BUIS

IIE Module Manual BUIS6122/d/p/w/ BUIS6112/d/p/w/ BUIS5111/d/p/w/ BUIS112
BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEMS

MODULE MANUAL/GUIDE 2022
(First Edition: 2012)
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Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 6
Learning Unit 1: An Overview of Information Systems ........................................................... 7
1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 8
2 Computers and Information Systems in Daily Life ........................................................... 8
3 Computer Literacy vs. Information Literacy ................................................................... 12
4 Types of Information Systems ....................................................................................... 13
5 Information Systems In Organisations ........................................................................... 14
6 Using Information Technologies for a Competitive Advantage ...................................... 16
7 Recommended Additional Reading ............................................................................... 20
8 Recommended Digital Engagement and Activities ........................................................ 20
9 Activities......................................................................................................................... 21
10 Revision Exercises ..................................................................................................... 21
11 Solutions to Revision Exercises ................................................................................. 22
Learning Unit 2: The Machines Behind Computing .............................................................. 24
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 24
2 Computers Systems ...................................................................................................... 25
3 The History of Computer Hardware and Software ......................................................... 30
4 Computer Operations .................................................................................................... 33
5 Input, Output and Memory Devices ............................................................................... 34
6 Classes Of Computers ................................................................................................... 43
7 Types of Software .......................................................................................................... 46
8 Recommended Additional Reading ............................................................................... 49
9 Recommended Digital Engagement and Activities ........................................................ 50
10 Activities ..................................................................................................................... 51
Learning Unit 3: Database Systems, Data Warehouses, and Data Marts ............................ 54
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 54
2 Databases and Database Management Systems ......................................................... 55
3 The Components Of A DBMS ........................................................................................ 58
4 Logical Database Design ............................................................................................... 59
5 Trends In Database Design and Use ............................................................................. 63
6 Data Warehouses .......................................................................................................... 66
7 Data Marts ..................................................................................................................... 69
8 Business Analytics ......................................................................................................... 69
9 The Big Data Era ........................................................................................................... 70
10 Recommended Additional Reading ............................................................................ 72
11 Recommended Digital Engagement and Activities .................................................... 72
12 Activities ..................................................................................................................... 73
Learning Unit 4: Data Communication .................................................................................. 76
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 77
2 The Application Of Data Communication Systems ........................................................ 77
3 The Components Of A Data Communication System ................................................... 78

4 Processing Configurations ............................................................................................. 83

5 Types Of Networks ........................................................................................................ 86
6 Network Topologies ....................................................................................................... 89
7 Major Networking Concepts ........................................................................................... 94
8 Wireless and Mobile Networks ...................................................................................... 97
9 Convergence Of Voice, Video, and Data ..................................................................... 101
10 Recommended Additional Reading .......................................................................... 102
11 Recommended Digital Engagement and Activities .................................................. 102
12 Revision Exercises ................................................................................................... 103
13 Solutions to Revision Exercises ............................................................................... 104
Learning Unit 5: The Internet, Intranets and Extranets ....................................................... 105
1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 105
2 The Internet and the World Wide Web ........................................................................ 105
3 Navigational Tools, Search Engines, and Directories .................................................. 108
4 Internet Services .......................................................................................................... 110
5 Web Applications ......................................................................................................... 112
6 Intranets ....................................................................................................................... 114
7 Extranets ...................................................................................................................... 116
8 The WEB 2.0 and WEB 3.0 Eras ................................................................................. 117
9 The Internet of Everything and Beyond ....................................................................... 118
10 Recommended Additional Reading .......................................................................... 119
11 Recommended Digital Engagement and Activities .................................................. 119
12 Revision Exercises ................................................................................................... 120
13 Solutions to Revision Exercises ............................................................................... 121
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 122
Intellectual Property ............................................................................................................ 125

Introduction
The purpose of this module is to provide you, as a student, with a sound knowledge of
concepts related to the components and types of information systems. After having completed
this module, you should also have a sound understanding as to how information systems can
play a strategic role in a business’ ability to obtain a competitive advantage within the industry
it operates.
It is important that you engage a significant amount of time and effort in identifying
opportunities for the application of the content covered in the module so that you will be able
to apply the concepts within a variety of business information system contexts.
As you are preparing for a career in Information Technology, whether it be as a systems

analyst or a developer of state of the art software applications, the concepts addressed in this
module will provide you with an understanding of technologies you might encounter in the
workplace and it is therefore important for you to focus on understanding the various concepts
addressed throughout the guide.

Learning Unit 1: An Overview of

Information Systems
Learning Objectives: My notes
• Discuss common applications of

computers and information
systems;
• Explain the differences between
computer literacy and information
literacy;
• Discuss the differences between
data and information;
• Define transaction processing
systems;
• Define management information
systems;
• Describe the four major
components of an information
system;
• Explain the importance and
applications of information
systems in functional areas of an
organisation;
• Discuss how information
technologies are used to gain a
competitive advantage.
Material used for this learning unit:
• The content of this learning unit is

aligned to Chapter 1 of MIS8 by
Bidgoli.
How to prepare for this learning unit:
• Work through the contents in this

learning unit and complete the
activities at the end of the learning
unit.

1 Introduction
In this learning unit, the concept of information systems will be
discussed. A distinction will also be made between different
types of information systems and how information systems can
help an organisation to gain a competitive advantage.
2 Computers and Information

Systems in Daily Life What do you use a
computer for in your
People and organisations rely on and value information in their everyday life?
daily lives. This reliance on and increasing value of information
is demonstrated by the statistics reported in a consolidated
report published by Simon Kemp (2019). The report by Kemp
(2019) reported an increase of 366 million unique internet users
from January 2018 to January 2019 with an increase of 288
million social media users during the same time period.
Individuals engage with social media for the purpose of

engaging and maintaining personal relationships with other
individuals such as family and friends but also to engage in e-
commerce related activities.
Companies on the other hand use the various social media

platforms for, amongst other purposes, advertising (Kemp,
2019) and keeping customers up-to-date with company related
information and support options (Bidgoli, 2017).
To be able to connect to the internet one needs access to a

computer or computing device capable of connecting to the
internet. A computer or computing device can be considered
any machine or device capable of executing a variety of
applications (Techopedia, n.d.). A computer can be considered
a system as it performs the following functions (The IIE, 2019):
• Input;
• Processing;
• Output;
• Feedback and control.
Information systems can be considered a set of components

(systems) that work together to collect, process, store and
distribute data, information and knowledge to support the
management of an organization (The IIE, 2019).

All systems perform input, processing, output, feedback and

control functions, but information systems are explicitly there to
support the management of an organisation.
Information systems can support management in the following

ways (Bidgoli, 2017): How can the use of
information systems in an
organisation benefit the
• Increasing the speed of service delivery;
customers of an
• Record stock levels and if necessary, automatically order organisation?
more stock to replenish stock levels;
• Generate reports that can assist management in making
decisions.
2.1 The Components Of An Information

System
Information systems have four major components (Bidgoli,
2017):
• Data;
• Databases;
• Processes;
• Information.
2.1.1 Data
This component of an information system refers to the input to

the system and by implication, therefore, what the user types
into the system (Bidgoli, 2017). If a receptionist at a doctor’s
office needs to enter the name of a patient on the appointment
scheduling system, the patient’s name will be considered data.
Can you think of any other
Information systems should collect data from internal and internal and external
external sources (Bidgoli, 2017). Internal sources of data can sources of information?
include sales records and personnel records (Bidgoli, 2017).
External sources of information can include sources such as
customers and competitors (Bidgoli, 2017).
Data has a time orientation (Bidgoli, 2017). Historical data is

used to assess performance e.g. generating a sales report for
the previous year will reveal how effective a sales strategy was.
Current data will reveal insights into the current operations of an
organisation e.g. if the company’s servers keep on crashing, a
report of current bandwidth usage might reveal a possible
reason for the servers crashing. Future data consists of
predictions about the future performance or position of an
organisation.

Data can be collected in different forms (Bidgoli, 2017). When

data is collected in an aggregated form, the data is grouped.
Aggregated data is useful for summary reports such as when a
manager needs to determine how many, in total, of each item
within a specific category has been sold. Data can also be
collected in a disaggregated form. An example of disaggregated
data would be a phone bill which shows each call made by a
person on a separate line along with that specific call’s cost.
Data is never collected at random. To determine what data

should be collected, an organisation should determine what
output the system should produce e.g. if an information system
is to produce a statement of results for a student, the marks for
each module need to be captured in order for the results to be
displayed.
2.1.2 Databases
Data that is collected should be stored in an organized and

integrated series of files. Collectively, this set of organized and
integrated files is known as a database (Bidgoli, 2017).
In order to create this set of organized and integrated files, the

developers of the database will make use of a Database
Management System (DBMS). Not only is a DBMS used for
creating the database but also allows the user of the database
to efficiently capture and process information. Popular DBMSs
include Microsoft Office Access and Oracle (Bidgoli, 2017).
2.1.3 Processes
The process component is the component of an information

system that truly demonstrates the purpose of the information
system as this is the component that will generate the
information that will enable management to make sound
business decisions (Bidgoli, 2017).
This component is responsible for generating the required

reports.
2.1.4 Information
Information represents the output produced by the information

system after processing has been concluded (Bidgoli, 2017).
The terms information and data should not be used
interchangeable as they are not the same.

