3 Propositional Logic Proposition, First order logic, Basic logical operation, truth tables, tautologies, Contradic- tions, Algebra of Proposition, logical implications, logical equivalence, predicates, Normal Forms, Universal and existential quantifiers. 2 way predicate logic. §3.1. Introduction: Logic is the most important basis of Mathematics, In modern mathematics, certain axioms are taken as accepted and with the help of logic many important and useful results, theorems, propositions etc are established which are true with respect to those axioms. Here we study the algebra of logic and the propositional calculus which are very useful in all the branches of mathematics. §3.2. Sentence. Definition : An expression consisting of some symbols, letters and words is called a sentence ifitis true orfalse. = é Pear For example, (a) Jaipur is the capital of Rajasthan. (b) 24+3=5 (c) x+1<3 are sentences. The truthness of first two is clear whereas the truthness of third depends on the assigned values to the variable x. The third sentence is called an Open sentence. Remark: In the language of mathematics, sentences involving ‘Order’, ' Question ' or ‘Exclamation ' etc, are not included in the category of sentence. For example, ‘Please sit down ' ; ' why did you not purchase the book ?', How beautiful this flower is ? ' are not sentences. §3.3, Proposition (or Statement). Definition: A proposition is a declarative Sentence which is either True (T) or False (F), but not both. —————— ee eee ‘T) or False (F For example, — Proposition / Sentence _ True/ False (a) ' Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh ' T (b) '3+2=6' F (ec) NCZ r (d) “Wish you happy life" is not a proposition, because Truth or False is not certain. (e) ' Why you want to become Engineer ?' is not a proposition.Rta geetaliniieaengenes Remark. 1. Any proposition can not be True and False simultancously. In such situation, the sentence becomes meaningless. For example,‘ The triangle ABC is an equilateral and one of its angle is.a right angle is a meaningless sentence. Remark. 2. Every proposition consists of three parts :~~ \@ Subject which indicates the concept to be decided. \ Sat) Predicate - which specify the concept which is True or without subject. (i) Couputa - which connects the subject and the predicate. For example, In the statement, ' This pen is white ', “This pen " is subject, "White" is predicate and " is" is coupula. 3.4, Truth Value: Ifany proposition is True, then its Truth value is denoted by T and ifthe propositionis False, then its Truth value is denoted by F. For example, Proposition Truth Value () The sum of three angles of any triangle is 180° T (ii) 1 istess than 3 Tr, Gif) The Sun shines in the night. F (iv) 14 is an odd number F @) x43=8 — Forx=5 'T otherwise F §3.5. Type of Propositions: The propositions can be classified into two : _{@) Simple or Atomic proposition _() Compound or Molecular propositiont ) Simple Proposition : The proposition having one subject andone predicate iscalled a simple proposition Simple proposition is generally denoted by the lower case letters of English alphabet i. qr, sete. For example,(i) p= This flower is pink. i) Every even number is divisible by 2. (iii) r= Triangleisa plane figure. \@S Compound Proposition : Zio or more simple propositions when combined b yy various connectives into a single composite sentence is called a compound proposition. For example, If p = This quadrilateral is square. and q = Itsareais 4 square units. are two simple propositions, then their compound proposition ( single ) is ' This quadrilateral is square and its area is 4 square units' This is written as" p and q". q are pand ed ovdlinary q.§3.7. Truth Function : _.._ Every proposition hasa unique Truth value Tor F. Thetruth values of the compound propositions are determined by the Truth values of the component propositions. Therefore the truth valuc of any proposition is a function of truth values of its component propositions whose range is{ 7, F}. §3.8. Truth Table: =; : The table which expresses the truth value of a compound proposition on the basis of the truth values of its component propositions is called the Truth Table of that compound proposition. cee The truth value of any true proposition is expressed by 7'and the truth value of any False proposition is expressed by F. Let p and q be two propositions which may be True or False. Therefore p and q can assume both truth values 7 or F. When pand qare joined by any connective, then 2 *2=4 cases may arise for the compound proposition. The truth values of compound proposition in these cases are expressed in the table: Now we shall establish Truth Table of the above operations. § 3.9. Conjunetion: When two propositions p and q are joined by the connective "AND", then this operation is known as conjunction of p and q and expressed by p © q (pand q) For example, If p = This isa mathematics book. q = This book contains 200 pages. then p4q =''This isa mathematics book and contains 200 pages Truth Tablefor Conjunction From the above table, itis clear that p and q are true only when p and q both are True and is False when either one or both of pandq are False. . Ex.1. If p =! 15 is divisible by3 ‘and q =' 19 is divisible by 5 then p Aq ='15 is divisible by 3 and 5 (both) * hs : Shave both the component propositions of this proposition are true, consequently, the iti is also true. compound proposition p Aq is al ee Therefore the truth table of the above compound proposition is as shown.he aaa Ex. 2. If p number ‘and g = then p Aq ='S isa prime and square number’ Since p is True and q is False, consequently p © q is also False. Therefore the truth table of p 0 q is as under : [Pi]. 