Lecture Notes 1C – Fundamentals of Chemistry 1

Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

Topics
I. Aqueous Solution
II. Reactions in Aqueous Solution
III. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
IV. Combination Reactions
V. Decomposition Reactions
VI. Displacement Reactions
VII. Metathesis Reactions

I. AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

Approximately three fourths of the earth’s surface is covered with water. The body fluids of all plants and animals are
mainly water. Thus, we can see that many important chemical reactions occur in aqueous (water) solutions, or in contact
with water.

A. Electrolytes and Extent of Ionization

 Electrolytes are substances whose aqueous solutions conduct electric current.
 Strong electrolytes are substances that conduct electricity well in dilute aqueous solution.
 Weak electrolytes conduct electricity poorly in dilute aqueous solution.
 Aqueous solutions of nonelectrolytes do not conduct electricity.

Dissociation refers to the process in which a solid ionic compound, such as NaCl, separates into its ions in solution:

Molecular compounds, for example pure HCl, exist as discrete molecules and do not contain ions; however, many such
compounds form ions in solution. Ionization refers to the process in which a molecular compound separates or reacts
with water to form ions in solution:

Three major classes of solutes are strong electrolytes: (1) strong acids, (2) strong bases, and (3) most soluble salts. These
compounds are completely or nearly completely ionized (or dissociated) in dilute aqueous solutions, and therefore are
strong electrolytes.

 An acid can be defined as a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous solutions.
 A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions, OH-, in aqueous solutions.
 A salt is a compound that contains a cation other than H + and an anion other than hydroxide ion, OH-, or oxide
ion, O2-

B. Strong and Weak Acids

Strong acids ionize (separate into hydrogen ions and stable anions) completely, or very nearly completely, in dilute
aqueous solution.
- hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid, nitric acid, perchloric acid, chloric acid, sulfuric acid

Because strong acids ionize completely or very nearly completely in dilute solutions, their solutions contain
predominantly ions rather than acid molecules.

(100% complete)

Weak acids ionize only slightly (usually less than 5%) in dilute aqueous solution.
- hydrofluoric acid, acetic acid, hydrocyanic acid, nitrous acid, carbonic acid, sulfurous acid, phosphoric acid,
oxalic acid

The equation for the ionization of acetic acid, CH3COOH, in water is typical of weak acids:

(reversible)
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A multitude of organic acids occur in living systems. Organic acids contain the carboxylate grouping of atoms, COOH.
Most common organic acids are weak. They can ionize slightly by breaking the OH bond.

C. Strong Bases, Insoluble Bases, and Weak Bases

Most common bases are ionic metal hydroxides.

Strong bases are soluble in water and are dissociated completely in dilute aqueous solution. They are the hydroxides of
the Group IA metals and the heavier members of Group IIA.
Group I – LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH
Group II – Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

100% complete

Other metals form ionic hydroxides, but these are so sparingly soluble in water that they cannot produce strongly basic
solutions. They are called insoluble bases or sometimes sparingly soluble bases. Typical examples include Cu(OH)2,
Zn(OH)2, Fe(OH)2, and Fe(OH)3

Common weak bases are molecular substances that are soluble in water but form only low concentrations of ions in
solution.

(reversible)

