Compressors

Maritime
Design, Construction, Fabrication, Inspection,
Root Maintenance,
Cause Analysis Operations and
Troubleshooting
Techniques
(RCAT)
Ntozelizwe Benjamin Mqenebe (Pr.Eng.(20120148))
Physical Workshop Session
24-25 April 2023
Secunda
 By Ntozelizwe Benjamin Mqenebe (Pr.Eng – Mechanical
Engineering)
Compressors Workshop
www.lizwe-engineers.com
Work Experience:
1. Umgeni Water (Graduate Engineer/System
Administrator/Reliability Engineering Manager)
2. E&PC (Aveng Water) – Senior Mechanical Engineer
3. VWS Envig (Veolia Environment) – Senior Mechanical
Engineer
4. EDAMS (Nelson Mandela Metro Municipality –
System Engineer (Operations & Maintenance)
5. Arcelormittal (Newcastle) – Senior Engineering
Manager
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 2
 EQUIPMENT LIFE CYCLE
1. Design

Equipment Life 2. Purchase

4. Disposal Cycle

Thursday, September 14, 23 3. Operation & Maintenance Page 3

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 4
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 5
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 6
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 7
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 8
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 9
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 10
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 11
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 12
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 13
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 14
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 15
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 16
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 17
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 18
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 19
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 20
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 21
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 22
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 23
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 24
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 25
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 26
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 27
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 28
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 29
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 30
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 31
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 32
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 33
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 34
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 35
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 36
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 37
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 38
 Compressors
• Explains the function of the compressor in a
Refrigeration System. Introduces information
on the Construction and use of Reciprocating,
Rotary, Helical, Scroll, and Centrifugal
Compressors.
 Compressors
We will cover the following:
• Compressor Motors
• Compressor Control
• Compressor Protection
 Compressors
We will cover the following in our conclusion:
• Preventive Maintenance
• Troubleshooting and
• Repair

For Compressors
Lesson 1: Introduction to Compressors
Topics to cover:
• Function of the Compressor
• Type of Compressors
• Applications of Compressors
Pneumatics: Air Preparation and components
Learning Objectives
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Apply the perfect gas laws to determine the interactions of pressure, volume, and
temperature of a gas.
2. Describe the purpose, construction, and operation of compressors.
3. Calculate the power required to drive compressors to satisfy system requirements.
4. Determine the size of compressor air receivers for meeting system pressure and flow-
rate requirements.
5. Explain the purpose and operation of fluid conditioners, including filters, regulators,
lubricators, mufflers, and air dryers.
6. Calculate pressure losses in pneumatic pipelines.
7. Perform an analysis of moisture removal from air using aftercoolers and air dryers.
8. Determine how the flow rate of air can be controlled by valves.
9. Describe the purpose, construction, and operation of pneumatic pressure control valves,
flow control valves, and directional control valves.
10. Discuss the construction and operation of pneumatic cylinders and motors.
11. Determine the air-consumption rate of pneumatically driven equipment.
What are Pneumatic systems?
It Pneumatic systems use pressurized gases to transmit and control power?

Why do we use pneumatic systems instead of hydraulic ones?

-Air exhibit smaller inertia than do liquids .

- Air exhibit smaller viscosity than do liquid.
- friendly media
- pneumatic systems are less expensive than hydraulic systems.

Limitations :
it is impossible to obtain precise, controlled actuator velocities with pneumatic systems.

Pressure
-Pneumatic pressures are quite low due to explosion dangers involved if components such
as air tanks should rupture (less than 250 psi)
- Hydraulic pressures can be as high as 12,000 psi.
Components of pneumatic system

Essentially the following six basic components are required for pneumatic systems:
1. Air generation and distribution unit which consist of the following parts
a. An air tank to store a given volume of compressed air
b. A compressor to compress the air that comes directly from the atmosphere
c. An -electric motor or other prime mover to drive the compressor
d. Air filter
e. Air dryer
f. Air lubricator
g. pressure and flow regulators
2. Piping to carry the pressurized air from one location to another
3. Valves to control air direction, pressure, and flow rate
4. Actuators

5.The sensors and transducers

6. The system display, physical magnitude measurement, and control devices
Industrial Applications

- stamping
-drilling
- hoisting
-punching
- clamping
-assembling
- riveting
- materials handling
-logic controlling operations.
 PROPERTIES OF AIR

• .The reference point is sea level, where the atmosphere exerts a pressure of 14.7 psia (101
kPa abs).

