Compression

The  function  of  the  compressor  is  to  reduce  dynamic  range.  That  is,  to  reduce  the  
difference  in  level  between  loud  parts  of  the  signal  and  quiet  parts.  It  does  this  
by  reducing  the  level  of  the  loud  sections.  
The   natural   sounds   of   life   have   an   extremely   wide   dynamic   range,   from   the  
rustle  of  a  falling  leaf  to  the  roar  of  a  jet  engine  on  take  off.  The  human  ear  has  an  
automatic  gain  control  that  enables  it  to  accommodate  all  of  these  sounds  from  
the   threshold   of   hearing   to   close   to   the   threshold   of   pain,   a   dynamic   range   of  
approximately  120  decibels.  
Even  the  most  modern  audio  equipment  is  incapable  of  handling  the  full  range  
that   the   ear   can   cope   with.   Analog   tape   without   noise   reduction   can   manage  
almost   70   decibels   dynamic   range   between   its   noise   floor   and   the   3%   distortion  
point.   16bit   digital   audio   equipment   can   achieve   over   96   dB.   Still,   it   is   almost   24  
dB  less  than  the  ear’s  range.  
Even   with   a   theoretical   dynamic   range   of   144   dB   (which   would   be   possible   in  
24-­‐bit  digital  equipment,  given  perfect  analog  to  digital  converters),  would  it  be  
desirable   and   useful?   A   listener   in   a   domestic   setting   might   enjoy   the  
exhilarating   effects   of   levels   up   to   100   dB   SPL   (Sound   Pressure   Level)   and   more,  
but   what   annoyance   or   distress   might   that   be   causing   to   his   neighbor?   At   the  
other  end  of  the  dynamic  scale,  a  typical  ambient  noise  level  of  at  least  40  dB  SPL  
precludes  the  use  of  very  quiet  levels  in  recorded  or  broadcast  sound  media.  
Almost  always,  it  is  necessary  to  compress  the  dynamic  range  of  natural  sounds  
to  fit  them  into  a  window  suitable  for  comfortable  listening.  

Use  of  Compression  (Example)  

One  of  the  principal  uses  of  compression  is  the  control  of  level  in  vocals.  Many  
singers  train  for  years  to  achieve  the  degree  of  breath  control  necessary  for  an  
even   tone   and   expressive   performance.   Other   vocalists   rely   on   an   instinctive  
voice   production   technique,   which   may   need   help   in   the   studio   to   maintain   a  
consistent  level,  and  result  in  a  vocal  track  that  ‘sits’  correctly  in  the  mix.  