Data in its own does not support decision making, whereas

information supports decision making (Bidgoli, 2017).
For information to be useful and valuable, it needs to possess

the following characteristics Stair and Reynolds (2012, cited in
The IIE, 2019):
Accessible • Information should be easily

accessible by authorised users so that
it can meet their needs.
Accurate • Accurate information is error-free. In
some cases, inaccurate information is
generated because inaccurate data is
fed into the transformation process.
Complete • Complete information contains all the
important facts.
Economical • Information should be relatively
economical to produce. Decision-
makers must always balance the
value of information with the cost of
producing it.
Reliable • Reliable information is information that
can be depended on.
Secure • Information should be secure from
access by unauthorised users.
Simple • Information should be simple and not
overly complex.
Timely • Timely information is delivered when it
is needed. Knowing last week’s
weather conditions will not help when
trying to decide what to wear today.
Verifiable • Information should be verifiable. This
means you can check it to make sure
it is correct, perhaps by checking the
source of the information.

3 Computer Literacy vs. Information

Literacy
For an organisation to achieve a competitive advantage,
employees should be both computer literate and information
literate. In this section, the difference between computer literacy
and information literacy will be considered.
3.1 Computer Literacy

Computer literacy refers to an individual’s ability to use a
computer and productivity software applications that is installed
on the computer effectively (Bidgoli, 2017). As a student who is
required to submit
assignments to an online
Productivity software include applications such as platform, do you consider
spreadsheets, word processors, database management yourself computer literate?
software and presentation software (Bidgoli, 2017).
An employee can therefore be considered computer literate if

they can operate the computer they have to work on and the
software that the organisation relies on in order to achieve its
goal. Computer literacy is a skill.
3.2 Information Literacy

Information literacy refers to whether an individual understands
the value of the information in terms of generating and using
business intelligence (Bidgoli, 2017).
Business intelligence provides an information literate individual

with a historical, current and predictive view of an organization’s
operations which can then be utilized by an organization to
obtain a competitive advantage (Bidgoli, 2017).
The concept of information literacy can be extended beyond the

business world.
If you obtained 30% for a test, you will probably reflect as to why
you performed so poorly in the test. If the outcome of your
reflection points to the fact that your poor performance on the
test relates to poor class attendance or perhaps poor time
management, you will adjust your actions to improve your class
attendance and time management. If in the second test you
obtain 70%, you will know that your efforts at improving your
attendance or time management was successful and you will
continue to attend classes and manage your time effectively to
achieve success in future assessments.

To be information literate, an individual, therefore, needs to

understand the value of the information they work with and how
to use the information to the benefit of the organisation and
themselves.
4 Types of Information Systems

Several types of information systems exist. In this learning unit,
two specific types of information systems will be discussed.
4.1 Transaction Processing Systems

A transaction processing system is a type of information system
employed to primarily perform routine and structured tasks such
as record keeping, clerical operations, and inventory control
(Bidgoli, 2017).
The most prominent reason for employing transaction

processing is that it can result in a significant cost saving for the
company (Bidgoli, 2017).
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) serves the operational

level of the organization and performs mainly two types of
processing (The IIE, 2019):
• Batch processing, where transactions are accumulated

and processed later as a group or in a batch. Example:
Processing employees in a payroll TPS for the ADvTECH
Group (The IIE, 2019).
• On-line/real-time transaction processing (OLTP), where

data is processed immediately after being captured.
Example: Pick ‘n Pay supermarkets, where stock
quantities constantly fluctuate due to frequent sales. As a
sale is processed via the point-of-sale system, the stock
quantities are updated on the OLTP (The IIE, 2019).
A TPS can help an organization achieve a competitive

advantage in the following ways Stair and Reynolds (2010, cited
in The IIE, 2019):
• Increased customer loyalty;

• Aiding and providing a superior service to customers;
• Supporting the development of better relationships with
suppliers;
• More effective and efficient information gathering;

• Cost reductions; and

• Reducing the levels of stock to only what is needed.
4.2 Management Information Systems

‘A management information system is an organized integration
of hardware and software technologies, data, processes, and
human elements designed to produce timely, integrated,
relevant, accurate, and useful information for decision-making
purposes’ (Bidgoli, 2017).
A management information system (MIS) is mainly designed to

serve middle management (The IIE, 2019). An MIS generates
its reports from the TPS and is mainly used to improve
operational efficiency (The IIE, 2019).
5 Information Systems In
Organisations
Information systems can be designed in such a way that they
support the various functional areas of an organisation.
According to The Law Dictionary (n.d.), a functional area within
an organisation can be seen as a group of people who perform
the same work. Examples of the functional areas within an
organisation can therefore include manufacturing, IT, human
resources, logistics etc.
Examples as to how information systems can support the

various functional areas within an organisation will be described
below:
5.1 Human Resource Information System

(HRIS)
An HRIS provides support to the human resources functional
area of an organisation. It helps the members of this functional
area to perform the tasks in their areas of responsibility more
efficiently (Bidgoli, 2017).

An HRIS can support the members of the human resources

functional area in making the following decisions (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Choosing the best job candidate;

• Scheduling and assigning employees;
• Predicting future staffing needs; and
• Generating reports and statistics on employee
demographics.
5.2 Logistics Information System (LIS)

The Logistics Information System was developed with the aim
to reduce the cost of processes involved in the logistics
functional area of an organization (Bidgoli, 2017).
Decisions supported by the LIS include (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Improving routing and delivery schedules;

• Selecting the best modes of transportation;
• Improving budgeting for transportation; and
• Improving shipment planning.
5.3 Manufacturing Information System (MFIS)

The MFIS was developed with the aim of reducing the cost of
the manufacturing process and increase the quality of the
products being produced (Bidgoli, 2017).
Decisions supported by the MFIS include (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Ordering decisions;
• Product cost calculations;
• Space utilisation;
• Decisions related to tenders; and
• Decisions in relation to price changes and discounts.
5.4 Financial Information System (FIS)

An FIS provides timely information to those members in an
organization who has to make financial decisions (Bidgoli,
2017).

An FIS can support decisions with regards to (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Budget allocations;
• Capital investment risk management;
• The monitoring of cost trends;
• The managing of cash flows; and
• Determining portfolio structures.
6 Using Information Technologies for

a Competitive Advantage
A competitive advantage is a long-term, strategic advantage
that an organization has over its competitors (The IIE, 2019).
Michael Porter (1979, cited in Bidgoli, 2017) identified three

strategies for successfully competing in the marketplace. If
designed well, Information Technology can support these
strategies and in doing so, support an organization in achieving
a competitive advantage.
The three strategies identified by Michael Porter (1979) will be

discussed below:
6.1 Cost Leadership Strategy

The focus of a cost leadership strategy is on reducing the overall
cost of products and services (Bidgoli, 2017). If designed well
and used appropriately, IT can support an organisation in
accomplishing this cost reduction.
IT can support an organization’s efforts in reducing the cost of

their products and services in, amongst other things, in the
following ways (Spacy, 2018):
• Using less physical resources: For example, if an

organisation used to send all statements to a customer via
traditional post, they would have printed all of the
customer’s statements on paper, placed it in an envelope
and posted it. By emailing statements to customers,
organisations save on the cost of procuring copious
amounts of paper and envelops and this therefore affords
the organisation the opportunity to reduce the cost of their Can you think of systems
service to the customer. can support organizations
• Modernising the workplace: Newer technologies are often in reducing the cost of their
products and services?
more energy efficient which provides organisations with
the ability to save on their electricity bill and by saving
money on the organization’s electricity bill an any other

ways in which IT or information organization’s production

process will become less expensive. When the
organization’s electricity bill is less, the organization is
afforded the opportunity to offer products and services at
a lower cost.
• Support advertising to increase the volume of sales: As
was pointed out at the beginning of the learning unit, the
use of social media by individuals is on the increase. By
harnessing the power of social media to reach a greater
number of potential clients, the potential for increasing
sales volumes increases. Greater sales volumes can
result in a decrease in the production cost per unit.
6.2 Differentiation Strategy

When organisations make use of a differentiation strategy in
order to obtain a competitive advantage, they are attempting to
create a clear difference between their products and services
and those of their competitors (Bidgoli, 2017).
A company in New York, Oscar Health Insurance, used IT to

design a unique user experience for their customers (Shepard,
2019). This unique experience involved customising their
website in such a way that customers, in consultation with a
healthcare practitioner can purchase and customise a medical
aid plan based on their unique needs and financial situation
(Shepard, 2019). In addition to this Oscar Health, through the
use of IT, offers customers complete transparency and the
ability to request a call back from a doctor within one hour of
logging the request (Shepard, 2019).
6.3 Focus
A focus strategy is one in which an organization focuses on a
specific segment of a market in order to achieve a cost or
differentiation strategy (Bidgoli, 2017).
Examples as to how this strategy has been employed is evident

from Apple Computer’s marketing strategies. Bidgoli (2017)
identifies the following examples as to how Apple Computers
implements this strategy:
• iPhones are predominantly marketed to consumer users

instead of business users;
• Apple computers are heavily marketed to professionals in
industries that relies on graphic design, photography and
other professionals whose jobs involve creative output.