D. Solubility Guidelines for Compounds in Aqueous Solution

Compounds whose solubility in water is less than about 0.02 mol/L are usually classified as insoluble compounds,
whereas those that are more soluble are classified as soluble compounds. No gaseous or solid substances are infinitely
soluble in water.
1. The common inorganic acids are soluble in water. Low-molecular-weight organic acids are also soluble.
2. All common compounds of the Group IA metal ions (Li +, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+) and the ammonium ion, NH 4+, are
soluble in water.
3. The common nitrates, NO3-; acetates, CH3COO-; chlorates, ClO3-; and perchlorates, ClO4-, are soluble in water.
4. (a) The common chlorides, Cl-, are soluble in water except AgCl, Hg2Cl2, and PbCl2.
5. (b) The common bromides, Br-, and iodides, I-, show approximately the same solubility behavior as chlorides,
but there are some exceptions. As these halide ions (Cl-, Br-, I-) increase in size, the solubilities of their slightly
soluble compounds decrease.
6. (c) The common fluorides, F-, are soluble in water except MgF2, CaF2, SrF2, BaF2, and PbF2.
7. The common sulfates, SO42-, are soluble in water except PbSO4, BaSO4, and HgSO4; CaSO4, SrSO4, and Ag2SO4
are moderately soluble.
8. The common metal hydroxides, OH-, are insoluble in water except those of the Group IA metals and the heavier
members of the Group IIA metals, beginning with Ca(OH)2.
9. The common carbonates, CO32-, phosphates, PO43-, and arsenates, AsO43-, are insoluble in water except those of
the Group IA metals and NH4+. MgCO3 is moderately soluble.
10. The common sulfides, S2-, are insoluble in water except those of the Group IA and Group IIA metals and the
ammonium ion.

II. REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS

Many important chemical reactions occur in aqueous solutions. You should learn to describe such aqueous reactions and
to predict the products of many reactions.

The following chart will help in deciding which formula units are to be written as separate ions in the total ionic equation
and which ones are to be written as unchanged formula units. You must answer two questions about a substance to
determine whether it should be written in ionic form or as a formula unit in the total and net ionic equations.
1. Does it dissolve in water? If not, write the full formula.
2. (a) If it dissolves, does it ionize (a strong acid)?
(b) If it dissolves, does it dissociate (a strong base or a soluble salt)?
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If the answer to either part of the second question is yes, the substance is a soluble strong electrolyte, and its formula is
written in ionic form.

III. OXIDATION – REDUCTION REACTIONS

A. The Oxidation Numbers

The oxidation number, or oxidation state, is a bookkeeping device used to keep track of the number of electrons
formally associated with a particular element. The oxidation number is meant to tell how many electrons have been lost
or gained by a neutral atom when it forms a compound. Because oxidation numbers have no real physical meaning, they
are somewhat arbitrary, and not all chemists will assign the same oxidation number to a given element in an unusual
compound. However, there are some ground rules that provide a useful start.

1. The oxidation number of the atoms in any free, uncombined element is zero. This includes polyatomic elements
such as H2, O2, O3, P4, and S8.
2. The oxidation number of an element in a simple (monatomic) ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
3. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a compound is zero.
4. In a polyatomic ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers of the constituent atoms is equal to the charge on the ion.
5. Fluorine has an oxidation number of -1 in its compounds.
6. Hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1 in compounds unless it is combined with metals, in which case it has
an oxidation number of -1. Examples of these exceptions are NaH and CaH2.
7. Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2 in its compounds. There are some exceptions:
a. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -1 in hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, and in peroxides, which contain the O22-
ion; examples are CaO2 and Na2O2.
b. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -1/2 in superoxides, which contain the O2 2-ion; examples are KO2 and
RbO2.
c. When combined with fluorine in OF2, oxygen has an oxidation number of +2.
8. The position of the element in the periodic table helps to assign its oxidation number:
a. Group IA elements have oxidation numbers of +1 in all of their compounds.
b. Group IIA elements have oxidation numbers of +2 in all of their compounds.
c. Group IIIA elements have oxidation numbers of +3 in all of their compounds, with a few rare exceptions.
d. Group VA elements have oxidation numbers of -3 in binary compounds with metals, with H, or with NH4+.
Exceptions are compounds with a Group VA element combined with an element to its right in the periodic
table; in this case, their oxidation numbers can be found by using rules 3 and 4.
e. Group VIA elements below oxygen have oxidation numbers of -2 in binary compounds with metals, with
H, or with NH4+. When these elements are combined with oxygen or with a lighter halogen, their oxidation
numbers can be found by using rules 3 and 4.

For example, in H2O,

2 hydrogen = 2(+1) = +2
Oxygen = 2
Net charge =0

In , sulfur must have an oxidation number of +6 so that the sum of the oxidation numbers will be 2.