• When making pneumatic circuit calculations, atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia is used
as a standard. The corresponding standard specific weight value for air is 0.0752 lb/ft3 at
14.7 psia and 68°F (11.8 N/m3 at 101 kPa abs and 20°C).

• when making pneumatic circuit calculations, the term standard air is used. Standard
air is sea-level air having a temperature of 68°F, a pressure of 14.7 psia (20°C and
101 kPa abs), and a relative humidity of 36%.

Air elements
21% oxygen
78% nitrogen
1% other gases
up to 4% water vapor
 Use of Compressed Air

q compressors are used to compress and supply the necessary quantities of air.
Compressors are typically of the piston, vane, or screw type.
q Basically, a compressor increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume as
described by the perfect gas laws.
q Pneumatic systems normally use a large centralized air compressor, which is considered to
be an infinite air source similar to an electrical system where you merely plug into an
electrical outlet for electricity.
q Free air from the atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture. This moisture can be
harmful in that it can wash away lubricants and thus cause excessive wear and corrosion.
Hence, in some applications, air dryers are needed to remove this undesirable moisture.
q Since pneumatic systems exhaust directly into the atmosphere, they are capable of
generating excessive noise. Therefore, mufflers are mounted on exhaust ports of air valves
and actuators to reduce noise and prevent operating personnel from possible injury,
resulting not only from exposure to noise but also from high-speed airborne particles.
Absolute Pressures and Temperatures
THE PERFECT GAS LAWS

Boyle’s Law (A constant-temperature process)

Charles’ Law (A constant-pressure process.)
Gay-Lussac’s Law (A constant-Volume process)
General Gas Law
COMPRESSORS
Piston Compressor
-There are three types of Reciprocating Piston Compressor
- It operates very much like an internal combustion engine. Air enters through
an intake valve, is compressed, and exits through an exhaust valve

Range of pressure

Up to 400kPa (4bar/58psi) Single stage

Up to 1500kPa (15bar/217.5psi) double stage

Over 1500kPa (15bar/217.5psi) Trebel or multi stage

Single stage Reciprocating Piston Compressor
Operation
Air is drawn in through input valve during the intake stroke and compressed during the
compression stroke

Advantages
-Safety and reliability
- Available in different versions and pressure ranges and volume flow

Disadvantages
-heat loses because of high pressure
-Economical only for pressure from 8-10 bar for small deliveries and up to
4 deliveries for large deliveries

Multiple stage Reciprocating compressor

-A smaller pressure difference per stage is chosen
-Air is cooled between stages
Two-stage compressor
Single cylinder compressor
Screw type compressor
-it is a rotary compressor with two shafts
-It works according to displacement principle
-It deliveries continuous pressure (no pulsation or fluctuation )
-No intake or exhaust valves
-High power , little maintenance
- Can be build as oil free device

Two shaft rotary compressor Single shaft rotary compressor

Vane Rotary Compressor

-It is a single shaft rotary compressor working according displacement principle

-Intake and exhaust occur via the sliding vanes of an electrically mounted rotor
which decrease the volume of compression chamber from intake to exhaust
- The output has few pulsation
Diaphragm compressor

- In the diaphragm compressor, the piston pushes against a diaphragm, so the

air does not come in contact with the reciprocating parts .
- This type compressor is preferred for food preparation, pharmaceutical, and chemical
industries, because no effluent from the compressor enters the fluid.
Roots blower (Lobe compressor) or superchargers
-It is operated without internal compression
- It is often used when a positive displacement compressor is needed with high delivery
volume but low pressure (typically 1-2 bar).
- Operating pressure is mainly limited by leakage between rotors and
housing.
-it is possible for rotor to operates without contact, thus removing the need of lubrications
- This type of compressor is mainly used for pneumatic conveying
Axial flow compressor

-air is accelerated to a high speed by rotors.

-Air finally is passed though diffuser
-Kinetic energy is converted to pressure
-To reach high stage are connected in series

Radial flow compressor

-Kinetic energy is converted into pressure
-The intake air is axial with air direction being changed and exhausted radial
-Require little maintenance
-Needs several stages to reach high pressure
Air Capacity Rating of Compressors

t
Sizing of Air Receivers
Power Required to Drive Compressors
Compressor selection

Operation criteria
- Working pressure
- Volume
-Type of compressed air
Economic factor

-Investment and depreciation

-Installation
-Space usage
-Servicing and maintenance
-Additional equipment
FLUID CONDITIONERS
 Compressed air filtration

- A compressed air filter removes contaminants and water droplets from the air.
- As compressed air enters the filter bowl, it is forced to flow through the guide slots in the
baffle plate .
-As it makes the u-turn, the particles are centrifuged out and collect in the lower part of the
filter bowl.
- Condensate that collects in the bowl must be drained periodically.
-The filter has a manual drain or automatic drain.