The strategy to be employed by an organization is determined

by analysing an organization, its position in the marketplace,
and how information systems can best support an organization
in achieving a competitive advantage (Bidgoli, 2017). For
accomplishing this, Michael Porter’s Five Forces Model
framework can be used (Porter, 1979, cited in Bidgoli, 2017).
These five forces include:
• Buyer Power:
o Buyer power is high when customers have many

products and services they can choose from and
conversely, buyer power becomes lower as the
number of products and services they can choose
from becomes less.
Organisations employ the differentiation strategy to

lower buyer power and thereby increase customer
loyalty. By offering less products and services from
which a customer can choose and significantly
differentiating the products and services from those
of other organisations an organisation can increase
its chances of obtaining a competitive advantage.
• Supplier Power:
o When buyer power is low, supplier power is high.

This means that supplier power is high when
customers have less options in terms of products
and services to choose from.
Since the number of internet users are on the

increase, users of the Internet have gained access
to more information and therefore more options for
services and products, thereby increasing their own
buying power.
Suppliers in turn, will attempt to reduce this buying

power by offering their products and services to
customers at a lower price and to offer a greater
variety of services to customers in an effort to
differentiate them from their competitors.

• Threat of substitute products or services:
o When an organisation’s competitors offer similar

products and services, there is a significant threat
that consumers might purchase the services and
products from the competitors.
Typically, in this situation, an organisation will

attempt to offer more services and add more value
to the services and products they offer in order to
create a clearer distinction between themselves and
their competitors.
• Threat of new entrants:
o Organisations will attempt to make it as hard as

possible for others to duplicate their products and
services. If an organisation can manage the threat
of new entrants successfully, they will keep buyer
power low and supplier power high.
In order to mitigate the threat of new entrants,

organisations will typically employ a focus strategy.
• Rivalry among existing competitors:
o Rivalry among existing competitors increase as the

number of competitors occupying a particular
market increase. Organisations manage this rivalry
by offering more value-added services than their
competitors.

7 Recommended Additional Reading

Quinn, K. A. 2012. ‘The Importance of Technology, Systems,
and Information Skills in the Hospitality Industry’, Consortium
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism, 17(1), pp. 66–82. [Online].
Available at:
http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.iielearn.ac.za/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=hjh&AN=78391876&site=ehost-live [Accessed
20 November 2020].
Information Systems & Technology. 2014. Ipswich,

Massachusetts: Salem Press (Business Reference Guide).
[Online]. Available at:
http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.iielearn.ac.za/login.aspx?
direct=true&db=e020mww&AN=777850&site=ehost-live
[Accessed 20 November 2020November 2020].
Valacich, J. 2015, Information Systems Today: Managing In A

Digital World, Global Edition, [N.p.]: Pearson, eBook Collection
(EBSCOhost), EBSCOhost [Accessed 16 November 2020].
8 Recommended Digital Engagement

and Activities
Access your student account on the VC or RC portal. Does this
classify as a system? What are the inputs and outputs? How is
processing performed? Does the system provide any feedback?

9 Activities
9.1 Activity 1
You have been requested to compile a report to non-IT
managers to explain how an information system would benefit a
clothing manufacture business. Draft a basic report outlining
what an IS consist of, and how an IS would be beneficial to the
organisation.
10 Revision Exercises
1. Explain the difference between data and information.
2. Identify two ways in which an organisation can make use

of an information system.
3. Identify two ways in which individuals outside an

organisation can benefit from the information systems
used by organisations.
4. By means of an example, explain the difference between

computer literacy and information literacy.
5. Define the relationship between transaction processing

systems and management information systems.
6. Explain, by referring to the components of an information

system, why a Point-Of-Sale system used at a restaurant
can be considered an information system.
7. Conduct additional research to identify three software

packages which can be used by the accounting functional
area of an organisation. Reference all sources used.
8. Conduct research on South African companies that sell

insurance. Provide a basic outline as to how these
companies are making use of IT to obtain a competitive
advantage.

11 Solutions to Revision Exercises

1. Data can be considered raw facts whereas information is
data that has been processed. Information enables
decision making whereas data does not primarily support
decision making.
2. Possible use #1 (Students answers may differ): Generate

inventory reports so that the organisation can determine
whether to order more inventory or not. Possible use #2
(Students answers may differ): Generate a report which
will indicate which customers owe the company money.
3. Possible use #1 (Students answers may differ): A

customer might have an enquiry as to the availability of a
particular item and if the enquiry is an online query, the
same system used by the company to manage their stock
levels can be used to provide an answer to the customer
as to the availability of an item. Possible use #2 (Students
answers may differ): The system could send emails to
customers notifying them of outstanding balances.
4. Students answer may differ: A new person starting at a

new job, might know how to switch on a computer and
perform basic operations using the computer but not yet
know how to use the systems of an organization. The fact
that the person knows how to use a computer, would imply
a degree of computer literacy. The person might not know
yet how to use the organisations productivity software
which would place his skill level low. The moment the new
person knows how to operate and use the productivity
software of the organisation, he/she can be considered
computer literate. When the new person also understands
the role of the information and how to use the business
intelligence obtained from the information, he also
possesses the skill of information literacy.
5. An MIS generates its reports from the TPS. The

relationship between an MIS and a TPS therefore stems
from the fact that the MIS needs the data captured by the
TPS in order to support middle management.
6. The POS can be considered a system because it accepts

input in the form of orders. The input is processed to
calculate a total cost for the bill of the customer. The POS
provides output in the form of a total amount due by the
customer on a slip. The customer can verify the details on

the slip and if it is incorrect output, the customer can give

feedback so that the POS can recalculate a total based on
entering the appropriate details on the system.
7. Students answers will differ here. Students have to

provide references for their answer, and it is important that
these be verified as legitimate sources.
8. In order to complete this question, students should have

done research on the various insurance companies such
as OUTsurance, MiWay, Discovery etc. and compared
how they are employing technology to support them in
obtaining a competitive advantage. Students should
reference all sources used.

Learning Unit 2: The Machines Behind

Computing
• Define a computer system;

• Describe the components of a
computer system;
• Discuss the history of computer
hardware and software;
• Explain the factors distinguishing
the computing power of
computers;
• Summarise computer operations;
• Discuss the types of input, output
and memory devices;
• Explain how computers are
classified;
• Describe the two major types of
software;
• List the generations of computer
languages.
• The contents of this learning unit is

Bidgoli.

unit.
1 Introduction
This learning unit will provide you with a basic understanding of
different types of computer systems and the various
components which enables them to be useful to us in our
everyday lives.

2 Computers Systems
A computer can be considered any machine that accepts data Can a mobile phone be
as input, processes the data that was accepted using pre-written considered a computer?
instructions and provides information as output (Bidgoli, 2017).
The processing that takes place within a computer takes place

without human intervention. The instructions are therefore
contained in programmes (source code) that are installed on our
computers (Bidgoli, 2017). Each programme that is installed on
your computer was created using a particular programming
language and the programming language used depends on the
problem you are trying to solve and the type of computer you
are using (Bidgoli, 2017).
A summary of some of the most popular programming

languages and their uses are summarized below (Purcell,
2015):
Programming Use and Benefit

Language
Java Java is a general-purpose programming
language used for applications that run on
phones and tablets, corporate websites,
embedded systems such as the chip that
operates a washing machine or desktop
software.
C++ C++ is used for 3D games, creating
operating systems, desktop programs. Its
greatest advantage is the capability that it
provides to manage memory efficiently,
especially where realtime execution is
required to take place seamlessly.
C Although C++ can be used to create
operating systems and is built on C, C is
the language of choice when creating
operating systems, device drivers and other
programming languages. C boasts with
slightly better performance than C++ with
regards to the aforementioned uses.
Python Python is best suited for creating websites
and dealing with data. Programs can be
created quite quickly but is not commonly
used for commercial software.
Perl Perl is older than Python but its strength
lies is dealing with numbers and text files,
producing reports and automation. It is

harder to read than Python but faster than

Python.
Ruby Used for creating websites.
C# C# is used for creating Windows desktop
applications and websites using ASP.
2.1 The Components Of A Computer System

Every computer system consists of hardware and software
components (Bidgoli, 2017). The hardware component of a
computer system is represented by the physical devices
associated with a computer whereas the software component
consists of the programmes installed on the computer (Bidgoli,
2017).
The building blocks of a computer system can be graphically

represented as follow (Bidgoli, 2017):
Input devices represents any hardware device used to send

data to the computer (Bidgoli, 2017). The data send to the
computer as well as the instructions that will operate on the data
will be temporarily stored in the main (primary) memory (Bidgoli,
2017). Once the instructions and the data has been stored, it
can be processed by the Central Processing Unit (CPU) which
is at the heart of the computer (Bidgoli, 2017). The CPU has two
main components namely the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the
control unit (Bidgoli, 2017). The ALU is responsible for
performing arithmetic operations and logical comparisons whilst
the control unit is responsible for instructing the computer what
to do in terms of which device should be read from or output
send to.
Any computer system, therefore, has the following main

components:

• Input devices;
• Main memory (primary memory);
• Secondary storage;
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
• Output devices.
Apart from the main components, computers include the

following components:
• Disk drives which are used for recording, storing and

retrieving information (Bidgoli, 2017);
• A CPU Case (computer chassis or tower) which
encloses the computer’s main components; and
• A motherboard which is the main circuit board which
usually contains the CPU, Basic Input/Output
System(BIOS), memory, storage, interfaces, ports,
expansion slots and the controllers for the peripheral
devices (Bidgoli, 2017).
2.1.1 Computer System Performance
Several characteristics of the components of a computer system

have an impact on the computer system’s performance. These
will be discussed below.
2.1.1.1 Number and Size of Processors
Some computers contain more than one processor, which

improves the processing power of a computer and therefore the
speed at which instructions are processed (Bidgoli, 2017).
Multiprocessing is the term used to describe an instance in
which a computer system makes use of more than one
processor (Bidgoli, 2017).
If a computer has two processors it is a dual-core processing

system (Bidgoli, 2017). A quad-core processor has four cores,
a hexa-core processor has six cores and an octa-core processor
has eight cores. As the number of cores increase, the speed of
the processing increase (Bidgoli, 2017).
In the same manner as which multiple cores impact the

processing speed of a computer system, so also does the size
of the processor affect the efficiency of the computer system
(Bidgoli, 2017). A 64-bit processor can deal more efficiently with
larger and smaller numbers than a 32-bit processor (Bidgoli,
2017). A 64-bit processor can handle more data at once than a
32-bit processor which greatly impacts efficiency, especially

when working with applications, such as computer games that

require high performance (Digital Trends, 2019).
2.1.1.2 Bus Component
A bus provides a link between devices connected to a computer

(Bidgoli, 2017). It is this component that enables data to be
transferred from the CPU to various hardware components
connected to the computer (The IIE, 2019).
The more data that can be carried by a bus at once will impact
the speed of the processing as data travels faster (Wilson &
Johnson, 2005).
2.1.2 The Power of Computers
What makes a computer so powerful is the fact that it

outperforms a human being on three key capabilities: speed,
accuracy and storage and retrieval (Bidgoli, 2017).
2.1.2.1 Speed
The speed at which a computer processes data is typically

measured in terms of the number of instructions that can be
performed during the following fractions of a second (Bidgoli,
2017):
• Millisecond: 1/1 000 of a second;

• Microsecond: 1/1 000 000 of a second;
• Nanosecond: 1/1 000 000 000 of a second;
• Picosecond: 1/1 000 000 000 000 of a second;
The speed of a computer can be determined by looking at the

clock speed of the CPU. Each CPU produces a series of
electronic pulses at a predetermined rate, called the clock
speed, which affects machine cycle time. The control unit in the
CPU manages the stages of the machine cycle by following
predetermined internal instructions, known as microcode. You
can think of microcode as predefined, elementary circuits and
logical operations that the processor performs when it executes
an instruction. The control unit executes the microcode in
accordance with the electronic cycle, or pulses of the CPU
‘clock’. Each microcode instruction takes at least the same
amount of time as the interval between pulses. The shorter the
interval between pulses, the faster each microcode instruction
can be executed. Clock speed is often measured in megahertz
(MHz, millions of cycles per second) or gigahertz (GHz, billions

of cycles per second) (Stair and Reynolds, 2010, cited in The

IIE, 2019).
AMD set the Guinness World Record for the “Highest Frequency
of a Computer Processor” in 2011 with a record-breaking clock
speed of 8.429GHz (Nguyen, 2011). In other words, this
phenomenal show of force means that the processor at that
given point in time was capable of processing instructions at a
rate of 8.429 billion cycles per second. The AMD Bulldozer-
based FX chip remains unbeaten and is still considered to be
the fastest processor in the world.
Speed can also be considered in terms of real power. Real

power refers to the actual time it takes for a computer to
complete a task (The IIE, 2019).
2.1.2.2 Accuracy
Computers do not make mistakes (Bidgoli, 2017). If one were to

consider the numbers 4.03 and 4.02, a human might consider
the difference between the two numbers so insignificant that we
will round them down to 4 i.e. view them as equal. To a
computer, these numbers are different and in treating them as
two different number, a greater degree of accuracy can be
ensured (Bidgoli, 2017). Bidgoli (2017) states that even a small
degree of inaccuracy in the calculation of re-entry times and
locations for space shuttles on space missions can result in a
space shuttle to land in Canada instead of another, planned
location.
2.1.2.3 Storage and Retrieval
Computers are capable of storing a large amount of data and

accessing it quickly (Bidgoli, 2017). Computers store data as
bits in which one bit can either be a 1 or a 0 (Bidgoli, 2017).

The table below represents approximate storage

measurements (Bidgoli, 2017):
1 bit A single 1 or 0
8 bits 1 byte or character
210 bytes 1000 bytes/1 kilobyte (KB)
220 bytes 1 000 000 bytes/1 megabyte (MB)
230 bytes 1 000 000 000 bytes/1 gigabyte (GB)
240 bytes 1 000 000 000 000 bytes/1 terabyte (TB)
250 bytes 1 000 000 000 000 000 bytes/1 petabyte (PB)
260 bytes 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 bytes/1 exabyte
(EB)
In order for us to interact with a computer, every number, letter

or symbol on the keyboard needs to be converted into a 1 or a
0. For this reason, the ASCII (American Standard Code for
Information Interchange) encoding scheme is used. When you
press a key on the keyboard, a chip in the keyboard converts
the key’s electronic signal into a scan code that is sent to the
system unit. Then the system unit converts the scan code into a
binary (1s and 0s) form that the computer can process and store
in memory (The IIE, 2019). To illustrate this process, let’s
assume that we typed the letter ‘A’. The letter ‘A’ will have the
scan code 65 (ascii, 2019). The ASCII code 65 will then be
converted into the binary number 01000001 which will be stored
in the computer’s memory (ascii,2019).
3 The History of Computer Hardware

and Software
Both hardware and software have experienced major
developments in the past 60 years (Bidgoli, 2017). This section
will take a brief look at these developments.
3.1 The History of Computer Hardware

Each major hardware development was categorized into
“generations” which marked technological breakthroughs
(Bidgoli, 2017).
3.1.1 First-generation computers
The first breakthrough came in the 1940s when vacuum tube

technology was used (Bidgoli, 2017). Computers making use of
this technology was bulky, generated excessive heat and were
difficult to program (Bidgoli, 2017).

3.1.2 Second-generation computers
Second-generation computers were used in the period between

1957 and 1963 and made use of transistors instead of vacuum
tube technologies (Bidgoli, 2017). These computers were faster,
more reliable, easier to maintain and program (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.1.3 Third-generation computers
Third-generation computers were in circulation during the period

1964-1970 (Bidgoli, 2017). These computers were
characterised by its set of integrated circuits, remote data entry
and telecommunications capabilities (Bidgoli, 2017). These
computers were much smaller, faster and reliable than the
computers in the preceding two generations (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.1.4 Fourth-generation computers
The fourth-generation computers that were introduced during

1971-1992 build and continued to develop the previous
generation’s technologies to the extent that ease of use, an
increase in speed, miniaturization and large-scale integration
became possible (Bidgoli, 2017). It was also during this time that
the use of personal computers and optical disks became a
widespread phenomenon (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.1.5 Fifth-generation computers In terms of the hardware

specifications of your
We are currently making use of fifth-generation computing. current laptop or desktop,
Today’s computers support parallel processing, computer chips how does its current
that run at greater speeds, optical technologies and consume hardware specification
less power (Bidgoli, 2017). differ from those computers
that were available for
purchase in 1991?
3.2 The History of Computer Software
Just as with the development of computer hardware, computer
software also developed through five generations.
3.2.1 Machine Language (First-generation languages)
In the early stages of computer development, all programs had

to be written using binary codes (machine language) unique to
each computer. Example: 00000001 is the equivalent of 1.

3.2.2 Assembler Language (Second-generation

languages)
These languages use symbolic codes to represent instructions

and were developed to reduce the difficulties in writing machine
languages. The use of assembler languages requires language
translator programs (assembler) to convert an assembler
program into machine code. Example: ADD Z. Systems
software programs such as operating systems and utility
programs are often written in assembly language.
3.2.3 High Level Languages (Third-generation

languages)
These languages use brief statements for instructions (that are

more like English) and arithmetic notation for expressions.
Examples: COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
and FORTRAN (Formula Translation) are examples of high-
level languages that are already out of date, and more recent
languages such as Pascal or the language C. Each statement
in the language translates into several instructions in machine
language.
3.2.4 Object-Oriented Programming Languages (Fourth-

generation languages)
They are less procedural and even more English-like than the
third-generation languages. Examples: Visual Basic, VB.Net,
Delphi, C++, Java. These languages emphasise what output
results are desired than how programming statements are to be
written. One of the big advantages of object-oriented programs
is that the code is re-usable in a variety of applications, which
speeds up program development.
3.2.5 Database Oriented Languages (Fifth-generation

languages)
They are even closer to English and use database access

facilities. For example, Structured Query Language is often
used to perform database queries and manipulations. An SQL
query to obtain a list of GPAs that exceed 3.5 might be written
as:
SELECT LAST_NAME, FIRST_NAME FROM STUDENT

WHERE GPA > 3.5

Fifth-generation languages also presents us with the

opportunity to make use of natural language processing (NLP).
It is important to remember that despite the increase in likeness

to English, computers remain working using a binary system
and therefore all statements still need to be translated to binary
numbers i.e. 1s and 0s. For this purpose, translators are
necessary. Two types of translators are in use today:
• Interpreters: Translates and executes one program

source code statement at a time, as the program is
running (The IIE, 2019). It will immediately display any
errors it finds in the statement.
• Compilers: Converts a complete source code program
into a machine language program that the computer can
process in its entirety (The IIE, 2019). A compiler is used
to translate high-level language programs into machine
code instructions.
4 Computer Operations
Computers can perform three basic operations (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Arithmetic operations: These are calculations involving

addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and raising
numbers to a power (exponentiation).
• Logical operations: Logical operations involve performing
comparisons, for example, determining whether a
particular condition is true or false or determining the
largest of two numbers.
• Storage and retrieval: This operation involves storing
large amounts of data in small spaces and retrieving them
quickly when needed.