In benzene (C6H6), the oxidation number of each carbon must be 1 if hydrogen is assigned the number +1. In
cyclohexane (C6H12), the oxidation number of each carbon must be -2 for the same reason. The carbon in benzene are in a
higher oxidation state that those in cyclohexane
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The oxidation state of iodine in is +1. This is unusual, because halogens are usually 1. However, because chlorine
is more electronegative than iodine, we assign Cl as -1, thereby forcing I to be +1.

The oxidation number of As in As 2S3 is +3, and the value for S is -2. This is arbitrary, but reasonable. Because S is more
electronegative than As, we make S negative and As positive; and because S is in the same family as oxygen, which is
usually -2, we assign S as -2, thus leaving As as +3.

The oxidation number of S in (tetrathionate) is +2.5. The fractional oxidation state comes about because six O
atoms contribute -12. Because the charge is -2, the four S atoms must contribute +10. The average oxidation number of S
must be +10/4 = +2.5.

The oxidation number of Fe in K3Fe(CN)6 is +3. To make this assignment, we first recognize (CN -) as a common ion that
carries a charge of -1. Six cyanide ions give 6 and three potassium ions (K +) give +3. Therefore, Fe should have an
oxidation number of +3 for the whole formula to be neutral. In this approach, it is not necessary to assign individual
oxidation numbers to carbon and nitrogen, as long as we recognize that the charge of CN is 1.

Determine the oxidation number of the elements in each of the following compounds:
1. H2CO3 H = +1 O = 2 C = +4
2. N2 N=0
3. Zn(OH)42 Zn = +2 H = +1 O = 2
4. NO2 N = +3 O = 2
5. LiH Li = +1 H = 1
6. Fe3O4 Fe = +8/3 O = 2

Exercises:
Write the oxidation state of the boldface atom in each of the following species.

1. AgBr 6. HAs
2. SeF6 7. P4O10
3. HO2 8. VO(SO4)

4. Pb 9. Co2(CO)8
5. K4Fe(CN)6 10. (CH3)4Li4

B. The Oxidation-Reduction Process

An oxidation-reduction (or redox) reaction is said to occur if the reactant undergoes a change in oxidation number.

 Oxidation describes an increase in oxidation number, a process resulting from a loss of electrons.
 Reduction describes a decrease in oxidation number, a process resulting from a gain in electrons.

Since free electrons are not thought to exist in solution, it should be clear that any oxidation (electron loss) must be
accompanied by a corresponding reduction (electron gain).

 The oxidizing agent (or oxidant) in a redox reaction is the species that causes oxidation and, in the process,
gets reduced.
 The reducing agent (or reductant) in a redox reaction is the species that causes reduction and, in the process,
gets oxidized.

To cause an oxidation, the oxidizing agent must take one or more electrons from the substance being oxidized. As a
result, the oxidizing agent is reduced. Conversely, a reducing agent is oxidized in a chemical reaction. Applying this
terminology to the reaction

Oxidizing agent Reducing agent

we would say that Sn2+ is oxidized by the oxidizing agent, Fe3+, or that Fe3+ is reduced by the reducing agent, Sn2+.

Examples:
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Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan

1. Identify the species being oxidized and reduced in each of the following reactions:
a. 2 Cr+ + Sn4+  Cr3+ + Sn2+
Cr+: oxidized Sn4+: reduced

b. 3 Hg2+ + 2 Fe (s)  3 Hg2 + 2 Fe3+

Hg2+: reduced Fe: oxidized

c. 2 As (s) + 3 Cl2 (g)  2 AsCl3

As: oxidized Cl2: reduced

2. Would you use an oxidizing agent or reducing agent in order for the following reactions to occur?
a. ClO3  ClO2 reducing agent
b. SO4  S
2 2
reducing agent
c. Mn2+  MnO2 oxidizing agent
d. Zn  ZnCl2 oxidizing agent