In-line filters contain filter elements that remove contaminants in the 5- to 50-µm
range.
 Characteristics of Filters
1. size of particles they will stop (pore size)
pore size: the minimum particle size which can be filtered out
Particle size is measured in SI units of micrometres
- Dust particles are generally larger than 10/ µm
- Smoke and oil particles are around 1 /µm.
- < 0.01/µm particle size filter

Microfilters with removable cartridges passing air from the centre to the outside of the
cartridge case will remove 99.9% of particles down to 0.01/µm, the limit of normal
filtration.
-Coarse filters, constructed out of wire mesh and called strainers, are often used as
inlet filters.
These are usually specified in terms of the mesh size

2. Degree of separation (efficiency)

The percentage of particles of a particular size which can be separated out
Air Pressure Regulators
 Air Lubricators

A lubricator ensures proper lubrication of internal moving parts of pneumatic components.

Transformation oil into mist

 Pneumatic Pressure Indicators

- Pressure indicator that provides a two-color, two-position visual indication of air pressure.
- The rounded lens configuration provides a 180° view of the indicator status, which is a
fluorescent signal visible from the front and side.
-The indicator is easily panel-mounted using the same holes as standard electrical pilot
lights.

Ranges
0.5 to 30 psi
25 to 150 psi
45 to 150 psi.
Pneumatic Silencers (muffler)

A pneumatic exhaust silencer (muffler) is used to control the noise caused by a rapidly
exhausting airstream flowing into the atmosphere.
Aftercoolers

An aftercooler is a heat exchanger that has two functions.

-it serves to cool the hot air discharged from the compressor to a desirable level (about
80 to 100°F) before it enters the receiver.
- it removes most of the moisture from the air discharged from the compressor by virtue
of cooling the air to a lower temperature.
Air Dryers

Aftercoolers remove only about 85% of the moisture from the air leaving the
compressor.
Air dryers are installed downstream of aftercoolers when it is important to remove
enough moisture from the air so that the air will not become saturated as it flows
through the pneumatic system.
 Air dryer

The function of this device is to remove water vapor contains from compressed air

1. Drying by Cooling (low temperature drying)

-The air is passed through a heat-exchanger system which a refrigerant flows

- reducing the temperature of air to dew point (+2 ºC to +5 ºC)
-The air is heated again to ambient temperature
2. Adsorption drying
- The lowest equivalent dew points (down to -90°C) can be achieved by means of
adsorption drying.
-In this process, the compressed air is passed through a gel and the water is deposited on
the surface, i.e., it is adsorbed. ( Adsorb:water is deposited on the surface of solids.)
-The drying agent is a granular material of sharp-edged shape or in bead form.
-The drying agent consists almost entirely of silicon dioxide.

-In practice, two tanks are used. When the gel in one tank is saturated, the air flow is
switched to the dry, second tank and the first tank is regenerated by hot-air drying.
 3. Absorption drying

- It is a purely chemical process.

-The moisture in the compressed air forms a
compound with the drying agent in the tank.
- This causes the drying agent to break down; it is then
discharged in the form of a fluid at the base of the
tank.
- High cost and too low for efficiency most
applications.

-Oil vapour and oil particles are also separated in the

absorption dryer.
- Larger quantities of oil have an effect on the efficiency of
the dryer, however.

The features of the absorption process are:

• Simple installation of the equipment
• Low mechanical wear because there are no moving parts in the dryer
• No external energy requirements.
AIR CONTROL VALVES

Pressure Regulators
Shuttle Valves
Check Valves
Directional Control Valves

Two-Way Directional Control Valves

Flow Control Valves
PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
Pneumatic Rotary Actuators

Axial piston air motor.

 What is Compressor

A machine or mechanical device that is used to

increase the liquid Pressure or Compress a Gas!