5 Input, Output and Memory Devices

In section 4 above, the three main operations performed by a
computer was discussed. These three operations would not be
possible without having some or other input, output or memory
device.
5.1 Input Devices

As previously discussed, input is data send to the computer.
Input devices is what is used to send input to the computer for
processing (Bidgoli, 2017).
The following hardware comprises input devices (The IIE,

2019):
• Keyboards (used for text input).

• Imaging/scanning devices (e.g. scanners are used Do you know what each of
extensively at checkout tills to read the product name and these devices look like?
its price into the POS (point-of-sale) so that an invoice can
be produced. This is quicker and more accurate than the
old manual method using a keyboard. OCR, Optical
Character Recognition, involves reading typewritten or
hand-printed characters from ordinary documents and
translating the images into a form the computer can
process).
• It is also noted that POS (Point-of-Sale) terminals can be
used in South African shops to enter data/information
related to sales. A bar code reader, also called a bar code
scanner, is an optical reader that uses laser beams to read
the bar codes on stock items at stores such as Edgars,
Woolworths, and Spar. A bar code is an identification code
that consists of a set of vertical lines and spaces of
different widths. The bar code represents data that
identifies the manufacturer and the item. Manufacturers
print a bar code either on a product’s package or label that
is affixed to a product.
• Pointing devices:
o Mouse (pointing device).

o Light pen (handheld input device that can detect the
presence of light, and the user generally presses the
light pen against the surface of the screen).
o Trackball (stationery pointing device with a ball on
its top or side).

• Speech/voice recognition technology (the process of

entering input by speaking into a microphone, whereby
the computer is capable of distinguishing spoken words).
• Digital camera (allows users to take pictures and store the
images digitally, instead of on traditional film).
• Touch sensitive screen (A touch screen allows you to
touch areas of the screen to enter data. It is used typically
where small amounts of data need to be entered, e.g. at a
restaurant or information kiosk where you can make
selections off a list).
• Pen-based devices (with pen input, users write, draw and
tap on a flat surface to enter input).
• Microphone (the process of entering sound into the
computer, such as speech, music and sound effects).
• Video input (the process of capturing full motion images
and storing them electronically. This technology is used in
web cam input, and for video conferencing.)
• Joystick and Wheel (Joysticks are used as pointing
devices to play games and come with one or two buttons
that are used for special game functions.)
• Biometric input (this refers to technology that is used in
authenticating a person’s identity by verifying a personal
characteristic. Biometric devices grant users access to
programs, systems or rooms, by analysing characteristics
such as fingerprints, voice, signatures, hand geometry, or
facial features.)
• Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Devices: Another type
of special-purpose input/output device, the automated
teller machine (ATM) is a terminal that bank customers
use to perform withdrawals and other transactions with
their bank accounts.
• Magnetic Stripe Card: A magnetic stripe card stores
limited amounts of data by modifying the magnetism of
tiny iron-based particles contained in a band on the card.
The magnetic stripe is read by physically swiping the card
past a reading head. Magnetic stripe cards are commonly
used in credit cards, transportation tickets, and driver’s
licenses.
• Radio Frequency Identification: The purpose of a Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) system is to transmit data
by a mobile device, called a tag, which is read by an RFID
reader and processed according to the needs of an IS
program. One popular application of RFID is to place a
microchip on retail items and install in-store readers that
track the inventory on the shelves to determine when
shelves should be restocked (Stair and Reynolds, 2010:
109).

• Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) system: This system will

read marks on a paper and is often used to grade multiple-
choice and true/false tests (Bidgoli, 2017).
5.2 Output Devices

Output is the result of the processing that has taken place.
Output devices enable us to see the result of the processing.
Output devices exist for both mainframe and personal
computers (Bidgoli, 2017).
The following hardware comprises output devices (The IIE,

2019):
Monitors. Examples are:
• LCD monitors, also called flat panelled monitors, which

use Liquid Crystal Display to produce images. These
monitors produce sharp, flicker-free images. The quality
of an LCD monitor depends on:
o Resolution (the number of horizontal and vertical

pixels in a display device).
o Response time (time in milliseconds to turn a pixel
on or off. The lower the number, the faster the
response time).
o Brightness (this is measured in nits. A nit is a unit of
visible light intensity. The higher the nits, the brighter
the image).
These displays are easier on your eyes than CRTs

because they are flicker-free, brighter, and do not emit the
type of radiation that makes some CRT users worry. In
addition, LCD monitors take up less space and use less
than half of the electricity required to operate a
comparably sized CRT monitor.
• Plasma monitors are used by large business users or

power users. A plasma monitor is a display device that
uses gas plasma technology, which sandwiches a layer of
gas between two glass plates. Plasma monitors offer large
screen sizes and higher display qualities than LCD
monitors but are more expensive).
CRT monitors (Cathode-Ray Tubes refer to the normal

desktop monitors. A CRT costs less than an LCD, but also
generates more heat and uses more power than LCD).

Because early monitors used a cathode-ray tube to

display images, they were sometimes called CRTs. Such
a monitor works much the same way a traditional TV
screen does - the cathode-ray tubes generate one or more
electron beams. As the beams strike a phosphorescent
compound (phosphor) coated on the inside of the screen,
a dot on the screen called a pixel lights up. A pixel is a dot
of colour on a photo image or a point of light on a display
screen. It appears in one of two modes: on or off. The
electron beam sweeps across the screen so that as the
phosphor starts to fade, it is struck and lights up again
(Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 110).
Printers. Examples include:
• Dot matrix/impact printers (these printers form characters

and graphics on paper by striking a mechanism against
an inked ribbon that physically contacts the paper. These
printers typically use continuous-form paper, in which
thousands of sheets of paper are connected together end
to end.) Today, these printers are mostly used in
businesses printing multiple-copy invoices and other
carbonised documents, which require an impact printer.
• Inkjet printers (a nonimpact printer that forms characters
and graphics by spraying tiny drops of liquid ink onto a
piece of paper. This is a popular type of home usage
printer.)
• Laser printers (laser printers are high-speed, high-quality
nonimpact printers.)
• Thermal printers (these printers generate images by
pushing electrically heated pins against heat-sensitive
paper. Basic thermal printers are inexpensive, but the
print quality tends to be low.)
• Mobile printers (these printers are small, lightweight,
battery-powered printers that allow a mobile user to print
from a notebook.)
• 3-D printers can be used to turn three-dimensional
computer models into three-dimensional objects.
• Speakers (most personal computers have a small internal
speaker that emits only low-quality sound. Thus, many
personal computer users add surround sound speakers to
their computers.)
• A digital audio player is a device that can store, organise,
and play digital music files. MP3 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3)
is a popular format for compressing a sound sequence
into a very small file while preserving the original level of

sound quality when it is played. By compressing the sound

file, it requires less time to download the file and less
storage space on a hard drive.
• Plotters (these are sophisticated printers used to produce
high-quality drawings such as blueprints, maps and circuit
diagrams.)
• Data projectors (these are devices that take text and
images displaying on a computer screen and project them
on a larger screen so that an audience can view it.)
• The digital media equivalent of a conventional printed
book is called an e-book (short for electronic book). A
number of e-book hardware devices are available
including the Kindle from Amazon.com.
Note that peripherals is the term used to name all input, output,
and secondary devices that are part of the computer system.
The ports and connectors are used for establishing links
between the computer and peripherals.
5.3 Memory Devices

There are two common types of memory in any computer,
namely: Main memory (primary memory) and secondary
memory (Bidgoli, 2017).
5.3.1 Main Memory (primary memory)
The main memory stores program instructions and data that are
waiting to be processed in the CPU of the computer.
There are basically two types of internal memory:
• RAM (Random Access Memory) in which data and

instructions are entered (written) and retrieved (read) in a
non-sequential manner. RAM is volatile memory: What is the size of the
information is lost when the computer is switched off. largest RAM a
Therefore, the RAM is not used to store entire programs commercially available
or software permanently. RAM chips are mounted directly computer can
on the computer’s main circuit board or in other chips accommodate?
mounted on peripheral cards that plug into the main circuit
board. These RAM chips consist of millions of switches
that are sensitive to changes in electric current.
RAM comes in many varieties. Static Random-Access

Memory (SRAM) is byte-addressable storage used for
high-speed registers and caches. Dynamic Random-
Access Memory (DRAM) is byte-addressable storage

used for the main memory in a computer. Double Data

Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory
(DDR SDRAM) is an improved form of DRAM that
effectively doubles the rate at which data can be moved in
and out of main memory (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 93).
• ROM (Read Only Memory): data and instructions can only

be retrieved (read). ROM is non-volatile and retains its
contents when power is switched off.
Chip manufacturers are competing to develop a non-volatile

memory chip that requires minimal power, offers extremely fast
write speed, and can store data accurately even after a large
number of write-erase cycles. Such a chip could eliminate the
need for RAM and simplify and speed up memory processing.
PCM, FeRAM, and MRAM are three potential approaches to
provide such a memory device. Although microprocessor speed
has doubled every 24 months over the past decade, memory
performance has not kept pace. In effect, memory has become
the principal bottleneck to system performance (Stair and
Reynolds, 2010: 94).
The use of cache memory, a type of high-speed memory that a

processor can access more rapidly than main memory, helps to
ease this bottleneck. Frequently used data is stored in easily
accessible cache memory instead of slower memory such as
RAM. Because cache memory holds less data, the CPU can
access the desired data and instructions more quickly than
selecting from the larger set in main memory. Thus, the CPU
can execute instructions faster, improving the overall
performance of the computer system.
The three primary functions of the RAM are:
• Holding data for processing.