Exercises:
A. Indicate the oxidation states of each of the elements in the following chemical species:
1. NaOH 4. Na2SO4
2. HBr 5. NO2-1
3. VF5 6. SiOF2

B. Determine which of the following reactions are redox reactions. For those that are, identify the element which has
been oxidized, and the one that has been reduced:
1. 2 NaOH + CaCl2  2 NaCl + Ca(OH)2
2. 3 Li + FeCl3  3 LiCl + Fe
3. CI4 + 2 Br2  CBr4 + 2 I2
4. HNO3 + NaHCO3  H2O + CO2 + NaNO3

C. Identify the oxidizing agent and reducing agent on the left side of each of the following reactions.

1.
2.

3.
4.

C. Balancing Redox Reactions

Goals for Balancing Chemical Equations

1. The number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation is the same and therefore mass is conserved.
2. The sum of the positive and negative charges is the same on both sides of the equation and therefore charge is
conserved. (Charge is conserved because electrons are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.)

To balance a reaction involving oxidation and reduction, we must first identify which element is oxidized and which is
reduced. We then break the net reaction into two imaginary half-reactions, one of which involves only oxidation and the
other only reduction. Although free electrons never appear in a balanced net reaction, they do appear in balanced half-
reaction. If we are dealing with aqueous solutions, we proceed to balance each half-reaction, using H 2O and either H+ or
OH-, as necessary. A reaction is balanced when the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides, and the
net charge is the same on both sides.

Steps:
1. Using oxidation numbers, identify the substances being reduced and oxidized.
2. Write a half-reaction for the reduction process using ionic formulas.
3. Balance the half-reaction chemically by addition of H+, OH-, and H2O as necessary.
a. In acidic solution
i. Balance hydrogen by adding H+ to the hydrogen-deficient side.
ii. Balance oxygen by adding H2O to the oxygen-deficient side and twice as much as H + to the
other side.
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b. In basic solution
i. Balance hydrogen by adding H2O to the hydrogen-deficient side and twice as much OH - to the
other side.
ii. Balance oxygen by adding OH- to the oxygen-deficient side and half as much H 2O to the other
side.
4. Balance the half-reaction electrically by adding electrons.
5. Repeat step 2 through 4 for the substance undergoing oxidation. The half-reaction may be written as an
oxidation, in which case it will be added to the half-reaction, or as a reduction, in which case it will be
subtracted from the other half-reaction.
6. Normalize the number of electrons by multiplying each half-reaction with the appropriate whole numbers.
7. Subtract (or add if the half-reactions are written in opposite direction) the two half-reactions to get the net ionic
reaction. Cancel where possible.
8. Check the net equation both chemically and electrically. Add the spectator ions to convert to a molecular
equation, if necessary.

Redox Reactions in Acidic Solutions

Balance the following redox reaction in an acidic solution:

Cu(s) + HNO3(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + NO(g)

Solution:

Step 1: Identify what is being oxidized and what is being reduced.

To identify which atoms are being reduced or oxidized, assign oxidation states to each atom of the reaction.
 Cu(s): Cu = 0
 HNO3: H = +1, N = +5, O = -6
 Cu2+: Cu = +2
 NO(g): N = +2, O = -2

Cu went from oxidation state 0 to +2, losing two electrons. Copper is oxidized by this reaction.
N went from oxidation state +5 to +2, gaining three electrons. Nitrogen is reduced by this reaction.

Step 2: Break the reaction into two half reactions: oxidation and reduction.

Oxidation: Cu → Cu2+

Reduction: HNO3 → NO

Step 3: Balance each half-reaction by both stoichiometry and electronic charge.

This is accomplished by adding substances to the reaction. The only rule is that the only substances you can add must
already be in the solution. These include water (H 2O), H+ ions (in acidic solutions), OH - ions (in basic solutions) and
electrons.

Start with the oxidation half-reaction:

The half-reaction is already balanced atomically. To balance electronically, two electrons must be added to the
product side.