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 90

 Types of Compressors
Two Basic Compressor Types

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 91

 Types of Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor
• International Standard: API 618
• Used for air and refrigerant compression
• Works like a bicycle pump: cylinder volume
reduces while pressure increases, with pulsating
output
• Single acting when using one side of the piston,
and double acting when using both sides

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 92

 Types of Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 93

 Types of Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 94

 Types of Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor
• Driver:
• Induction motor or synchronized motor
• Diesel or gas engine
Drive System
• Belting or direct driven with coupling
• Capacity control
• Suction valve unloader (stepped controls)
• Recycling or spill back
• VFD
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 95
 Reciprocating Compressors
Advantages
• Simple and open in construction
• Site repair possible
• Single and multi-stage with inter-cooling
• High pressure ratio
• Low and medium operating speed
Disadvantages
• High wearing rate on piston rings
• Pulsating flow required piping analysis
• Large foundation and bulky installation
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 96
 Types of Compressors
Rotary Compressor
• International Standard: API 619
• Rotors instead of pistons: continuous discharge
• Benefits: low cost, compact, low weight, easy t
• Types
• Lobe compressor
• Screw compressor
• Rotary vane / Slide vane

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 97

 Types of Compressors
Screw Compressor

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 98

 Rotary Screw Compressor

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 99

 Types of Compressors
Reciprocating Compressor
• Driver:
• Induction motor or synchronized motor
• Diesel or gas engine
Drive System
• Belting or direct driven with coupling
Capacity control
• Suction valve throttling (stepless controls)
• Recycling or spill back
• VFD
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 100
 Types of Compressors
Dynamic Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor
• International Standard: API 617
• Rotating impeller create centrifugal force and
transfers the energy to move gas
• Continuous duty
• Designed oil free
• High volume applications up to 450,000 m3/hr
• Single or multi-stage

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 101

 Centrifugal Compressor

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 102

 Centrifugal Compressors
Advantages
• Reliable and suitable for uninterrupted operation
without standby
• No major wearing parts, compact design, easy to
install
• Able to handle large flow
• High efficiency
• Can handle most of process gas
• Flexible in driver selection
• Variable capacity at constant speed
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 103
 Centrifugal Compressors
Disadvantages
• Sensitive to ambient condition changes
• Required surge protection
• Required vibration monitoring due to high speed

High initial cost

• Special arrangement to make sure no liquid carry
over with process gas i.e. dry gas seal system

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 104

 Reciprocating Compressor

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 105

 Mechanical Maintenance Training

Compressors

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 106

 What is Compressor?

A compressor is a mechanical device that produces

flow and/or pressure in a fluid by the expenditure of
work. Usually used to handle large volumes of gas at
pressure increases from 10.32KPa to several hundred
KPa.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 107

 Types of Compressors

Continuous-flow compressors (operate by

accelerating the gas and converting the energy to
pressure)
• Centrifugal
• Axial flow

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 108

 Types of Compressors

Positive Displacement compressors (operate by

trapping a specific volume of gas and forcing it
into a smaller volume)
• Rotary
• Reciprocating

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 109

 Compressor Selection

• Centrifugal – Used for medium to high pressure

delivery and medium flow

• Axial Flow – Used for low pressure and high flow

• Positive Displacement - Used for high pressure and

low flow characteristics

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 110

 Compressor Selection
Factors to be considered:
1. Flowrate
2. Head or pressure
3. Temperature Limitations
4. Method of Sealing
5. Method of Lubrication
6. Power Consumption
7. Serviceability
8. Cost
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 111
 Reciprocating Compressor

Principles, Construction & Design

Philosophies

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 112

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 113
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 114
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 115
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 116
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 117
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 118
 Centrifugal Compressor

Principles, Construction & Design

Philosophies

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 119

 Basic Components

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 120

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 121
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 122
 Equipment
Overhauling

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 123

The following are the general requirements before
overhauling the equipment:
• Make sure the system is purged and evacuated of
hydrocarbons.
• Install spades at the necessary blinding points.
• Tools and other lifting devices delivered and
installed on site.
• Coordination meeting on the extent of the job to
be performed.
• Checklist and other information on clearances are
available.
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 124
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS:
The following are the things to be inspected during
the assembly and disassembly process of the
equipment:
• Rod drop-out/ crosshead clearances
• Rod packing, oil scrapers and seals
• Deflection and Alignment on Crankshaft • Valve
condition
• General Clearances and Alignment
• Connecting rod/ Piston Rod
• Equipment Levelling
• Cleanliness
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 125
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS:
As a prerequisite the following tests shall also be
done in following parts of the equipment:
• Dye Penetrant Testing of Pistons, Crossheads,
Valves, Main bearing metal, Cylinder liner and
housing (if necessary)
• Radiographic Testing on the piston nut and rod
threads

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 126

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS:

The following are the things to be inspected during

the assembly and disassembly process of the
equipment:
• Impeller tip/seal clearances
• Drive bearings condition
• Dry gas seal condition
• General Clearances and Alignment
• Equipment Leveling
• Cleanliness
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 127
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS:

As a prerequisite the following tests shall also be

done in following parts of the equipment:
• Dye Penetrant Testing of housing (if necessary)

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 128

For each particular design of compressor the
maintenance and overhauling manual should be
provided by the manufacturer. This should be the
main reference of the maintenance technician when
doing the maintenance. All of these are available in
the library. The technician should familiarize himself
with all the details necessary for the maintenance of
the compressor as recommended by the vendor.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 129

 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Selection of Compressor Units. Types
Techniques
of Compressor Units
(RCAT)
The basics steps for selecting a compressor unit.