Interface  with  the  console  

Compressors  work  at  line  level,  therefore  the  input  signal  has  to  be  taken  from  
the   mixing   console,   preferably   from   the   channel   insert   point   send.   The   output  
from  the  compressor  is  brought  back  to  the  channel  insert  return.  By  connecting  
the   compressor   at   this   position   in   the   signal   chain,   its   operation   is   unaffected   by  
the  use  of  any  of  the  console  controls,  except  input  gain.  
An   alternative   is   connection   to   the   group   insert   point   of   the   console,   or   the   main  
stereo   output’s   insert   point.   In   either   of   these   situations,   a   mix   of   signals   is  
compressed.  
The  VCA  
The  central  operator  in  each  of  the  dynamic  processors  is  the  VCA.  VCA  stands  
for   voltage-­‐controlled   amplifier.   Its   name   is   almost   its   definition.   Inside   each  
processor   is   an   amplifying   circuit   that   turns   up   and   down   as   it   senses   more   or  
less   voltage—it’s   a   voltage-­‐controlled   amplifier.   The   changing   levels   in   the  
musical   signal   determine   the   amount   of   voltage   and   the   VCA   only   turns   the  
signal  down  and  then  back  up  to  its  original  level.    
Does   the   compressor   detract   from   the   life   and   depth   of   the   original   sound?  
When   used   correctly,   compression   doesn’t   detract   from   the   life   of   the   original  
sound.  In  fact,  it  can  be  the  one  tool  that  helps  that  life  and  depth  to  be  heard  and  
understood  in  a  mix.  
Vocalists   perform   many   nuances   and   licks   that   define   their   individual   style.  
Within   the   same   second,   they   may   jump   from   a   subtle,   emotional   phrase   to   a  
screaming  loud,  needle-­‐pegging,  engineer-­‐  torturing  high  note.  Even  the  best  of  
us   aren’t   fast   enough   to   catch   all   of   these   changes   by   simply   riding   the   input  
fader.   In   this   situation,   a   compressor   is   needed   to   protect   against   levels   that   will  
distort  on  tape  or  hard  disc.  
This  automatic  level  control  gives  us  a  very  important  by-­‐product.  As  the  loudest  
parts  of  the  track  are  turned  down,  we  are  able  to  bring  the  overall  level  of  the  
track   up.   In   effect,   this   brings   the   softer   sounds   up   in   relation   to   the   louder  
sounds  subtle  nuance  becomes  more  noticeable  in  a  mix,  so  the  individuality  and  
style   of   the   artist   is   more   easily   recognized,   plus   the   understandability   and  
audibility  of  the  lyrics  is  greatly  increased.  
There  are  four  controls  common  to  all  compressors:  threshold,  attack  time,  
release  time  and  ratio.  Once  you  see  how  these  work,  you  can  operate  any  
compressor,  anywhere,  anytime.  To  make  it  even  better,  these  controls  are  
easy  to  understand  and  they  do  just  what  they  say  they  do.  

Threshold  
The  threshold  is  the  point  where  the  compressor  begins  to  recognize  the  signal.  
Once   the   compressor   recognizes   the   signal,   it   begins   to   act   in   a   way   that   is  
determined  by  adjustment  of  the  attack  time,  release  time  and  ratio  controls.  A  
threshold   is   an   entrance   point   where   the   signal   enters   to   be   compressed.   Once  
the  signal  is  through  the  threshold,  the  compressor  turns  down  just  the  part  of  
the  signal  that’s  gone  through.  It  will  leave  the  rest  of  the  signal  unaffected  The  
portion   that’s   above   the   threshold   will   be   turned   down   according   to   how   you  
have  set  the  remaining  controls  (attack  time,  release  time  and  ratio).  
Attack  Time  
The   attack   time   is   just   that.   It   controls   the   amount   of   time   it   takes   the  
compressor  to  turn  the  signal  down  once  it’s  passed  the  threshold.  If  the  attack  
time   is   too   fast,   the   compressor   will   turn   down   the   transients.   This   can   cause   an  
instrument   to   lose   life   and   clarity.   On   a   vocal,   for   instance,   if   the   attack   time   is  
too   fast,   all   of   the   “t”   and   “s”   sounds   will   start   to   disappear.   On   the   other   hand,   if  
the  attack  time  is  too  slow  and  the  vocal  is  very  compressed,  the  t’s  and  s’s  will  
fly   through   uncompressed   and   sound   exaggerated.   The   attack   times   on   different  
compressors  will  vary.  One  characteristic  of  the  more  expensive  compressors  is  
that   they   have   faster   attack   times.   The   attack   time   can   range   from   as   fast   as   100  
microseconds  down  to  about  20  milliseconds.    
Some   compressors   have   fixed   attack   times.   The   user   can   select   either   fast   or  
slow   attack   time   and   the   amount   of   the   fast   and   the   slow   attack   time   is  
predetermined   by   the   physical   make-­‐up   of   the   compressor   and   cannot   be  
changed.  Some  plug-­‐ins  have  0  attack  time.      