651) Png, Ex, 3.1f p ='\/2 is rational ‘and q =" 2 is irrational * a square number then p A q =" V2 is rational and 2 is irrational ' Since p and q both are False, consequently, p q is also False. Therefore the truth table of the above compound proposition is : sre lee [eae ei oF F §3.10. Disjunction : When two propositions p and q are joined by the connective "OR", then this operation is known as disjunction of p and q and expressed by PV q ( porq) For example, If p = ' I shall go to market ' and q = ' I shall read the book ' then p V q ='I shall go to market or read the book ' Truth Table for Disjunction From the above table, it is clear that p V q is True when cither one or both of p and q are True and p v.q is False when both p and q are False. Ex.1. If p = ' Straight lines /,and /pare parallel ' q =" Straight lines },and./,are concurrent ' then p vq =' Straight lines J,and /,are parallel or concurrent. * In this compound proposition "or " has been used exclusively, since two straight lines are hot parallel and concurrent simultaneously. Threfore if p is true then q will be false and if p is false then g will be true. Consequently, p V q will be true, Therefore Ex. 2. If p = '15 is divisible by 3' and q = '15 is divisible by 5 then p v q = ‘15 is divisible by 3 or 5 or 3 and 5 both.’Inthisexample, the third proposition is correct. Here "or" hasbeen used in’ theinclusive sense ie.,'porg'or’pand q both’ be true, Therefore the truth table of the compound proposition will be Pa mat Ex. 3. If p ='-3 > l'andg ='-3 >2' then p Vv q = '—3 is greater than 1 or 2 or 1 and 2 both ' Here both the component propositions p and q are False, consequently p V q isalso false Therefore Lee | eve] [Eteee Eases) Fat] The negative proposition of any given proposition p is the proposition whose truth value is opposite to p. §3.11. Negation: This is denoted by po ~p or ap The negation of any proposition is generally obtained by using NOT at the appropriate place in that proposition. For example,1. If p =' This flower is pink ' then ~ p =' This flower is not pink ' 2. If q =' The triangle ABC is equilateral ' then ~ g = ' The triangle ABC is not equilateral ' W Truth Table for Negation P g and is read as ' p implies q' In p > q, piscalled antecedent and q is called consequent. For example, If p =' xisanatural number 'and q ='*x is positive'then p => 4 = * Ifx is natural number then x is positive ' Since here both the component propositions p and q are true, consequently p Vv q will alsoSe ae Truth. Table for implication From the table, it is clear that p => q is false iff p is true and q is false and is truc in all other cases. 2 eps ree eT Remarks. p => should not always be interpreted that q is deducible from p. If p and q both propositions arc True ( False ) and there is no logical relation between them, even then p = q will be True. ‘Therefore whenever the truth values of p and q are same ( T for both or F for both), then pand q are not necessarily logically related. This will be more clear by the following examples : Ex, 1. If p = ' Two triangles are congruent ' W and q =" Their corresponding sides are proportional ' then p => gq =' Ifhwo triangles are congruent, then their corresponding sidés are proportional’ Here the implication proposition p => q is true, because q can be deduced by the logical laws .Therefore the truth table of implication will be : q Pee Ex2. If p='st+ and q =' 1is divisor of every number ' then p => q ='If5+3=8 then J is divisor of every number ' Hereboth the propositions p and q are true but there is no logical relation among them, even then the proposition p => q is true, because the conclusive proposition q is true. Therefore the truth table of this implication proposition will be : 7a [rsa T Lf T Ex.3,If p ='5+3=8' q =" 0 is divisor of every number ' then p => q ='If5+3=8, then 0 is divisor of every number ' Here the implication proposition p => q is false, because the conclusive Proposition q is false even if p is true. ‘Therefore the truth table of this proposition will be : P q p24 T F, F Ex. 4, If p = ‘Every angle of an equilateral triangle is 50° q = ' The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is equal to the sum of the remaining two sides ' i00} Miscrete Mathematics then p => q = ' Ifevery angle of an equilateral triangle is 50°, then the hypotenuse right angled triangle is equal to the sum ofthe remaining two sides ' Here both the propos pand q are false and p is not logically related with g (i.