Cu  Cu2+ + 2 e-

Now, balance the reduction reaction.

This reaction requires more work. The first step is to balance all atoms except oxygen and hydrogen.

HNO3  NO

There is only one nitrogen atom on both sides, so nitrogen is already balanced.

The second step is to balance the oxygen atoms. This is done by adding water to the side that needs more oxygen. In this
case, the reactant side has three oxygen and the product side has only one oxygen.

Add two water molecules to the product side: HNO3  NO + 2 H2O

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The third step is to balance the hydrogen atoms. This is accomplished by adding H + ions to the side that needs more
hydrogen. The reactant side has one hydrogen atom while the product side has four.

Add 3 H+ ions to the reactant side: HNO3 + 3 H+  NO + 2 H2O

The equation is balanced atomically, but not electrically. The final step is to balance the charge by adding electrons to the
more positive side of the reaction. One the reactant side, the overall charge is +3, while the product side is neutral. To
counteract the +3 charge, add three electrons to the reactant side.

HNO3 + 3 H+ + 3 e-  NO + 2 H2O

Now the reduction half-equation is balanced.

Step 4: Equalize the electron transfer.

In redox reactions, the number of electrons gained must equal the number of electrons lost. To accomplish this, each
reaction is multiplied by whole numbers to contain the same number of electrons.
The oxidation half-reaction has two electrons while the reduction half-reaction has three electrons. The lowest common
denominator between them is six electrons. Multiply the oxidation half-reaction by 3 and the reduction half-reaction by
2.

3 Cu  3 Cu2+ + 6 e-
2 HNO3 + 6 H+ + 6 e-  2 NO + 4 H2O

Step 5: Recombine the half-reactions

This is accomplished by adding the two reactions together. Once they are added, cancel out anything that appears on both
side of the reaction.

3 Cu  3 Cu2+ + 6 e
2 HNO3 + 6 H + 6 e
+
 2 NO + 4 H2O
3 Cu + 2 HNO3 + 6H+ + 6 e  3 Cu2+ + 2 NO + 4 H2O + 6 e

Both sides have six electrons that can be cancelled.

3 Cu + 2 HNO3 + 6 H+  3 Cu2+ + 2 NO + 4 H2O

The complete redox reaction is now balanced.

Answer: 3 Cu + 2 HNO3 + 6 H+  3 Cu2+ + 2 NO + 4 H2O

Redox Reactions in Basic Solutions

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between the permanganate ion and hydrogen peroxide in a basic solution to
form manganese dioxide and oxygen.

MnO4(aq) + H2O2(aq) ⃗
O H− MnO2(s) + O2(g)
Solution:

Step 1: Write a skeleton equation for the reaction.

MnO4 + H2O2 ⃗
O H− MnO2 + O2

Step 2: Assign oxidation numbers to atoms on both sides of the equation.

MnO4 + H2O2  MnO2 + O2

+7 -2 +1 -1 +4 -2 0

Step 3: Determine which atoms are oxidized and which are reduced.

MnO4 + H2O2  MnO2 + O2

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+7 -2 +1 -1 +4 -2 0

oxidation
reduction
Step 4: Divide the reaction into oxidation and reduction half-reactions and balance these half-reactions.

This reaction can be divided into the following half-reactions.

Reduction: MnO4  MnO2

+7 +4
Oxidation: H2O2  O2
-1 0

Let's start by balancing the reduction half-reaction. It takes three electrons to reduce manganese from the +7 to the +4-
oxidation state.

Reduction: MnO4 + 3 e  MnO2

We now try to balance either the number of atoms or the charge on both sides of the equation. Because the reaction is run
in basic solution, we can add either OH - ions or H2O molecules to either side of the equation, as needed. The key to
deciding which side of the equation gets each of these reagents is simple: The only way to balance the net charge of -4 on
the left side of the equation is to add four OH- ions to the products.

Reduction: MnO4 + 3 e  MnO2 + 4 OH

We can then balance the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms by adding two H2O molecules to the reactants.