The term “compressor” means a unit to be utilized for increasing

pressure of compressible medium via decreasing the specific volume of
medium passing through compressor. Level of inlet and outlet pressure
shall vary from deep vacuum to surplus pressure depending on
operational needs. This is one of conditions to match type and
configuration of compressor. Compressors are separated usually in two
large subgroups: dynamic and positive-displacement. Various types of
compressors may be selected for one particular application to best fit
with structural specifics.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 131

 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Properties of Working Medium. Gas
Techniques
Compression
(RCAT)
Compressor may compress different gases. Gas thermodynamic or
compressible gas mixture properties must be furnished to a vendor to properly
configure the compressor unit. Full content, common name and chemical
formula of gas are required for calculating the compressor unit. Data sheets of
compressor units shall clearly indicate the gas testing data with each
component name, molecular weight, boiling point and etc. listed. This data are
very important for identification of correct compressor values. Ratio between
general gas values (pressure, temperature and volume) is called gas equation.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 133

 The simplest gas equation is the ideal gas equation.

P·V=R·T

where:
P — pressure,
V — molecular weight,
R — gas constant,
T —temperature.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 134

This equation applies to gas only, temperature of which is higher than
critical temperature and pressure is way lower than critical pressure.
The air shall abide by this law under atmospheric conditions.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 135

Real gas differs from ideal gas by the factor called compressibility (“Z”). The
term “compressibility” is used in thermodynamics to explain deviations of
thermodynamic properties of real gasses from properties of ideal gasses.

P·V=Z·R·T

“Z” value – functional relation of gas content, its pressure and temperature.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 136

 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Techniques
Compression Process
(RCAT)
Compression ratio (R) – is the pressure ratio at discharge to suction pressure:

R = Pd/Ps (where Pd and Ps are absolute).

One stage compressor has only one R value.

Two stage compressors have 3 R values.

R = overall compression ratio

R1 = first stage compression ratio
R2 = second stage compression ratio.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 138

 R = Pd/Ps
R1 = Pi/P
R2 = Pd/Pi
Ps – suction pressure
Pd – discharge pressure
Pi – pressure between stages

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 139

While compressing the air in compressor unit, molecular weight becomes
lower to result in less spacing between molecules. Since quantity of gas
molecules is increased in fixed volume, its weight and density of fixed volume
also increase. Growth of density results in pressure increase.

The vertical line from point 1 to point 2 indicates an isentropic compression

process to require minimal compression from Р1 to Р2 on figure below. Actual
compression process follows from point 1 up and right facing rising entropy to
end up at point 2 on isobar for Р2.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 140

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 141
Compressor operations are focused on gas pressure and temperature to be
increased and heat to be removed from compressor. In most cases it is
required to increase the gas pressure with least capacity values. If the
compression process is adiabatic, no heat is transmitted between compressor
and environment to result in less operation during isentropic compression.

This assumes no losses in compressor, which indeed is unachievable; however,

it may be used for indicative compression performance index. Isentropic
compression performance index is identified as operational compression
during isentropic process divided by actual operations used for gas
compression.

Compression performance index is often indicated as isentropic performance

index.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 142

However, it is possible to make a compressor with over 100% isentropic
performance indexes. Operations in reversible isothermal process are less
than in isentropic process. Gas temperature in reversible isothermal process is
maintained with reversible heat transmission during compression at suction
temperature.

This process shall have no losses. However, consumed capacity is almost

always more than isentropic capacity; thus, isentropic performance index is
used for compressor classification.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 143

Two types of compressors - displacement and dynamics- currently present
differ in principles of working medium compression. Displacement
compressors compress gas to detain significant gas volumes in closed
environment with subsequent decrease of volume.

Compression starts when certain amount of gas enters the process chamber
of the unit with subsequent decrease of inner volume of the process
chamber.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 144

Dynamic compressor type is used to compress gas by means of
mechanically-operated blades or impeller to transfer speed and
pressure of gas. Larger impeller diameter, larger molecular weight of
gas or higher rotations will produce more pressure.