¢., p can not be deduced from ¢), fan case the implication proposition is taken to be truc. Therefore the truth table for this Proposition | will be as shown. Negation of conditional statement : If p and q are two propositions, then ~(p>4)= pa~q The following truth tables for ~ (p > q) and pa ~ q are identical. / For example, write the negation of the following proposition : "If it is raining, then the college is closed”. Let p = "Itis raining", and q = "The college is closed". We have, ~q = "The college is not closed." Now, ~(pra)epa~q therefore ~ (PQ) = "Itis raining and the college is not closed.” $343. Converse of conditional Statement : Let p — 4 beaconditional statement, then 7 — P is called its converse. For example, "If X is a labourer, then he is poor." Its converse is the following statement : "If X is poor, then he is a labourer." ABs. Inverse of Conditional Statement : Let p — 4 bea conditional statement, then ~ p—~ @ is called its inverse or opposite. For example : " IX is a labourer, then he is poor." Its inverse is the following statement. "IX is not a labourer, then he is not poor." 15, Contra positiveof conditional statement : oo Tee ee) 5 4 bea conditional statement, then ~ q > ~ P iscalleditscontraposiine Boe For example, " If X is a labourer, then he is poor its contrapositive statement is . - nifX is nat Poor, then he is not a labourer.a ee AE.16, Biconditional ‘When two propositions and ¢ are combined by theconnective' Ifandonly if? ( iff) then the so obtained following proposition is called the biconditional proposition of p and q (or equivalent ). This is expressed as POqgo peg This is also read as ' pif and only if q' or ‘p iff q' ee *p then and only then when q' For example, If p =" Inverse of matrix A exists‘ and q = ‘|A| #0" then p <= q =! Inverse of matrix A exists iff |] # 0° Truth Table for Biconditional P q|e>4|a>p] ped T T T T T a F F Tr f ee T T F F Fr. - r T = From the above table, it is clear that p <> q is true iff its both components p and q are Truc or False simultancously , When truth value of its both the components are same. Remark : Biconditional is commutative i.c., PSeqtqep #2' and q ='a ‘a= if gad é ='If @ = #2' then a’ = 4 andif a? = 4 then a = +2' Itis clear that if p is true then q will be truc and if q is true then p will be true. Consequently, p <> is true. For example, If p then = peg §3.17. Negation of Biconditional statement : Ifp and g are two propositions, then ~(poqg)=(pr~a)v(aa~ ep) For example : the negation of the biconditional statement, " It is cold iff it is raining", is "Itis cold and it is not raining or it is raining and it is not cold." \ 43.18, Logical Equivalence : Definition: Two propositions pand q are said to.be e mivalent if their truth tables are identical all logical possibilities, their truth values are same, \> The equivalence of the two propositions is expressed using the following symbols * =" or ee oro eye \ Inorder to prove the equivalence of the two propositions, their truth tables are prepared. If the columns of their tables are identical, then the propositions are said to be equivalent otherwise not, Remark : Ifthe number ofatomic propositions ofa compound proposition isn, then there Will be 2” possible truth values. Consequently, the truth table of this compound proposition will have 2” rows.§3.19. Some Standard Logical Equivalent Statements: Let p, g. r, ...be the simple propositions and P and Q be the compound propositions made up of these simple propositions. Then P and Q can be written in the form P(p.q.r,...) and Onan...) If P and Q are logically equivalent, then this is gencrally written as P(pan...)2O(pan...) It can be easily seen that @ If P(Ran...)=O(pan.- thn O(p.qr...)=P(pan... @ If P(pan...)=O(pan... and O(p.an...)=R( pan then P(pan...)=R( pq §3.20. Algebra of Propositions: Propositions satisfy the following important laws : Let _p, q, rbe the propositions. 1. Double Negative Law : Pp =~(~p) Proof : Truth Table Since 1st and 3rd columns of the table are identical, therefore ~(~p)=p 2. Idempotent Laws : @pvp=p OPprp=p Proof : Truth Table Since all the three columns of the above truth table are identical, Geneiap all the three Propositions are equivalent. 3. Contraposition Laws : P>q2~q>~?P Proof : Truth Table Pope pse ps ae esr ee iP T F Fr ¥ Z T a r Sue third and sixth columns of the above truth table are identical, therefore both the ss Jont(@)PYd=avp )pAqd=qnp Proof. Truth Table 6. Associative Laws: @ (pva)vr= py(qvr) ) (pag)ar= pagar) Proof. (a) Truth Table q (pyq)vr (b) Similarly Truth tablecan be written. Distributive Laws: > @ patavr)=(paag)v(par) 6) py (qar)=(pya)a(pyr) Proof. (a) Truth Table (pag)y (par) v T T T F T a, T F Since 5" and 8" columns are identical, therefore PAa(avr)=(prq)y (par) (4) Similarly Truth table can be written.8. Identity laws: @ paTz=p © pvT=T 9. Complement laws : @ py~p=T @) © ~T=F @ ~F= 11. De Morgan's Laws : @ ~(pya)=~pr~q (6) ~(paq)= py~q © ~(p4)=pa~q @ ~(peq=pe~q=~pegq Proof : (a) Truth Table [e[a[eve evar? [-*]enacn ] Fourth and seventh columns are identical. Hence proved. (6) Truth Table p| 4 ~(pra)|~e [~9[ PvE) pale F F F F rl: # T P 7 T Fue ‘ z = T FLE r. Fourth and seventh columns are identical. Hence proved.. TruthTable Since Fourth and sixth columns are identical, Therefore both the propositions are equivalent, (@) Similarly, truth tables can be written and proved easily. Example : Prove that : Po9=(p>q)r(q>p) Sol. Truth Table ply p>al a=p| ped | (p>aau=e) T T ir T T 7 T oF F T F p F Tr T F F F A F Tr Deen? fr Since last two columns are identical , therefore p< qand(p => q)A(q = p)are equivalent propositions. §3.21. Tautology : Definition : * A tautology is a proposition which is true for all truth values of its subpropositions or components. A tautology is also called logically valid or logically true. Clearly in truth tables, all entries in the column of tautology are of '7" only. For example: p => pp > P,P Y(~ P) are tautologies since the truth values are’ T'' in all the logical possibilities Examples of Tautology Ex.1. Show that p v (~ p) isa tautology. Sol. Truth Table Lao or ae F Since the third column contains all 7" s, therefore the given proposition is a