, mani representation of the network. ide an «Together, bath of them combine with GIS (0 Provs mt 28 SOLVED EXAMPLES vee281 STEER A 4 bit DAC has a Vj of 0 ~ 10 V. The binary input is 1110. Find the analog output voltage. © som. : Binary input = 1110 Decimal = 1x2 +1x2+1x2'+0x2"= 14 y, nt Jidlog cup = opie =idn AL SaTSY PEMET ET sPeU - April 16.4 Marks ‘A 4 bit DAC has a reference voltage of 10 V. The binary input is 1011. Find the analog output voltage. © soln. : Binary input = 101 1 Decimal = 1x2 +0x2+1x2!41x2'=11 Veet 10 ‘Analog output = Input x r= 11 xF = 6.875 V ie 22s For a 4 bit ADC with a Vig = 10 Volts, find the digital equivalent of Vj, = 6 volts & sotn. : Given data : (1) 4bit ADC 2) Vp = 10 volts t and is a subset of GIS, whic jch also maintains the association mapping provides better digital map main pulating, fis associated with public utilities like gy that allows utility users to digitize, manage and analyze th s between the graphical entities tenance without any content destruction whereas Fact processing and reporting data and it even generates digi innovative outlook for facilities management system. To find digital equivalent output SET MSB (Last bit) = @ o Bit2 (i) SET 3" bit= 5>Vig 10 7 tot 10 8 = 625>V, 10 = 540404 7g =5.625v, “Bits = 0 Digital Equivalent output = 1010. PEPE SPPU - May 16. 8 Nar A 4 bit R-2R type DAC is supplied with 2.56 volts DC reference potential. Determine the full scale output potential and the LSB. © sor Full scale output = 111 1 (all bits high) dogl, gobs +478 t76 Palen = Va! = 2.560.9375 = 2.4 volts Ex. 2.8.6 : For a DAC that is converting a voltage level ranging 0- 12V into a single byte of 6 bits, determine the ‘equivalent decimal as well as analog values and complete the table below. Digital | Decimal | Analog | 010000 | 2 2 uno| 2 2 © somn. : (1) (010000), = 0x 25+ 1x 2440x2'+0x2+ 0x2! +0x2"=16 Veet 2 Analog output voltage = 16x" = 16x 3 = 3 volts @) AUD, = 1x Bei xterx Paix Fed xe 1x2? =62 ‘Analog output voltages = oxi = 11.625 volts (Chapter Ends. gag