Usually displacement compressors are selected for fewer amounts of

gas and larger pressure values. Dynamic compressors are selected for
larger amounts of gas and lower pressure values.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 145

 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Basic Process to Compressor
Techniques
Selection to Include:
(RCAT)
1. Calculate compression ratio.
2. Select whether one stage or multiple stage compressor needed.
3. Discharge temperature calculation.
4. Identify volumes required.
5. Identify operational volumes required.
6. Select compressor model.
7. Identify minimal rotation torque of selected compressor.
8. Select actual rotation torque.
9. Calculate actual operational volume.
10. Calculate capacity required.
11. Select suitable configurations.
12. Select proper compressor.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 147

 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Data Sheet of Compressor
Techniques
Equipment
(RCAT)
Most important data sheets of compressor equipment are emphasized
below:

Outlet pressure in atm and bars. Most popular household compressors

produce from 6 to 8 bars pressure; industrial compression units may produce
25 bars pressure. Pressure means that any given model of compressor may
produce pressure internally and discharge the air mass into a sealed cavity.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 149

Most important data sheets of compressor equipment are emphasized below:

Pressure index is calculated by class and capacity of compression unit. The use
of extra-high pressure compressors for household needs is not necessary. A
small unit with up to 10 bars operational pressure will be sufficient. Large
industrial facilities may not always operate at such values; in this case more
powerful compression machines or units shall be used.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 150

Most important data sheets of compressor equipment are emphasized below:

Normally, the pressure differential is 2 bars between stop and start-up the
compressor. Given this index all compressors are divided into compression
machines of low, medium and high pressure. Not all compressors have
sufficient capacity to compress the air while producing high pressure; as a
matter of fact only heavy-duty piston units may reach 30 atm pressure index.
Screw-type compressor versions may not operate at such high indexes;

Inlet / outlet pressure. Least inlet gas flow shall be indicated in data sheet of
compressor units. This is required to ensure the compressor capacity.
Pressure may be absolute or surplus. Relative note shall be made in the data
sheet as well as units of indicated pressure.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 151

Inlet temperature. Volume flow rate, pressure requirements and required
power may affect the inlet temperature. Thus, maximum inlet temperature
shall be also specified.

Discharge temperature. Discharge temperature (Td) depends on inlet

temperature, compression index, gas specific heat and compression
performance indicator. This temperature is important for mechanical design of
compressor, selection of compression stage, calculations of cooler and
pipelines.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 152

Suction capacity or air discharge (amount of induced or forced air at outlet).
Regularly, first value is stated by manufacturers of compressor equipment in
technical passports, because running compressors lose capacity at discharge
due to air loss and suction capacity is always a bit higher.

Compressor capacity is volume of compressed air flow upon a particular given

time and is expressed in m3/hour or l/min. Various compressor types vary in
capacity to specify particular application of compressor equipment. Amount of
inlet air consumed upon a particular given time prior to compression is also
considered a unit capacity. Otherwise this parameter is called the air flow rate.
The reality is that there is a difference between two parameters. So one shall
rely on outlet capacity. When selecting the proper compressor about 30%
oversized capacity shall be taking into account;

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 153

Motor power is measured in kW. Motor may be diesel, turbine or electric.
Motor power is one of the core parameters to ensure compressor to manage
air discharge. The higher the capacity the more power is consumed. Failure to
calculate the power correctly may result in power consumption without effect.
Usually, heavy-duty motors are installed in high power units requiring this
particular drive;

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 154

Compressor weight and overall dimensions. These values may vary
from typical small size units easy to transport and operate in a garage to
heavy-duty ones to require more space for installation. Big facilities do
not pay serious attention to weight and dimensions, since the equipment
is fixed and installed in a separate engine room. Dimensions and weight
of compression unit always refer to its capabilities.