tautology. Ex.2. Prove the following tautologies : (a) ~{pa(~ P)} (6) po(~p)erPae eee ee Sol. Truth Tables for (a) and (5) Since fourth and the last column contain all 7''s , therefore (a) and (6) are tautologics, Ex.3, Show that the proposition pv ~ (p © q) isa tautology. Sol. Truth Table T a r Since the last column contains only 7''s , therefore the given proposition is a tautology. Ex.4, Show that {(p = q) 0 p} = q isatautology. . Sol. Truth Table pla lp2a [waanr esas] ee |i ay ae Gi T T(r |e F r ere en F T Beltee |ak F r Since the last column contains all 7''s , therefore the given proposition is a tautology. § 3.22. Contradiction or Fallacy: Definition : The proposition which is False for all the logical possibilities is called the Contradiction or Fallacy . Thus the last column of the truth table contains only /"' s. For example, ' This is a white flower and this flower is not white is a fallacy because ils component propositions are in contradiction. Examples of Fallacy Ex. 1. Prove that p 0 (~ p) is a fallacy. Sol. Truth Table Since the last column contains all F's therefore the given proposition is a fallacy:habia: sartenrnescisincemie el Peaknt Ex. 2. Showthat (p 1» 4)a ~ (pv q) ieafallacp =a Truth Table (pag) ~ (pv) sass |S Since the last column contains all #"'s , therefore the given proposition is a fallacy. Ex.3, Show that pq and (~ p) v (~ q) are contradictory propositions. Sol. Truth Table pie i ki Bet Spt | oy (~ p)v (~ 4) a r T F F F a F F F T T F T F T F T Ee F F T 7 z Observing the third and the last columns, itis clear that the propositions are contradictory. Ex. 1. Show that the proposition (pag)a~(pya) is a contradiction. Sol. Truth Table pla [esa] eva | ~(ev9) (pag)a~(pva) | a T a 7, F F r F F - F ¥ F e F ¥ F ¥ F F F 7 = F Since the truth value of the above proposition is /* for all values of P and Q, it isa contradiction. Ex. 2. "If (p) = triangle ABC is a right-angle triangle, then (q) 2 then. = |ABl +|Bcf = ACT - State its converse, inverse and contra-j -positive. Sol. The given proposition is P —* 7 (a) The converse of the preposition (1) is > P, ie, "IE | AB + +|BcP =|4ci, then triangle ABC isa right-angle triangle." (6) The inverse of the preposition (1) is P > 7 is (~ p) > (~49), ie. "If triangle ABC is nota right-angle triangle, thenSS a, \aBP +|BcP # ac? (c) The contrapositive of the proposition (1) is (~ q) > (~ p), ie, "If |ABl +|BC|* #|AC/? then triangle ABC is not a right-angle triangle, §3.23. Predicates and Quantifiers: A predicate is aword or words ina sentence which express the nature of the subject, For example, Every rational number is a real number is predicate, But if this sentence ig written as For every x, if x is a rational number, then x is a real number, then x is a rational number is new predicate. Quantifiers : Quantification is powerful technique to create a statement from a propositional function, §3.24. Universal Quantifier(\y): Let P (x) be the statement function defind on a set A. Then the universal quantification of a predicate P (x) is the statement Jor all values of x€ A, P(x) is true, It is expressed in either of the following ways : VxeA;P(x), VxP(x) « P(x)VxeA, « P(x) istruc forall xe 4 The symbol Vy is called universal quantifier. Theabove statementsare alsodefined tobe equivalenttathestatement {x € A; P(x) }= 4. § 3.25, Existential Quantifier (3): Let P (x) be the statement function defined on a set A. Then the existential quantification of predicate P (x) is the statement there exists at least one value x € A for which P(x) is true. It is expressed in either of following ways : 3xe A, P(x), 3 xP(x) axeA P(x), P(x) istrue forsome xe A The symbol 3 is called the existential quantifier. The above statement also defined to be equivalent to the statement {xe A:P(x)= 6}. §3.26. Multiple quantifier : / ; ; Any statement with more than one variable can be quantified using multiple quantifiers can be arranged in any order without changing the meaning of the statement. For example, P(x,y):x?-y=y?-x is true for each pair of variable (x,y) RxR The assertion that P(x, y) is a tautology can be quantified as (Wx)(Wy)(P(x¥)) oF (Wy)(¥e)(P(%2))eee ——— § 3.27. Properties of Quantifiers : (1) DeMorgan's law (Negation of Quantified statements) : (a) ~ Vx: P(x) = 3x;% P(x) (b) ~ Sx; P(x) = Vx; ~ P(x) Q) (a) 3x(P(x)) = Q(x) = Vx P(x) = 3xO(x) (b) 3x P(x) = Vx Q(x) = Wx(P(x)) > O(x) (©) 3x(P(x)) VQ(x) = 3x P(x)v 3xQ(x) (d) ~ (x ~ P(x)) = Wx P(x) For example, Over the universe of animals, let A(x): xisawhale B(x): xisa fish C(x) : x lives in water Translate the following in your own words : (a) 3x(~ C(x)) () (3x){B(x)a ~ A(x)} © (¥x)(A(x) A C(x) = B(x) Sol. (a) There exists an animal which does not live in water. (b) There exists a fish that is not whale. (© Every whale that lives in water isa fish. Normal form : Let 4(p,, po: If has truth table, 7 for at least one combination of truth values of pj, p2,...., Pq, then A is said to be satisfiable, The problem of finding whether a given statement is tautology or contradiction or satisfiable in the finite number of steps, is called decision problem. For decision problems, the Construction of truth tables may not be practical always. We therefore consider alternate Procedure known as reduction to normal form. , Py) bea statement formula where p), p2,...., Py are atomic variable, §3.28. Some Important terms: @) Minterm or fundamental conjunction : A conjuction of statement variables or their negations is called minterm Ifp is the variable then p and ~p is minterm Ifp and q are the variables , then PA g, PA~ q,~ PAG, PA~ PAG are mimerm, Gi) Maxterm or fundamental Disjunction : , A disjunction of statement variables or their negation is called maxterm. For example, p.