Reduction: MnO4 + 3 e + 2 H2O  MnO2 + 4 OH

We now turn to the oxidation half-reaction. Two electrons are lost when hydrogen peroxide is oxidized to form O 2
molecules.

Oxidation: H2O2  O2 + 2 e

We can balance the charge on this half-reaction by adding a pair of OH ions to the reactants.

Oxidation: H2O2 + 2 OH  O2 + 2 e

The only way to balance the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms is to add two H2O molecules to the products,

Oxidation: H2O2 + 2 OH  O2 + 2 H2O + 2 e

as shown in the figure below.

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Step 5: Combine the two half-reactions so that electrons are neither created nor destroyed.
Two electrons are given off during the oxidation half-reaction and three electrons are consumed in the reduction half-
reaction. We can therefore combine these half-reactions by using the lowest common multiple of 2 and 3.
2(MnO4 + 3 e + 2 H2O  MnO2 + 4 OH)
+ 3(H2O2 + 2 OH  O2 + 2 H2O + 2 e)
________________________________________________________
2 MnO4 + 3 H2O2 + 6 OH + 4 H2O  2 MnO2 + 3 O2 + 8 OH + 6 H2O

Step 6: Balance the remainder of the equation by inspection, if necessary.

The simplest balanced equation is obtained by subtracting four H 2O molecules and six OH- ions from each side of the
equation derived in the previous step.

2 MnO4(aq) + 3 H2O2(aq)  2 MnO2(s) + 3 O2(g) + 2 OH-(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Note that the ratio of moles of MnO 4 to moles of H2O2 consumed is different in acidic and basic solutions. This
difference results from the fact that MnO4- is reduced all the way to Mn2+ in acid, but the reaction stops at MnO2 in base.

Redox Reactions in Disproportionation Reactions

Reactions in which a single reagent undergoes both oxidation and reduction are called disproportionation reactions.
Bromine, for example, disproportionate to form bromide and bromate ions when a strong base is added to an aqueous
bromine solution.

⃗
Br2 OH − Br + BrO3

Write a balanced equation for the disproportionation of bromine in the presence of a strong base.

Solution
STEP 1: Write a skeleton equation for the reaction.

Br2 + OH  Br + BrO3

STEP 2: Assign oxidation numbers to atoms on both sides of the equation.

Br2 + OH  Br + BrO3

0 -2 +1 -1 +5 -2

STEP 3: Determine which atoms are oxidized and which are reduced.

STEP 4: Divide the reaction into oxidation and reduction half-reactions and balance these half-reactions.

Bromine is oxidized from the 0 to the +5-oxidation state in this reaction.

Oxidation: Br2  BrO3

0 +5

Bromine is also reduced in this reaction, from the 0 to the -1-oxidation state.

Reduction: Br2  Br

0 -1

If we assume that two Br ions are produced for each molecule of Br 2 reduced, the reduction half-reaction would be
written as follows.

Reduction: Br2 + 2 e  2 Br 
If we assume that two BrO3 ions are formed each time a Br2 molecule is oxidized, the oxidation half-reaction involves
the loss of 10 electrons.
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Oxidation: Br2  2 BrO3 + 10 e

Because the reaction occurs in basic solution, we can add OH - ions or H2O molecules to either side of the equation, as
needed. The trick, as always, is deciding which side of the equation gets the OH  ions and which side gets the H 2O
molecules. In this case, the only way to balance the charge on both sides of the equation is to add 12 OH  ions to the
reactants.

Oxidation: Br2 + 12 OH  2 BrO3 + 10 e

Six of the oxygen atoms in the OH ions end up in the BrO3 ions. What happens to the other six oxygen atoms and the
12 hydrogen atoms? The most reasonable answer is that they combine to form six H2O molecules.

Oxidation: Br2 + 12 OH  2 BrO3 + 10 e + 6 H2O

STEP 5: Combine the two half-reactions so that electrons are neither created nor destroyed. Ten electrons are given off
in the oxidation half-reaction and two electrons are consumed in the reduction half-reaction. We can therefore combine
these half-reactions as follows.