Alternatively, household compressor is quite compact, so most

dimensions refer to receivers of 50, 100, 200 liters and more. Optionally,
compressors with rotating blades may be used to constantly discharge
air without the need for receivers. Sure, with no receivers installed
weight and dimensions of compressors are significantly less making the
unit easily relocatable;

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 155

Maintenance of Reciprocating
Compressor

156
 - Components of Compressor -

CRANKSHAFT PISTON ROD

CROSSHEAD PISTON

CONNECTING ROD
CROSSHEAD GUIDE FRAME CYLINDER

157
 - Installation Flow -
Crankshaft

Main Bearings

Crosshead & Connecting Rod

Disassemble
Assemble

Coupling / Alignments

Rod Packing

Piston

Bar-over Test

Compressor Valves

158
- Location of Bearings -

MAIN BEARING CROSSHEAD PIN

CRANK PIN BEARING BEARING / BUSH

CROSSHEAD SHOE

159
 - Disassembling of Main Bearings -
Disassemble frame tie rod Wier Rope

Eye Bolt

Upper metal

Remove the cap with upper metal

Set Screw Lower Metal

Install special tool into oil hole of crankshaft

Disassembling Tool Crank Shaft

To Turn

Turn the crankshaft and remove the lower

metal

Lower Metal

160
- Assembling of Main Bearings -

Assembling lower metal

Assembling crankshaft

Assembling upper metal with cap

Tighten the upper cap by torque wrench

(820 N-m)

161
- Construction of Crosshead & Connecting Rod -

162
163
 - Assembling of Connecting Rod -
Assembling of connecting rod can be done by the opposite flow of assembling.
However, tightness of big end bolts are controlled by its elongation.

So, please measure its length before and

after installation.

164
 - Disassembling of Crosshead -
After disassembling of piston and connecting rod.
Tilt the crosshead by 90ﾟ and take out crosshead from window of crosshead
guide or compressor frame.

165
 - Assembling of Crosshead -

In case of assembling of crosshead, please take care that

there are two type of crosshead shoes.
One is “C”shoe and the other is “O” shoe.
And after assembled to the crosshead guide, clearance
between crosshead and crosshead guide to be recorded.
Planned clearance is 0.20 – 0.29mm and the using limit is
0.40mm. C Shoe

Clearance
O Shoe

C Shoe O Shoe

：Measuring Point

166
 - Measurement of Crank Arm Deflection -

1. Set the deflection gauge

(special dial gauge) 0ﾟ

between each crank arm at

0ﾟ position.
2. Turn and measure the 90ﾟ
movement at 90ﾟ, 180ﾟ,
270ﾟ.
3. For example, if the 180ﾟ

measured deflection is 0 –
+0.06mm, jack up the
turning gear at the half of
the measured value of 270ﾟ

0.03mm.
4. Adjustment limit is 0.03mm
and using limit is 0.06mm

167
 - Construction of Cylinder -
CYLINDER LINER SUCTION VALVE
PISTON ROD SUCTION VALVE UNLOADER
PACKING

DISCHARGE VALVE PISTON CLEARANCE POCKET

168
- Construction of Piston Rod Packing-
● Piston rod packing Packing case

Tie bolt

Rod packing Gater Spring

169
 - Assembling of Piston Rod Packing -

There are three types of

packing.
FRAME SIDE
・Butt-cut type (a)
・Step-cut type (b)
・Backup ring (c)
Please take special care for the (a) R1
No.1&2
T1 R0

direction & combination of

packings.
Incorrect direction or R3 T5 R0
No.3&4
combination will cause the
(c)
leakage of gas. (b)

After assembled to packing T5 T5

case, please measure the side No.5

clearance and record it.

170
- Construction of Piston -
● Piston ring
●Rider ring

● Piston rod ● Piston nut

171
 - Assembling of Piston -
Assemble piston rod & piston
rings to piston CHAIN BLOCK
REMOVE THE NYLON SLING

AFTER INSERTING ROD

CYLINDER

ROD PACKING PROTECTOR

Set piston rod wrench to

piston nut & set protector for
the threaded portion of piston
rod LENGTH a WEIGHT
PISTON ROD WRENCH 1ST A/B : 2145 1ST A/B : 208 kg

Then, hoist the piston a

assembly and install into

cylinder
Protecting Cap
Inserting the piston for Piston Rod Packing

assembly, install the rider

rings to piston
Screw in the piston rod to
crosshead
172
 - Assembling of Piston -
Adjust the screw travel by
markings on piston rod and
crosshead by using divider.
Then, tighten cross nut.
The reference length
indicated on window of
crosshead guide
Measure the clearances
between piston & cylinder
liner for four directions

Assemble cylinder cover

Carry out bar-over test

(End clearance, runout)
173
 - Assembling of Piston Rings -
(1) Two PPS ring form one
set. In case of exchange
exchange as set not one
ring alone. Piston Ring Piston Body

(2) At installation, install the

piston rings in the
direction parallel with
piston axis. Don’t install Direction "a"

from direction “b”. Direction "b"

(3) After assembled to

piston, measure and
record the side
clearance.
(4) When assembling, locate
the two rings 180ﾟ apart
× ○
each other.
174
 - Maintenance of Rings -
(1) Wear limit of piston rod
packing is 3mm at the
height of the ring. In case
of replacement, do not
replace one ring alone.
The planed life of rod
packing is 8000hrs, so
maintenance required Initial Wear Limit

within 8000hrs.
(2) The planned life of piston
ring is also 8000hrs
Piston
however, only for initial
operation, we
Piston Ring
recommend you to
overhaul at 4000hrs to
estimate the actual life.