~ P.~ PY 9. PY 9. PY ~ PV q are maxterm.§3.29. Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF): A statement form which consists of disjunctions of fundamental conjunctions, jg called disjunctivenormal form orin another words, Astatement which consists ofa sum of clemefitary is equivalent to given statement is called a DNF. Examples of DNF : products of propositional variables ang @ (paqar)v(par)y(qar) @ (paqjv~q @) (pagqar)ver DNF is also found by truth table method. For this, letp be the statement form containing n variables py, P2,...., Py for each row in which p assumes value 7, form the conjuction PLA P2 Koo ~ PjA.---- Py where Py is put, if there is Tin the jth position in the row and ~ P; if there is F, Such a term is called minterm. The disjuction of minterm is the DNF of the given form Ex. 1. Obtain the DNF of the form (p > q) s(~ p.aq). Sol. Let us write the given proposition as (p> q)=~pvq [Elimination of conditions} Also it is written as (~ pv a)a(~ pag) Using distributive law, (~ pa~ pag)v(qa~ pag) Using distributive law, (~ pag)y(~ pa~q). Ex. 2. Obtain the DNF of the form (~ p > r)\(p © q). Sol. Solution by truth table method : q rooore (por) (pea) (ponies | SUTRA] Ss Here the rows of p, q, r in which has truth value 7’ appears in the last column, Hence required DNF is (pagqar)v(paga~r)v(~pA~qar).| called a Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF), 3.30. Conjunctive Normal Foam (@NB OO 3.30. Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) A stat vhic i statement form which consists of a Conjunction of fundarhental disjunctions is ExamplesofCNF: () par Q) ~ pa(pyr) Note. CNF is a tautology iff fundamental disjunction contained in it is a tautology. Ex.1. Obtain the CNF of the form (ps q)v(~ paqar). Sol. (pAq)V (~ pagar) Wehave ((p v(~ pAgar))A(qv(~paqa r))) (Using Distributive law) [py ~ p)a(pyva)a(pyr)]a[(av~ p)a(ava)a(avr)] Using idempotent law, (pva)a(pyr)a[(py~ p)aga(avr)] Ans. Ex. 2. Obtain the CNF of the form : (pv ~q) > q- Sol. Using Demorgan's law, ~(py~q)vq (Using Demorgan law) (~ pa~(-a))v9 (by Complement law) (~paaq)va -) (~ py a)a(qva) > (~ pag) aq which is the required CNF. §3.31, Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF): Fora given formula an equivalent formula consisting of disjunctions of minterms only is known as its Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF). For every truth value in the truth table of the given statement, choose the minterm which also has the value 7 for some combinations of truth values ofp and g. The sum of these minterms gives PDNF. Ex. 1, Obtain the principal disjunctive normal form of the following: @ pq (b) Pv ( ~(pra) Sol. The truth table of above statement: ——2h_Ihe truth table of above $$$ — — — ————————__—__— mass]. @.-pyq. pa~qg Pag —(PAg) POT -~ PAG ~Pa~d r r. F f. F T F F F T T iF r F F F T 7 F F x T T F if LuR pear. T F rOE aR ETAL Aa ALS ATTA Then = (a) p> 9 = (pAq)v(~ Pag)v(~ PA~q) () pv gq = (paq)y(pa~a)v(~ pag) (© ~(paq)=(pr~a)v(~ pra)v(~ pra~a) Ex. 2. Obtain PDNF of p > [(p > 9) 4-(~ av ~ p)]- Sol. p> q=~pvq = p>[(p>4)ax(-av~p)] = ~py[(~pva)a(gar)] => ~py[-pa(gap)]v[qa(aaer)] [By distributivity property) ee EM UA) [- pap=F => ~pa(av~q)v(qap) [putting gv ~ 4] > (= pray = pa~av(an). §3.32. Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNF): For a given statement an equivalent statement consisting of conjunctions of the maxterms only is known as Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNF). For making PCNF by truth table, for every truth value F in the truth table of the given statement, select the maxterm whichalso has the value F for some combination of the truth values of the variables involved in the statement and product of this maxterms is the required PCNF. For example, The PCNF of (~ p > r)a(q@ p) (~p>r)a(q@ p) = (pyr)a(~qv p)a(av~pP) => (pyr)y(ga~a)a(-ay p)y(ra~r)a(~ pva)y(ra~r) = (pyrva)a(pyry ~q)a(~ay pyr)a(-av py ~r) a(-pvavr)a(~ pyvay~") => (pyayr)A(py~avr)a(py~av-r) a(-pvavr)a(~ pv av ~r) is given PCNF Note. For finding PCNF from PDNF ‘or vice versa, we have to use Demorgan's law on the given statement. 3.33. Argument: Anargument isan assertion, thata group of proposition called premises yields an other propositon, called the conclusion. F : s Let Pj, P: Pp be the group of propositions that yields the conclusion Q. Then, it 1s Pores Pa denoted as Pi, Par» Pal “2ge ee (a) Valid Argument: Anargument is ‘called valid argument ifthe conclusion is true whenever all the premises are true, The argument is also valid iff the ANDing of the group of propositions implies conclusion isa tautology is P(?