• Holding the instructions for processing the data.
• Holding the data after it has been processed.
The various parts of the computer inside the tower (case or box)
are mostly placed on a board called the motherboard.

5.4 Secondary Memory

Secondary memory devices are non-volatile and primarily used
for storing large volumes of data for long periods (Bidgoli, 2017).
Secondary storage also offers larger capacity and greater
economy than RAM (The IIE, 2019)
As with other computer system components, the access

methods, storage capacities, and portability required of
secondary storage media are determined by the information
system’s objectives. An objective of a credit card company’s
information system, for example MasterCard or Visa, might be
to rapidly retrieve stored customer data to approve customer
purchases. In this case, a fast access method is critical. In other
cases, such as equipping the Coca-Cola field sales-force with
pocket-sized personal computers, portability and storage
capacity might be major considerations in selecting and using
secondary storage media and devices (Stair and Reynolds,
2010: 100).
The unit of data storage is binary digits or “bits”. A bit can have
two values: either 0 or 1, originating from the state of an
electronic element, which can either be switched off or on.
Electromagnetic signals are stored on magnetic disks; laser-

etched spots are stored on optical disks.
The most common forms of secondary storage include magnetic

tapes, magnetic disks, virtual tapes, and optical discs. In
general, magnetic tapes are the oldest storage medium, while
optical discs are the most recent. Some of these media
(magnetic tape) allow only sequential access, while others
(magnetic and optical discs) provide direct and sequential
access.
5.4.1 Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes are manufactured from Mylar (a plastic material)

coated with a thin layer of iron-oxide material on which data is
recorded. Major applications for magnetic tapes include long-
term storage and backup storage for PC’s.
If the computer needs to read data from the middle of a reel of

tape, it must first pass all the tape before the desired piece of
data - one disadvantage of magnetic tape. When information is
needed, it can take time to retrieve the proper tape and mount it
on the tape reader to get the relevant data into the computer.
Despite the falling prices of hard drives, tape storage is still a

popular choice for low-cost data backup for off-site storage in

the event of a disaster.
Technology is improving to provide tape storage devices with

greater capacities and faster transfer speeds. In addition, the
bulky tape drives used to read and write on large reels of tapes
in the early days of computing have been replaced with tape
cartridge devices measuring a few millimetres in diameter,
requiring much less floor space and allowing hundreds of tapes
to be stored in a small area (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 99).
5.4.2 Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disks are coated with iron oxide; they can be thin
metallic platters (hard disks) or Mylar film (diskettes). As with
magnetic tape, magnetic disks represent bits using small
magnetised areas. When reading from or writing to a disk, the
disk’s read/write head can go directly to the desired piece of
data. Thus, the disk is a direct-access storage medium.
Because direct access allows fast data retrieval, this type of
storage is ideal for companies that need to respond quickly to
customer requests, such as airlines and credit card firms.
For example, if a manager needs information on the credit

history of a customer or the seat availability on a particular flight,
the information can be obtained in seconds if the data is stored
on a direct access storage device.
5.4.3 Optical Storage
Optical technology involves the use of laser beams of light.

Laser beams are used to read data stored on optical disks.
An optical disk is simply a rigid disk of plastic onto which data is

recorded by special lasers that physically burn pits in the disk.
Data is directly accessed from the disk by an optical disk device,
which operates much like a stereo’s compact disk player. This
optical disk device uses a low-power laser that measures the
difference in reflected light caused by a pit (or lack thereof) on
the disk.
The following are types of optical disks:
• Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM). As the

name implies, CD’s were originally intended to serve as a
storage facility for read only purposes. Since the
introduction of CD-Writers (with CD burner) and Re-
writers, this has changed, and we are now able to use

these disks as read and write memory. CDs in use today

have a large capacity and can hold up to 740 MB.
• Re-writeable Optical Disk Systems. These disks permit
data to be written to a disk many times.
• Digital Video/Versatile Disk (DVD). It has a higher storage
capacity than CDs (e.g. 4.7 GB) designed to store movies,
including soundtracks and subtitles. The tendency
currently is that DVD burners tend to supplant CD burners.
• The Blu-ray high-definition video-disk format based on
blue-laser technology stores at least three times as much
data as a DVD now holds. The primary use for this new
format is in home entertainment equipment to store high-
definition video, though this format can also store
computer data (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 101).
Among storage devices, one can distinguish between Which secondary storage
removable devices and non-removable devices. In the former devices are you making
case, a storage device containing data can be removed from use of as a student?
one computer and then be loaded into another computer.
Examples of removable devices are CDs and USB flash disks.

In the latter case, the disk remains connected to a particular
computer system (e.g. HDD).
Other hardware components, which also play an important role

for the computer system, are:
• Slots and adapter cards: PC cards, flash memory cards,

USB flash cards (allow users to expand their systems by
providing slots on the system board. Users can insert
optional devices known as expansion cards into these
slots).
• Ports and connectors: serial ports, USB ports (ports allow
cables to be connected from the expansion cards to
devices outside the system unit).
• Buses (connect the parts of the CPU to each other).
5.4.4 Storage Networking
There is a need to provide storage facilities for an increasing

amount of data generated by web transactions on the network.
The use of Storage-Area Network (SAN), technologies enable
many different storage resources (e.g. disk drives, tapes, RAID)
to utilise a separate high-speed network facility dedicated to
storage purposes. This approach enables data and information
to be exchanged between the different sections, departments
and branches of the enterprise. SAN manufacturers may

include, for example, IBM systems, Hitachi Data systems (Stair

and Reynolds, 2006).
5.4.5 Cloud Storage
Cloud storage enables users to remotely manage, backup and

maintain information over a network. The market leaders in
providing this kind of storage as a service model include
Amazon Glacier, Google Cloud Storage and Microsoft Azure
(Rouse, n.d, cited in The IIE, 2019). In order for a solution to fall What cloud storage do you
under the banner of cloud computing, five important make use of during your
characteristics need to be present (Rountree & Castrillo, 2014, studies?
cited in The IIE, 2019):
• On-demand self-service: A user must be able to

accomplish the tasks and gain access to the resources
he/she wishes to without first having to request
assistance from an intermediary.
• Broad network access: A user must have easy access to
the resources he/she needs access to.
• Resource pooling: When a user is not using a particular
service offered by the cloud computing service, it must
be available to other users of the service.
• Rapid elasticity: It must be possible to expand the cloud
environment in response to user demand.
• Measured service: It must be possible to measure and
obtain statistics on the usage of the service.
6 Classes Of Computers
Computers, in general can be classified in terms of cost, amount
of memory, speed and sophistication (Bidgoli, 2017). Based on
this criterion, computers can be classified as belonging to one
of the following classes (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Supercomputers;
• Mainframes;
• Minicomputers;
• Personal computers;
• Notebooks; and
• Subnotebooks.

6.1 Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers with the
fastest processing speed and highest performance. They are
special-purpose machines designed for applications that require
extensive and rapid computational capabilities. Examples of
applications are for global weather forecasting, military defence
systems, etc. They are powerful machines and consist of
multiple processors.
The IBM Blue Gene/L supercomputer was designed and built in

collaboration with the Department of Energy and the Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory. This basketball court-size,
number-crunching monster supports a wide range of research
projects, ranging from detailed simulations of nuclear weapons
programs to human biological processes such as protein
folding. When comparing the speed of supercomputers, the
metric used is floating-point operating instructions per second,
or FLOPS (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 122). Today’s super
computers’ speeds have evolved to the point that they are
expressed in terms of petaflops which implies that the computer
is capable of performing a quadrillion floating-point operations
per second (Beal, n.d. cited in The IIE, 2019).
6.2 Mainframes
These are large computers frequently used in large
organisations. They are able to process millions of instructions
per second and are designed to handle information processing
for corporate institutions and government departments with
many employees and customers. They can also be used as
business computing platforms, for data mining and warehousing
and electronic commerce applications (O’ Brien, 2002 and 2005,
cited in The IIE, 2019). These machines are very expensive and
can cost millions. Mainframes are mainly used for centralised
data processing.
A mainframe computer is a large, powerful computer shared by

dozens or even hundreds of concurrent users connected to the
machine over a network. The mainframe computer must reside
in a data centre with special heating, ventilating, and air-
conditioning (HVAC) equipment to control temperature,
humidity, and dust levels. In addition, most mainframes are kept
in a secure data centre with limited access to the room. The
construction and maintenance of a controlled-access room with
HVAC can add hundreds of thousands of dollars to the cost of
owning and operating a mainframe computer. The role of the