175
 - Maintenance of Rings -
(1) The wear limit of rider ring is by the
bottom clearance between piston

Gap
and cylinder liner becomes 0.5mm.
The planned life is 8000 hrs,
however, for initial maintenance, we
recommend you to carry out
overhaul at 4000hrs to estimate the
actual life.
(2) To determine the life, please plot the
0.5mm
clearance versus operation time like
Wear Limit
the below graph.

×
Dimention

× ×

Time
Life Expected Next Check

176
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Data Sheet of Compressor
Techniques
Equipment
(RCAT)
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Design Particulars of Compressor
Techniques
Equipment
(RCAT)
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Techniques
Designing a Compressor
(RCAT)
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Techniques
Pipeline Flanges and Nominal Value
(RCAT)
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Techniques
Materials
(RCAT)
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Techniques
Process Compression Stages
(RCAT)
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Choosing a One-Stage or Multi-Stage
Techniques
Compressor
(RCAT)
 Maritime
The Algorithm of Choosing an Air
Root Cause Analysis
Compressor:
Techniques
(RCAT)1. Capacity
2. Pressure
Reciprocating (piston) compressor is a positive displacement
compressor. When selecting a compressor, basic parameters such as
discharge pressure, suction temperature, mode of operation and gas
composition and required capacity should be identified first. Selection
should be also focused on relative humidity of performance index, cost
and reliability. Compressors may have similar piston functioning, when
applied for different use. For instance, long-stroke compressors tend to
be slower than short-stroke compressors in functioning. In general,
short-stroke compressors are light-weight and have less allowable loads
values.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 185

Compressor speed and length of stroke depend on power required.
Light-weight, high-speed short-stroke compressors require less power
when applied. At the same time, long-stroke, low-speed compressors
require more power when applied. Heavy-duty compressors are
connected directly to drive gear, where applicable. Consequently, speed
parameters of drive gear may also affect compressor selection.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 186

Next, the number of stages should be selected. Allowable discharge
temperature, piston compression ratio and performance index are key
factors to be noted. If estimated discharge temperature is too high using
one stage, more stage would be assumed. Isentropic discharge
temperature may be pre-selected; but if certain number of stages would
result in a deadlock, discharge temperature should be more precisely
computed. Similar compression ratio is expected to be used for all
stages, when roughly calculated. Virtually, it is always recommended to
select higher compression ratio for low pressure stages to decrease
more critical high pressure stages.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 187

All applications, where multiple stages are required for operations,
intercoolers should be used. In this case increasing the number of stages
would result in higher performance index of compressor unit. Due to
intercoolers the compression process is deemed to be close to isothermal
compression resulting in less power to be consumed.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 188

If working medium is condensed in intercooler, liquid must be separated from
gas, whereas compressed gas mass to discharge is reduced to result in less
power consumption. However, by adding stages the number of valves,
intermediate piping and coolers is increased. When using multiple stages,
pressure losses in valves and piping would reduce advantages of intercoolers
and efficiency.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 189

Cost of compressor is rising with increased number of stages due to the need
for coolers, valves, piping and additional cylinders.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 190

Cost of compressor is rising with increased number of stages due to the need
for coolers, valves, piping and additional cylinders.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 191

Cylinders should be selected for each stage upon selection of the number of
stages. To select proper cylinder opening it is required to know inlet
conditions, capacity, speed and length of stroke. It is required to correctly
select nominal pressure values for cylinder for safe operations, to consider
loads, losses and power.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 192

Also unbalancing force, to be supplied from compressor to frame, potential
vibrations to result in crankshaft and drive gear damage, and level of noise
must be considered; compressor position, performance index and cost must
be optimized.

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 193

Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 194
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 195
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 196
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 197
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 198
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 199
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 200
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 201
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 202
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 203
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 204
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 205
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 206
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 207
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 208
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 209
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 210
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 211
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 212
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 213
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 214
Thursday, September 14, 23 Page 215
 Maritime
Root Cause Analysis
Techniques
(RCAT)

Questions?