}. P2,..... Py») > Q is tautology. (b) Falacy Arguments An agument is called falacy if it is not a valid argument, Elementary Valid Argument forms : (1) Modus Ponens or law of detachment pq q , Proof. The truth table of this rule is as follows : The pis the ture in line 1 and2 and p > q and p both are true in line p landp, P > 7 and q all true in line 1. Hence argument is valid. (2) Modus tollens : pod ~q: “~P Proof. The truth table of above proposition : | q Sap a F pq istrue inline 1,3 and 4, ~q is true in the line 2 and 4. Both p > 4 and~qare true in line 4, ~ p is also true in line 4 so argument is valid. pwd q>r apor (3) Hypothetical syllogism : Proof. The truth table of above rule SAS2 tad Mb denene tantra the oleate tiasstetetc P~ q istrucinlines 1,2,5,6,7,8; 9 — 7 istrucinlines 1, 3,4, 5,7,8 Both P~ and q >? aretrueinlines 1, 5,7, 8, P ~F isalso true in lines 1, 5, 7, 8. Hence argument is valid. ) Disjunctive syllogism : PYG nop nq Proof. The truth table of above rule is as follows : r PY @ is truein line 1, 2and3~pistrue inthe line 3. Both p Vv q and ~p are also true in line 3 as q is also true in line 3, Hence the argument is valid, (5) Constructive Dilemma : (p> a)a(r ss) pyr .qvs Proof. pq and rs (6) Absorption : po Proof, Since the argument is tautology. Hence the argument is valid, (7) Simplification : paq P Proof. The truth table of above argument is as follows Pq istrue inline 1 and p is also true in line 1. Hence the argument is valid,cr Re ay eee en eae ee (8)Conjuction: Pp q _PAq Proof. P q | PAG [ PAG>PAG t iT T Er T F F F T F E E F As proposition is (9) Addition : pistrue in line 1 and 2and pV q isalso truc in line 1 and 2. Hence argument is valid. Rules of Inference p> (pva) Addition (paq>P Simplification ee a ((p)4(9)) > (pag) [(p 24) A(¢7)]>(2>7) | Hypothetical syllogismpein Whaat ccpelbenisieclisn demteticniccinetat je oe [(pva)a(~p)]>@ Disjunctive syllogism P>q ent [(p>a)alrs)a(pvr)] c Balas (qv's) Constructive dilemma ogvs pq ros ( Pq) A(r 5) A(-pv~s) eeeay lu ic i ( u Destructive dilemma “pyr | | §3.34. Proof of Validity : We can test the validity of any argument by constructing the truth table, but as the number of variable statements increases, the truth tables. ‘grow unwieldly, so more efficient method to test the validity of the argument and to deduce its conclusion from its premises by a sequence of elementary arguments each of which is known to be valid. Ex. 1. Prove thatthe argument p > 4, qr, r > S,~ 8, pv t|-t isvalidwithout using truth table. | So. pq (given) qrr (given) ros (given) ~s (given) pvt (given) © por [Hypothetical syllogism using (1) and (2) ] pos [Hypothetical syllogism using (6) and (3) ] ~p [Modus tollens using (7) and (4) ] t [Disjunctive syllogism using (5) and (8) ] i validity of the following argument without using truth table. i a dhe el [pass char if I donot go to picnic, then I will study. But! failed in examination. Therefore, I went to picnic. Sol. Let p > I study q > I will pass examination 1 > Igo to picnic Writing the arguments symbolically, we have pod ~t>p mP : A) pod (given)ETOPOSHIONGE LOGIC | VY ret (given) -Q) ~? (given) +@) ~(~1) [Modus tollens using ¢2) and (3) }...(4) a [ Using complement law using (4) | ...(5) Hence the argument is vali Ex. 3. Determine the validity of following argument using deduction method : Ifthe market is free then there is no inflation, If there is no inflation then there are price controls. Since there are price controls, therefore, the market is free. Sol. Let p > Market is free q — there is inflation r —» There are price control, Writing arguments, Ans, Po~q = bie : Di po~q (given) -(1) I@apir (given) ++(2) por [ Hypothetical syllogism using (1) and (2) ...(3) aPeet — [ Transposition using (3) ] ...(4) r (given) 4 «(5) ~[~2] [ Modus tollens using (4) and (5) ] ...(6) Pp [complement of (6) ] ...(7) Hence the argument is valid. Ans. Ex. 4, Test the validity of the following argument : Ina triangle ABC, P,= if AB=AC, then ZACB=ZABC Pp, = AB#AC Q= ZACB# ZABC Sol. Let p = AB=AC zand q = ZACB=ZABC Then the given argument isp > q,~ P}-~4q ie, [(p 3 a)a~plo~a Truth Table The given argument is a fallacy since [(p > 9) ~ p] > ~q is nota tautology. _ + We can also observe that in the third row of the truth table p -> ¢ and ~ Pare true but ~ Tis false, hence the argument is a fallacy. a *Fare ae Te ee ee eee Ex.S, Test the validity of the following argument : "If it is good pen, then it is Parker pen. It is a Parker pen, therefore it is a good pen.' Sol. Let p = ' Jt isagood pen' and q =' Itis a Parker pen’ Therefore the given argumentis : (p > 9) Aq /(p) Here the premises of the argument is :' p => q! and the conclusion is ' p' Assuming the conclusion false, the truth table is obtained as under Both the premises of the first row are true whereas the conclusion Pis false. Consequently, the given proposition is invalid. Ex. 6, Test the validity of the following argument : ‘If my brother stands first in the class, Iwill give him a watch. Either he stands First or Iwas out of station. I did not give my brother a watch this time. Therefore I was out of station. ' Sol. Let p = ' My brother stands first in the class" : 4 = ' Iwill give him awatch' and» =‘ Iwas out of station * Therefore the given argument is : (p=a)a(pyr)a(~a) Kr) Here the premisesare: p> q,pyr.~q The conclusion is : =. 