5(Br2 + 2 e  2 Br)
+ (Br2 + 12 OH  2 BrO3 + 10 e + 6 H2O)
6 Br2 + 12 OH  10 Br + 2 BrO3 + 6 H2O

STEP 6: Balance the remainder of the equation by inspection, if necessary.

The equation generated in the previous step is balanced, but it is not quite correct. The best answer to this exercise would
be the equation with the smallest possible coefficients, so we divide all of the coefficients by 2.

3 Br2 + 6 OH  5 Br- + BrO3 + 3 H2O

We now complete the exercise by identifying the states of the reactants and products, as follows.

3 Br2(aq) + 6 OH(aq)  5 Br(aq) + BrO3(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Problems for Balancing Redox Equations in Acid/Base

A. Redox Reactions in Acidic Solution:
1. I¯ (aq) + ClO¯(aq)  I2(aq) + Cl¯(aq)
2. As2O3 (s) + NO3¯ (aq)  H3AsO4 (aq) + NO (g)
3. Br¯ (aq) + MnO4¯ (aq)  Br2 (l) + Mn2+ (aq)
4. CH3OH (aq) + Cr2O72 (aq)  CH2O(l) + Cr3+(aq)
5. Mn2+(aq) + BiO3¯ (aq)  Bi3+(aq) + MnO4¯ (aq)
6. S8 (s) + NO3¯ (aq)  SO32 (aq) + NO (g)
7. H3AsO4 (aq) + Zn (s)  AsH3 (g) + Zn2+ (aq)
8. P4(s) + Cr2O72(aq)  H3PO4(aq) + Cr3+(aq)

B. Redox Reactions in Basic Solution

1. Al(s) + MnO4¯ (aq)  MnO2(s) + Al(OH)4¯ (aq)
2. NO2¯ (aq) + Al(s)  NH3(aq) + AlO2¯ (aq)
3. Cr(s) + CrO42-(aq)  Cr(OH)3(s)
Note: Cr(OH)3 is found in BOTH half reactions!
4. MnO4¯ (aq) + S2(aq)  MnO2(s) + SO32(aq)
5. Cl2(aq) + Br2(l)  OBr¯ (aq) + Cl¯ (aq)
6. H2O2(aq) + I (aq)  IO3 (aq)
¯ ¯

Note: IO3¯ is found in both half reactions!

7. NO3 (aq) + NH3(aq)  NO2¯ (aq)
¯

8. S8(aq) + MnO4¯ (aq)  SO42(aq) + MnO2(s)

IV. COMBINATION REACTIONS

 Reactions in which two or more substances combine to form a compound are called combination reactions.
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A. Element + Element = Compound

Metal + Non-metal  Binary Ionic Compound

- Most metals react with most non-metals to form binary ionic compounds. The Group IA metals combine with
the Group VIIA non-metals to form binary ionic compounds with the general formula MX

Non-metal + Non-metal  Binary Covalent Compound

- When two non-metals combine with each other they form binary covalent compounds. In such reactions, the
oxidation number of the element with the more positive oxidation number is often variable, depending on
reaction conditions.

In general, a higher oxidation state of a non-metal is formed when it reacts with an excess of another non-metal.

B. Compound + Element  Compound

- Combination reactions of this type are also oxidation–reduction reactions.

C. Compound + Compound  Compound

An example of reactions in this category is the combination of calcium oxide with carbon dioxide to produce
calcium carbonate

Pyrosulfuric acid is produced by dissolving sulfur trioxide in concentrated sulfuric acid

Pyrosulfuric acid, H2S2O7, is then diluted with water to make H2SO4

Oxides of the Group IA and IIA metals react with water to form metal hydroxides

V. DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

 Decomposition reactions are those in which a compound decomposes to produce (1) two elements, (2) one or
more elements and one or more compounds, or (3) two or more compounds.