mainframe is undergoing some remarkable changes as lower-

cost, single-user computers become increasingly powerful.
Many computer jobs that used to run on mainframe computers
have migrated onto these smaller, less-expensive computers.
This information-processing migration is called computer
downsizing (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 169, cited in The IIE,
2019).
6.3 Minicomputers
A minicomputer is a class of computers which is less powerful
than a mainframe, but more powerful than a personal computer
(microcomputer) (Technopedia, n.d). The term ‘minicomputer’
and its use has diminished and was merged with the term server
as minicomputers are mainly used as servers (Technopedia,
n.d).
Servers are computers that manages the resources on a

network as well as the services offered to a network (Bidgoli,
2017).
The following server platforms are available for performing

specific tasks (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Application servers store computer software which can be

accessed from users’ workstations;
• Database servers manages an organisations data. The
data that these servers manage can be accessed from
users’ workstations.
• Disk servers provides a space where users can store files
and applications for later use.
• Fax servers enables users to send faxes.
• File servers provides a large capacity to users for storing
and retrieving files.
• Mail servers enable users to send, receive and store
emails.
• Print servers enable users to print to printers connected to
the organization’s network.
• Remote Access Servers (RAS) enables the employees of
an organization to access the organisation’s resources
stored on the company network remotely.
• Web servers stores web pages for access over the
Internet.

6.4 Personal Computers

Personal computers are used at home, in small organisations
and for business applications. The performance of these
computer systems depends on a number of interrelated factors
such as the speed of the processor and the memory, to name
but a few (Knapp, 2016, cited in The IIE, 2019).\
6.5 Notebooks
A notebook, otherwise known as a laptop, is a variation of a
personal computer. It is powered by both a battery and ordinary
electric power supply which means that if the battery is charged, What uses can you identify
one does not need to have the computer plugged into an electric for a notebook?
power supply (Rouse, n.d).
What distinguishes them from ordinary personal computer is If asked for advice by
their portability. These notebooks can conveniently be used on another student, would you
airplanes, libraries, temporary offices and at meetings (Rouse, advise them to purchase a
n.d.). Notebook computers are much smaller than ordinary desktop or a laptop? Why?
desktop personal computers but have the same capabilities as
desktop personal computers (Rouse, n.d).
6.6 Subnotebooks When do you think a

subnotebook will be more
A subnotebook is a laptop that has a smaller screen and useful than an ordinary
keyboard and no optical drive (Webopedia, n.d.). laptop?
The fact that personal computers, minicomputers and

subnotebooks have all been specified as belonging to their own
class supports the following trends identified by Bidgoli (2017):
• Thinner and lighter laptops and tablets;

• Faster and larger memory;
• Widespread applications of wireless devices;
• Increased applications of interactive computing using
gesture, touch, and voice.
7 Types of Software
Bidgoli (2017) distinguishes between two main types of
software, namely Operating System Software and Application
Software.

7.1 Operating System Software

An operating system is a set of programs responsible for
managing the hardware and other software installed on a
computer (Bidgoli, 2017). Apart from this, the operating system
performs the following functions (Bidgoli, 2017):
• It prioritises tasks performed by the CPU;

• It manages computer resources such as storage and
memory and in a networked environment will also assign
tasks to specific resources on the network;
• It maintains data integrity by generating checksums to
ensure that data does not get corrupted or changed
inappropriately; and
• It controls the transfer of data between the CPU, memory
and I/O devices.
7.2 Application Software

Application software installed on a computer performs a variety
of tasks as required by the user (Bidgoli, 2017).
Application software has several uses:
o To make business activities efficient;

o To assist with communications;
o To support business tasks.
Application software is available in a variety of forms, namely:
• Packaged: This type of software is mass-produced,

copyrighted, and is sold on a retail level. Example:
Microsoft Office.
• Custom: This software performs functions specific to a
business or industry. Example: A company can ask
programmers to tailor-make a program for calculating tax.
• Open source: This software is provided for use,
modification, and redistribution. There is no restriction
from the copyright holder.
• Shareware: This is copyrighted software that is distributed
at no cost for a trial period.
• Freeware: This is copyrighted software that is provided at
no cost to a user by the company that retains all the rights
to the software.
• Public domain: This is donated for public use and has no
copyright restrictions. Anyone can copy or distribute this
software at no cost. (Shelly et al., 2005: 101)

Common categories of commercially available application

software include the following (Bidgoli, 2017):
Can you think of any
• Word processing software; specific software packages
that fall within each of
• Spreadsheet software; these categories?
• Database software;
• Presentation software;
• Graphics software;
• Desktop publishing software;
• Financial planning and accounting software;
• Project management software;
• Computer-Aided Design Software.


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and Activities
You have been appointed as the IT manager for a small
insurance brokerage firm who wishes to replace their outdated
technology with newer more fit-for-purpose technologies. The
insurance firm currently has twenty employees.
You have been tasked with the job of finding suitable hardware,
software and Internet options to revamp the technology
infrastructure of the company.
Conduct some research to identify the hardware and software

that will be required by the company to operate efficiently. Also
come up with an estimated total cost for the project.

10 Activities
10.1 Activity 1
A young entrepreneur decided to start his own software
development company. The entrepreneur wants only the best
and latest technologies to be installed at the new company.
Draft a basic report outlining the advantages and disadvantages

of outfitting the new company with the latest hardware and
software on the market.
1. By referring to the components of a computer system,
explain why your cell phone can be considered a
computer system.
2. In tabular format, summarise the history of computer

hardware.
3. In tabular format, summarise the history of computer

software.
4. Which factors provides us with a clear distinction between

human processing capabilities and those of a computer?
5. Provide an example of each type of computer operation

performed.
6. Identify one input, one output and one storage device that
you as a student make use of when interacting with a
computer during your studies.
7. Which two classes of computers are commonly used by

students during their studies?
8. Which operating system are you currently using on your

computer?
9. What commercially available application software are you

using to support you in successfully completing your
studies?


1. A cell phone can be considered a computer system as it
has input devices, in many cases a touch screen that
presents the user with a keyboard and uses the touch
input to send data to the phone’s memory. The data will
then be transferred from the memory to the CPU where
the ALU will perform the necessary calculations and
comparisons and the control unit of the CPU will
determine what should happen next. After the CPU has
concluded the processing, the output device, which can
be the screen will output the result of the processing. If the
instruction was for the phone to play a song, the output
device will be the phone’s speakers. The cell phone can
therefore be considered a computer system as it
possesses all of the elements of a computer system.
2. The following table was adapted from Bidgoli’s 2017

summary of the various hardware generations:
Generation Date Major Technologies

First-generation 1946-1956 Vacuum tube
Second- 1957-1963 Transistors
generation
Third-generation 1964-1970 Integrated circuits,
remote data entry,
telecommunications
Fourth- 1971-1992 Miniaturisation, VSLI,
generation personal computers,
optical disks
Fifth-generation 1993-present Parallel processing,
gallium arsenide chips,
optical technologies
3. The following table was adapted from Bidgoli’s 2017

summary of the various hardware generations:
Generation Major Attribute

First-generation Machine language
Second-generation Assembly language
Third-generation High-level language
Fourth-generation Fourth-generation language
Fifth-generation Natural language processing

4. Speed, Accuracy and Storage and retrieval.
5. Arithmetic operation example: 2 * 3 = 6, Logical

comparison example: Is 2 > 3 = False, Storage and
retrieval example: Saving a file and then opening the file
at a later stage.
6. Students’ answers may vary. Input devices could include

a mouse, keyboard and touch screen. Output devices
could include printers and screens. An example of a
storage device could include a USB memory stick.
7. Notebooks and personal computers.
8. Students answers may vary as they could either be

making use of a Windows operating system or a Mac
operating system.
9. Students answers may vary but will in all likelihood range

between MS Word and the programming languages they
use.

Learning Unit 3: Database Systems,

Data Warehouses, and Data Marts
• Define a database and a database

management system (DBMS);
• Define the components of a
(DBMS);
• Explain logical database design
and the relational database model;
• Summarise recent trends in
database design and use;
• Explain the components and
functions of a data warehouse;
• Describe the functions of a data
mart.

Bidgoli.

unit.
1 Introduction
For surviving in a competitive business world, it is imperative for
organisations to optimise the usage of an asset such as
information in an effective way. A DBMS can contribute to the
satisfaction of this requirement. In such a system, the database
contains the data/information, while a collection of software
tools supporting the management of the data and information
forms part of the DBMS.
A database is critical for many aspects of an organisation’s

information system:
• It provides an essential foundation for an organisation’s

information and decision support system.
• Without a good database, executives and managers will
not get the information they need to make good decisions.

• A database is the foundation of most systems

development project; if the database is poorly designed,
the systems developed could be inaccurate and
inefficient.
2 Databases and Database

Management Systems
As was stated in the introduction to this learning unit, a database
can be considered a collection of related data that can either be
stored in a central location or in multiple locations (Bidgoli,
2017). Since databases form the cornerstone of organization’s
information systems and are critical to the decision making that
takes place in an organisation, it is important that the database
be utilized as efficiently as possible. The software that supports
the efficient use of a database is known as the Database
Management System (DBMS) (Bidgoli, 2017). The DBMS can
formally be described as software which allows for data to be
created, stored, maintained and accessed in and from a
database (Bidgoli, 2017).
In a database, data is hierarchically organised. The fact that the

data is hierarchically organised and linked, contributes to the
efficiency with which data can be created, maintained and
accessed. The hierarchy begins with the smallest piece of a
data used by a computer, a bit, and progresses through the
hierarchy to a database. The hierarchy of data is as follows (The
IIE, 2019):
• Character: Is a logical group of eight bits forming a byte.