'J was out of Station ' Suppose the result p is not true, then the logic will be valid when at least one Proposition is false among the given propositions. Therefore taking all the values of r, we obtain the truth table as follows : Conclusion Proposition g Bang, BN ~4q Pp i x. F T 7 F T|F F F ir T Fi? F T F F ELF E. ic E T. We observe that in the last rows of three columns, there is at least one' F'i.e., at least one proposition is false for each possible case. . Examine the validity of the following arguments a tye fa Tomorrow then Ishall bring my umbrella, provided itis repaired, Iewill rain tomorrow but my umbrella is not repaired, therefore I shall not bring my umbrella nea Sol Let p = ‘It will rain tomorrow '; q = 'Ishall bring my umbrella * an p= 'Repaining of umbrella’ Then the given argument is :Oe ne p=(r=9q)a(pa~r) - (~9) The premises of this logic are : : p= (r= q),pa(~r) The conclusion of the logic : ~q (Ishall not bring my umbrella) Let ~@ is not true, therefore the truth value of ~g for all the possibilitis will be F. Then thetruth value of g will be 7. Therefore taking all the truth values of~q (Taking all values of q tobe 7), the truth table is as follows : Propositions Since the result of the logic has been assumed as false, therefore this logic will bevalid when at Ieast one of the given propositions is false. But the truth value of the conclusion (~q ) is F,even if in the seco: truth values of all the propositions are 7. Ex.8, Examine the validity of the following argument : nd row of the table, the Prices are high orthereareprice controls. Ifthere "“Ifpricesare high then wagesare high. thereisan inflation. Therefore wages are high. areprice controls then thereis not an inflation, Sol. Let p = 'Pricesare high"; q = ' Wagesare high’ = 'Notan inflation ' ' Prices are under control’ and 5 = a Then the logic of the premises are + ped PV ts mS and its conclusion is : q Assuming q to be false, its truth table is obtained as under : Proposition re F u saasss]- | pn AAA SAAD __ Since the truth value of at least one proposition in each row is F, therefore the given logic 'Svalid,§ 3.35. Methods of Proving the Theorems : | A theorem is a conclusion based on certain hypotheses called its axioms, hy by mathematical reasoning the conclusion is reached, Since many theorems are implication, techniques for proving implication are important, In this chapter we will discuss the Most cong, techniques for proving implication the descriptions of methods of proof are discussed beloy, 2 Me gd For proving the theorems statements and results etc., the method using genericelemenis | definitions, previously proven facts, examining all possible Truth Value situations in Truth Tab are known as direct methods. It means that in this method a chain of statements beginning with premises ofa’ theorem | are considered to show the truth of the theorem's conclusion. So direct proof the implication | P ~ 4 canbe proved by showing that if p is true, then g must be true. Ex. 1, Let the following statements be true - Itis snowing - Ifitis warm, then itis not snowing - Ifitis not warm, then I cannot go to swimming Show that the statement I cannot go for swimming is true statement. Sol. p ~ itis snowing; q itiswarm, ——_r — Icangotoswimming wehave = p.q=>~ p and ~q=>-r are true then we have to show that - r is true. Since ¢ =~ p istrue Its contrapositive p =>~ r isalsotruc, since p = -q and ~ g = —r thenas perthe law of syllogisms p =~ r. Since statement p is true, therefore the statement ~r must be true. 2 Ex. 2. For all natural number n, n® +n isan even number, Sol.Giventhat n?+n=2k, keN Now we split the proof into two cases : Case 1. 1 is even, let n= 2r, then n?4n=4r? +2r = 2(9-2 47) 2 sowetake k= (2r? +r) Case 2. mis odd, let n= 2r+ 1 n? n= (45? +441) +(25 +1) = 2(25? +3s +1) 2 so here we take k= (2s +3541), Here we consider all possibilities, so result is true. . Ex.3, Prove that the sum of two rational numbers isrational. all Sol. To begin, suppose that rand sare rational numbers. From: the: definitionofa rat 7 | number, it follows that there are integers p and q, with q # 0, such that r=p/q, and integers” 2a is i is rational and u, with y ¢ 0, such that s=¢/u, Can we use this information to show that r + 18 atic } wo eRe UL ta, gad 78 GU ae |srr nance ‘The obvious next step is to add r= p/qand s=1/u, to obtain pese Pela Beat que Git Because 7 # 0 and y #0, it follows that qu # 0. Consequently, we have expressed +sasthe ratio of two integers, pu + gt and qu, where qu # 0. This means that r+ sis rational, Indirect method of proofs are : 1. Contradiction method, based on (p3q)a~d 2. Contrapositive method, based on x(p 39) 3(~9 3 ~P) 3. Proof by exhaustive cases 4, Induction Method etc. §3.36. Contradiction'method : This method is based on the tautology (paa)a(~a)a(~P) orifa statement p = a false statement q. To show that a statement q logically follows from the statements p), ?2,-- Pp are also true. «Py ASSUME that ~q is ture (i.e. q is false) as an extra hypothesis, and that pj, P2--- Ex. 1. Prove that [3 isan irrational number. Sol. Ifpossible, let 7 bea rational number of the form p/q where p.q 2.9 #0 and pand q are mutually prime i.e. there is no common factor. Therefore J2 = p/q => p = V2q => P= 29? = p? isaneven integer .) “

p even] ...(A) Againlet p= 2m,meZ .-.Q) then (1) and (2) =» 2g? = (2m)? => 24 = 4m? = q? = an? = @° isalso an even integer .B) (A) and (B) > P and q both are even integers. = 2 is common factors between p and q \Which contradict the assumption of p and q to be mutually prime. ‘Therefore the original assumption of y2 tobea rational number is wrong. Hence J is irrational. : e To disprove the result, we nced only find one example called counter ‘example for which the implication is false. Since (—3)? = 3? but (-3) #3 . the result is false.BM} LUSCrEle HIGEREMALCS Ex. 2. Given an indirect proof of the theorem " If 3n + 2 is odd, then nis odd.” Sol. Assume that the conclusion of this implication is false; namely. assume that 7 is even. The n= 2k for some integer k . It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k)+2 =6k +2 =2(3k4 1) so 3n + 2 is even (since it isa multiple of 2) and therefore not odd. Because the negation of the conclusion of the implication implies that the hypothesis is false, the original implication ig true. 3 Ex. 3. Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem " If 3n + 2is odd, then nis odd,” Sol. We assume that 31 + 2 is odd and that 7 is not odd, so that 7 is even. Following the same steps as in the earlier solution, we can show that ifn is even, then 3n + 2 is even. This contradicts the assumption that 37 + 2 is odd, completing the proof. Ex. 4. Prove or disprove the statement that if x and y are real numbers, (x? = y?)@ (x=). | Sol. The statement can be restared in the form Vx Vy R(x, y). Thus, to prove this result, we would need to provide steps, cach of which would be true for all x and y. §3.37. Contrapositive method: (p > yg) =(~4q =~ p) This states that an implication is equivalent to its contradiction. Thus to prove p = q indirectly, we assume q is false (the statement ~ q ) and show that p is then false (the statement ~ p). This method of proof is closely related by proof of contradiction. This method consists of three stages : (1) Given a statement q that we wish to prove (2) Assume the opposite, ~ q (3) Deduce a statement p that is known to be false. Ex. 1. Let n be an integer that if n? is odd, then n is odd. Sol. Let p : n? is odd and q: n is odd. We have to prove that p = q istrue. Instead, we prove the contrapositive ~q = ~ P. "Thus suppose that 1 is not odd, so that 7 is even, Then n= 2k, where k is an integer We have n? = (2k)? = 4k? = 2(2k)?, 0 n? is even. We thus show that ifn is even, than n? is even, which is the contrapositive of the given statement. pai = Hence the given statement has been proved. : : Ex, 2. ‘Show that there is no prime number n other than three for which, n+ 1is@ fect square. va Proof. We have to prove the statement mis.a prime => (n +1) is not a perfect square. Son + 1 is perfect square = 7 is not prime Iflet n+1= 0?=(m+1)(m=1) Since n is expressed as the product of number (m + 1) and (m — 1). Itis not prime unless the smaller: number /7— Lis 1. In this case m = 2 and n = 3, n= 3 is the only possibility. §3.38. Proof by Exhausting cases: If Pj; P2>----s Pn be the set of alternate premises of a conclusion g, then we have PLY P2ssVPn OO The tautology [(ar ¥ P2 Yo Pn) 4] @[(r1 9 9) a (Pp 29) A A (Pn > O)] So each of p; + q should be true. Ex. 1. Prove that " If n is an integer not divisible by 3, then n® = \ (mod 3) Sol. Let p : 1 be not divisible by 3 and q: »,2 = 1 (mod 3) Then p = pj V pz where p, =n = 1 (mod3), pp =n = 2 (mod 3) Herewehavetoshowthat p > q. Forthiswehavetoshowthat p; > g and p2 > q. First let p; be true, then 7 = 1 (mod 3). So=n=3k+ 1 for some integer k This? = (3k +1)? = 9k? + 6k +1=3(3k? + 2k) 41 = 3m 41 m= 3k? + 2k isan integer. so pj > q is true. Now let p2 be true, then n = 2 (mod 3) = so n = 3k +2 for some integer k Thus pn? = (3k +2)" =9k? 12k +4 =e 3(3k? 44k +1)+1 => 3m, +1 where m, — 3k? + 4k +1 isan integer 80. Pat @ Since p) > q, pz > qistrue,so P > 7 is also true.1. Examine the following tautologie: ( Hit rains then the crop will be good. It did not rain therefore the crop will not be good, (ii) If it rains then the crops are good and crops were not good, therefore it did not rain, Examine the validity of the following arguments on the basis of truth table : (Q2-5) 2. ‘Either the candidate is not good at studies or paper is out of course. Paper is not out of course, therefore candidate is not good at studies.’ 3. ‘If Anjugets married, I shall present hera saree. Either she got married or Iwas out ofstation, I did not present her a saree, therefore | was out of station." 4. 'Ibring sweets on the birth day of my child. Either it is the birth day of my child oI work in the office for late hours. Today I did not bring sweets for my child, therefore] worked inthe office for late hours." 5. Acompany makes the following declaration for its office clerks. A clerk who passes Hindi examination in first attempt, will be given an advanced increment. Five clerks 4, B, C, D, E appeared in Hindi examination first timeand A, B passed theexamination, The company also gave advanced increments to Cand D togetherwith and B. claims theadvanced increment comparing himself with C and D but the Company refuses. Is the refusal of the Company is justified ? How should the statement be worded so that only A and B will be entitled for advanced increment. [ Hint : The declaration by the company isin the form p => q, therefore valid. Only Aand B gets increment, for that the proposition should be in the form p > q ] 6. Check the validity of following statement : (a) Smoking is healthy, if smoking is healthy then cigarettes are prescribed by physicians, so cigarettes are prescribed by physicans. (b) Iftherewasa ball game, then travalling was difficult, ifthey arrived ontime, then; travelling was not difficult, They arrived on time, therefore, there was no ball game. 7. Find the DNF of following : (@) p> [(p 3 9)a~(~ pv ~P)] 0) ~[p > (gar)] 8. Find the CNF of following : @) (py ~49)>(~ Par) ) (av (par))a~((pyr)ag) 9. Find the PDNF of following : @ aa(py~a) ) p> (PA(q> P)) 10, Findthe PCNF of following: @ (~p>r)ae pP) ) (9 P)A(~ Pa) Exercise pine 1. (a) False (6) True a / 2. Valid. 3. Valid. 4, Valid: 5. Valid. 7 @ (pa~ay(pagy(prn~q) ) (pA~a)y(pa~r) 8. (a) (pva)a(py~a)a(ay P) () (pv~paag)a(~qan~ryn") 9. (@) (pag) () (pag) (~ paayy(pa~a)v(~ Pra) ) (py g)al~ pv a) A(Py~aa~ (Pv ~4 a) 10.(a) (PAqAT)