Release  Time  
Release  time  is  the  time  that  it  takes  for  the  compressor  to  let  go,  or  to  turn  the  
signal  back  up,  once  the  signal  goes  bellow  the  threshold.  The  release  time  varies  
from  model  to  model.  Most  analogue  compressors  will  have  the  release  time  as  
fast   as   50   milliseconds   and   slow   release   time   of   up   to   2   or   3   seconds.   Digital  
compressor   can   be   “faster”.   The   release   time   on   the   “Digidesign”   standard  
compressor  plug-­‐in  is  down  to  5  milliseconds  and  the  slow  release  time  is  up  to  
4  seconds.  
In   general:   longer   the   release   time,   of   a   second   or   so,   typically   work   best  
and  produce  more  natural  and  smooth  sound.  
If   the   release   time   is   to   fast,   the   VCA   turns   up   and   down   so   fast   that   it   can   create  
undesirable  types  of  distortion.  The  VCA  levels  changes  might  produce  their  own  
variable  sound  or  even  pitch.  

 
 
Ratio  
Once  the  compressor  starts  acting  on  the  signal,  there  is  one  more  control  that  
determinates   how   extreme   that   action   will   be.   This   control   is   called   ratio.   The  
ratio   is   simply   a   comparison   between   what   goes   through   them   threshold   and  
output  of  the  compressor  (the  difference  between  the  input  and  the  output  of  the  
compressor).   If   the   ratio   is   set   for   example   at   3:1   ratio,   the   3dB   signal   above  
threshold  will  result  in  1db  signal  at  the  output.  Using  the  same  ratio,  the  12dB  
signal  above  threshold  will  result  in  4dB  at  the  output.  
 

 
 

Gain  Reduction  
Compressors  either  have  a  serious  of  LEDs  or  a  VU  meter  to  indicate  how  much  
gain   reduction   is   happening   at   any   given   time.   Gain   reduction   refers   to   the  
amount  of  the  signal  that  the  VCA  has  turned  down  once  it  crosses  the  threshold.  
Typically,   the   LEDs   light   up   from   right   to   left,   indicating   how   far   the   unit   has  
turned  down  the  signal.  Each  lead  represents  two  or  more  dB  of  gain  reduction.  
 

 
 
Compressors  With  VU  Meters  
 
Some   compressor/limiters   use   a   VU   meter   instead   of   LEDs   to   indicate   gain  
reduction.   Normal   position   for   the   needle   is   OVU.   OVU   indicates   no   gain  
reduction.   As   the   VCA   turns   the   signal   down,   the   VU   meter   reads   negative  
numbers   according   to   the   amount   of   gain   reduction.   The   meter   in   this  
illustration  indicates  7dB  of  gain  reduction.  
Remember,   VU   meters   indicate   average   levels,   whereas   LEDs   indicate   peak  
levels.  A  compressor  with  LEDs  indicating  gain  reduction  and  a  compressor  with  
VU  meters  indicating  gain  reduction  might  have  the  exact  same  attack  time,  but  
the  LEDs  will  give  a  quicker,  more  accurate  picture  of  what  is  really  happening.  
As  an  operator,  you  can  adjust  quickly  to  either  metering  system,  as  long  as  you  
understand  their  differences.  
 

 
 
Methodical  Approach  to  Setting  Up  the  Compressor  
 
•  Determine  the  ratio.  Most  natural  sounding  compression  typically  has  a  ratio  
       setting  of  between  3:1  and  7:1.  Limiting  uses  a  ratio  greater  than  10:1.  
•  Adjust  the  attack  and  release  times.  A  good  general  approach  is  to  start  
       with  the  attack  time  around  1  ms  and  the  release  time  of  1/2-­‐1  second.    
•  Adjust  the  threshold  for  the  amount  of  gain  reduction  that  you  want.  
 