A. Compound  Element + Element

The electrolysis of water produces two elements by the decomposition of a compound.

Small amounts of oxygen can be prepared by the thermal decomposition of certain oxygen-containing compounds.
Some metal oxides, such as mercury(II) oxide, HgO, decompose on heating to produce oxygen

B. Compound  Compound + Element

The alkali metal chlorates, such as KClO3, decompose when heated to produce the corresponding chlorides and
liberate oxygen.

Nitrate salts of alkali metals or alkaline earth metals decompose to form metal nitrites and oxygen gas.

Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to form water and oxygen.

C. Compound  Compound + Compound

The thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) and other carbonates produces two compounds, a metal
oxide and carbon dioxide

When some solid hydroxides are heated, they decompose to form a metal oxide and water vapor.

Ammonium salts lose ammonia.

If the ammonium salt contains an anion that is a strong oxidizing agent (e.g., nitrate, nitrite, or dichromate), its
decomposition reaction produces an oxide, water (as vapor at high temperatures), and nitrogen gas. Such a reaction
is a redox reaction.
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VI. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS

 Reactions in which one element displaces another from a compound are called displacement reactions.

These reactions are always redox reactions. The more readily a metal undergoes oxidation, the more active we say it is.

 Active metals displace less active metals or hydrogen from their compounds in aqueous solution to form the
oxidized form of the more active metal and the reduced (free metal) form of the other metal or hydrogen.

A.

B.

C.

VII.METATHESIS REACTIONS

 In many reactions between two compounds in aqueous solution, the positive and negative ions appear to
“change partners” to form two new compounds, with no change in oxidation numbers. Such reactions are called
metathesis reactions.
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We can represent such reactions by the following general equation, where A and B represent positive ions (cations) and
X and Y represent negative ions (anions):

Metathesis reactions result in the removal of ions from solution; this removal of ions can be thought of as the driving
force for the reaction – the reason it occurs. The removal of ions can occur in three ways, which can be used to classify
three types of metathesis reactions:
1. Formation of predominantly nonionized molecules (weak or nonelectrolytes) in solution; the most common such
nonelectrolyte product is water
2. Formation of an insoluble solid, called a precipitate (which separates from the solution)
3. Formation of a gas (which is evolved from the solution)

A. Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions: Formation of a Nonelectrolyte

Acid–base reactions are among the most important kinds of chemical reactions. Many acid–base reactions occur in nature
in both plants and animals.

The reaction of an acid with a metal hydroxide base produces a salt and water. Such reactions are called neutralization
reactions because the typical properties of acids and bases are neutralized.
 In nearly all neutralization reactions, the driving force is the combination of H +(aq) from an acid and OH-(aq)
from a base (or a base plus water) to form water molecules.

 The net ionic equation for all reactions of strong acids with strong bases that form soluble salts and water is

Reactions of weak acids with strong bases also produce salts and water, but there is a significant difference in the
balanced ionic equations because weak acids are only slightly ionized.

 The reactions of weak monoprotic acids with strong bases that form soluble salts can be represented in general
terms as

where HA represents the weak acid and A- represents its anion.

B. Precipitation Reactions

In precipitation reactions an insoluble solid, a precipitate, forms and then settles out of solution. The driving force for
these reactions is the strong attraction between cations and anions. This results in the removal of ions from solution by
the formation of a precipitate. Our teeth and bones were formed by very slow precipitation reactions in which mostly
calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 was deposited in the correct geometric arrangements.

C. Gas-Formation Reactions

The formation of an insoluble or slightly soluble gas provides a driving force for a third type of metathesis reaction that
we call a gas-formation reaction. The only common gases that are very soluble in water are HCl(g) and NH3(g). All
other gases are sufficiently insoluble to force a reaction to proceed if they are formed as a reaction product.

Reference:
- Whitten, Kenneth W., Raymond E. Davis, M. Larry Peck and George Stanley, (2004). General Chemistry, 7 th
edition. Belmont, CA, Brooks/Cole – Thompson Learning