Typically,   the   compressor   should   achieve   3-­‐6dB   of   reduction   at   the   strongest  
part  of  the  track  and  there  should  be  times  when  there  is  no  gain  reduction.  This  
is   the   textbook   approach   for   the   most   natural   and   least   audibly   conspicuous  
compression.   If   you   have   achieved   6dB   of   gain   reduction   you   will   be   able   to  
boost  the  overall  level  to  tape  by  6dB  over  what  it  would  have  been  without  the  
compressor.   With   the   entire   track   boosted   we   can   hear   the   nuances   and   softer  
passages  more  clearly.  As  an  additional  bonus,  the  complete  track,  including  the  
soft  passages,  will  be  6dB  further  away  from  the  noise  floor  than  it  was  before  
compression.  
Compressors   are   essential   tools   for   making   professional   sounding   audio  
recordings.    
Compressors  and  limiters  are  generally  used  while  recording  tracks  as  opposed  
to  during  mix-­‐down,  since  one  of  the  main  benefits  in  compressing  the  signal  is  
that  you  can  get  more  consistently  hot  signal  to  tape.  Compressing  in  mix-­‐down  
can   result   in   more   apparent   noise   on   a   track.   The   compressor   is   putting   the   “lid”  
on  the  loud  passages.  That  lets  the  soft  passages  come  up  in  level  relative  to  the  
to  the  loud  passages  so  they  can  be  heard  more  easily.  When  the  VCA  turns  the  
track  up  during  the  soft  passages  the  noise  becomes  more  audible.  The  noise  is  
even   more   audible   when   the   signal   travels   up   and   down   the   threshold   rapidly  
and  the  VCA  reacts  by  turning  the  compression  up  and  down.  The  sound  of  the  
noise  turning  up  and  down  is  called  pumping  or  breathing.    
Note:   Things   that   you   always   wanted   to   know   but   you   were   afraid   to   ask.  
The  gain  reduction  could  be  divided  into  5  types  based  on  the  electronic  method  
used.  
Optical   Isolators-­The   optical   isolator   section   of   the   “opto-­‐compressor”   uses   a  
light  bulb  (or  an  LED)  to  glow  brighter  or  dimmer  in  response  to  the  incoming  
audio.   A   photocell   (or   phototransistor)   is   used   to   track   the   varying   brightness   of  
the   bulb   and   change   gain   accordingly.     This   is   example   of   an   average   responding  
detector.   The   “Universal   Audio”   LA   2A   is   a   good   example   of   this   type   of  
compressor.    
FET-­Field  Effect  Transistor  compressors  use  a  special  transistor  to  vary  the  gain.  
FETs   were   the   first   transistor   to   emulate   tubes   in   the   way   they   worked  
internally.  Extra  circuit  is  required  which  makes  this  kind  of  compressors  more  
expensive.  FET  compressors  are  very  fast  and  clean  and  they  do  have  a  “specific”  
sound.  “Universal  Audio”  1176  LN  is  an  example  of  FET  compressor.    
VCA-­Voltage  Controlled  Amplifier  compressors  are  the  most  versatile  and  most  
common  in  the  analogue  world.  The  VCA  can  quickly  change  the  gain  in  response  
to  the  incoming  signal  and  has  very  useful  range  of  attack  and  release  times.  It  
can  be  used  for  very  hard  as  well  as  for  soft  compression.  VCA  compressors  are  
versatile  and  it  can  be  used  for  almost  any  application.  
Vary-­Gain-­   Compressor   works   by   using   the   "remote   cut-­‐off"   or   re-­‐biasing   of   a  
vacuum   tube   to   achieve   compression.   The   precious   vintage   Fairchild   670   uses  
this   technique   and   is   one   of   few   all-­‐tube   compressors   to   do   so.   Even   the   side-­‐
chain  has  glowing  rectifier  “bottles”.  The  unique  5670  dual  triode  is  at  the  centre  
of  the  peak-­‐reducing  and  compression  action  constantly  being  re-­‐biased  by  the  
vacuum   tube   rectified   side-­‐chain   control   voltages   which   cause   this   tube   to  
smoothly   change   its   gain.   Manley’s   “Vary-­‐MU”   stereo   compressor/limiter   is  
highly  praised  by  recording  and  mastering  engineers.    
Computer-­Based/Digital   Compressors-­are   the   most   common   today.   They  
offer   the   ability   to   process   the   audio   in   the   digital   domain   under   precise  
computer   control.   Digital   audio   stored   in   a   computer   has   the   advantage   of   being  
“predicatively”  processed.    Digital  compressor  can  have  zero  attack  time  as  well  
as  nearly  infinite  control  of  all  the  parameters.  Waves  “L3  Multimaximizer”  is  a  
good  example  of  the  ultimate  compressor/limiter.