• Field: Is a unit of data consisting out of a number of
characters.
• Record: Is a collection of related fields.
• File: Is a collection of related records.
• Database: Is a collection of integrated and related files.
Let us consider the hierarchy of data from a graphical

perspective. In the scenario below, there are two tables
containing data. The first table contains the data of all the
customers of an online store. The second table contains the
data of the orders placed by these customers.

Customer Table
Customer Customer Name Customer

Number Surname
Cust01 John Doe
Cust02 Jane Doe
Order Table
Order Number Customer Total Cost Of

Number Order
Ord01 Cust01 R123
Ord02 Cust01 R333
From these two tables we can see that Cust01, who is John
Doe, placed two orders with the company.
If we consider the data in the tables in terms of the hierarchy,

we start looking at a single character. If we take John Doe’s
customer number, any one of the letters or numbers in isolation
represents one character. All the characters that make up John
Doe’s customer number, is collectively known as a field. All of
the fields in the first row of the customer table collectively forms
a record. In other words, Cust01 and John and Doe represent
one record that describes one entity. The two records in the
customer table combined forms one file.
In the example of the two tables, we therefore have two files.

These files are logically related as we can see that John Doe
placed two orders. These two related files are collectively known
as a database.
The fact that the data is stored as a hierarchy benefits us in the

following ways (Bidgoli, 2017):
• More information can be generated from the same data;

• Complex queries are easily dealt with;
• The same data set can be used by multiple programmes;
• The management of data in an effective way is simplified;
• The relationships between the data in a database can be
maintained better;
• Improved security measures can be applied and
• The redundancy of data is reduced which means that
storage space is not wasted.

2.1 Accessing the Data in a Database

The data in a database can be accessed in either a sequential,
random, or indexed sequential method (Bidgoli, 2017).
2.1.1 Sequential Access Method
If a sequential access method is used to access the data, the

data is accessed in the order in which it was entered (Bidgoli,
2017). If there are 10 records in a database, and one wishes to
access the ninth record, records one to eight will have to be read
first before the ninth record can be read. This type of access
method is slower when working with a large number of records
and its use is therefore limited to accessing data that was
backed up and therefore less frequently accessed (Bidgoli,
2017). These backups are typically stored on magnetic tape
(Bidgoli, 2017).
2.1.2 Random-Access Method
When the random-access method is used, the location of the

record does not matter. The record can be accessed in any
order (Bidgoli, 2017). This method of accessing records takes
place faster than accessing records sequentially (Bidgoli, 2017).
The random-access method is typically used with data stored
on magnetic disks (Bidgoli, 2017).
2.1.3 Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM)
This access method combines the sequential and random-

access methods. The indexed sequential access method
utilizes the random-access method when retrieving a record
associated with a small number and the sequential access
method when retrieving a record associated with a larger
number (Bidgoli, 2017).
When the indexed sequential access method is used, an index

entry is created for each record (Bidgoli, 2017). Along with an
index entry, the address of the record is stored (Bidgoli, 2017).
When a specific record therefore needs to be accessed, the
index will be scanned, and the address of the record will be
retrieved. Once the record address has been retrieved, the
record can be accessed from the disk directly (Bidgoli, 2017).

3 The Components Of A DBMS

A DBMS is a software application used to support the efficient
use of a database and as such consists out of five components
which will be discussed in the sections below.
3.1 Database Engine

The database engine is at the heart of the DBMS and supports
the storage, manipulation and retrieval of data (Bidgoli, 2017). It
performs this function by interacting with the other components
of the DBMS (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.2 Data Definition

The data definition component maintains the data dictionary and
defines the structure of files in a database (Bidgoli, 2017). If any
changes to the database’s structure is made, the data definition
component will be used to make these changes (Bidgoli, 2017).
The Data Definition component makes use of a data definition

language (DDL). A DDL consists of a ccollection of instructions
and commands used to define and describe data (field
properties and primary keys) and data relationships in a specific
database (The IIE, 2019).
3.3 Data Manipulation

Data manipulation involves adding, deleting, modifying and
retrieving records from a database (Bidgoli, 2017). This
component makes use of a query language such as Structured
Query Language (SQL) or query by example (QBE) (Bidgoli,
2017).
SQL, is as the name suggest, a structured combination of

keywords which specify the actions (add, modify, delete or
retrieve) to be taken (Bidgoli, 2017).
An example of a SQL statement that will retrieve the names and

surnames of all employees listed in a table called employee, will
look as follow:
SELECT name, surname

FROM employee

Unlike SQL, QBE enables a user to retrieve data from a

database by creating a statement using a combination of query
forms (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.4 Application Generation

This component is used to make the interaction with the
database more user friendly by allowing developers to create
screens that can be used to enter data into the database, or
interactive menus which will enable a user to generate a variety
of reports (Bidgoli, 2017). This component is typically used by
IT Professionals and database administrators (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.5 Data Administration

This component is used to accomplish tasks such as backup
and recovery, security and change management (Bidgoli,
2017). This component is also used to specify privileges in
terms of what a user can and cannot do. These set of privileges
can be summarized using the acronym CRUD which stands for
create, read, update, and delete (Bidgoli, 2017).
This component is actively used by the database administrator

(DBA) who is responsible for (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Designing and setting up a database;

• Determine users’ access rights and thereby ensure that
adequate security measures are established;
• Develop recovery procedures in case data is lost or
corrupted;
• Monitoring the performance of the database and
• Adding and fine-tuning database functions.
4 Logical Database Design

Before one can begin to design a database, one needs to
understand that there are two perspectives from which data is
viewed in a database, namely the physical view and the logical
view (Bidgoli, 2017).
The physical view deals with how data is physically (i.e. actually)
arranged, stored and accessed on some type of secondary
devices such as magnetic disc, CD-ROM (The IIE, 2019). This
view is being used by programmers and developers of DBMS
systems, in order to make changes to existing databases and to
create new databases (The IIE, 2019).

The logical data view focuses on how the users need the data
to be arranged (The IIE, 2019).
Taking into consideration these two perspectives, one can

commence with the design of the database.
4.1 Defining a Data Model

Defining a data model represents the first step in the design of
a database (Bidgoli, 2017).
The data model will specify the following (Bidgoli, 2017):
• How data will be organized as well as the relationships

that will exist between the various records in the database;
• Processing, such as calculations and methods, that can
be and will need to be performed on the data; and
• The boundaries of the database that will ensure the
integrity of the data in the database.
Various data models are currently in use, they are as follow (The
IIE, 2019):
• Relational;
• Multidimensional;
• Object-oriented;
• Relational object-oriented.
In this module, the focus will be on the Relational database

model.
4.1.1 The Relational Database Model
The Relational database model stores data in a series of two-

dimensional tables (Bidgoli, 2017). Each row in a table is known
as a record or tuple, and columns are known as fields or
attributes (Bidgoli, 2017).
Consider the table below. In this table, ‘Customer Number’

represents a field or attribute. One row represents a record or
tuple in the table.

Number Surname
Cust01 John Doe
Cust02 Jane Doe

In designing a relational database, one begins by defining the

logical structure, in other words, the tables to be included in the
database and the fields in each table (Bidgoli, 2017).
The collection of fields together with the defining features of

each field is stored in a data dictionary (Bidgoli, 2017). Data What will an entry in a data
dictionary look like for your
dictionary entries for each field include the following Bidgoli,
student number?
2017):
• Field name – e.g. Customer Number, Customer Name,

Customer Surname;
• Field data type – e.g. character, date or number;
• Default value – This represents the value that will
automatically be stored if no value is provided for the field;
• Validation rule – A rule that will determine whether the
value that was entered is a valid value for the field or not.
When working with relational databases, it is essential that one Why would a field such as
specifies a primary key for the table. A primary key is a field, of name or surname not be
which the value can be used to uniquely identify a record considered good
(Bidgoli, 2017). When one considers the employee table candidates for primary
provided above, one can identify the primary key for the table keys?
as ‘Customer Number’ because all the customer numbers are
unique to each customer.
One can establish relationships between the tables in a

relational database model by including the primary key of one
table in another table. When this occurs, one is said to be
making use of a foreign key. A foreign key is a field in a table
that is indicated as a primary key in another table in the
relational database (Bidgoli, 2017). Consider the example
below:
Customer Table

Number (PK) Surname
Cust01 John Doe
Cust02 Jane Doe
Order Table
Order Number Customer Total Cost Of

Number (FK) Order
Ord01 Cust01 R123
Ord02 Cust01 R333

A variety of operations can be performed on the data stored in

a relational database (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Data can be retrieved from a table using a select

operation.
Example 1:
SELECT Customer Name, Customer Surname
FROM Customer
Result – Example 1:
Customer Name Customer Surname

John Doe
Jane Doe
• Selectively retrieve information from a table by including a

condition in the select operation.
Example 2:
SELECT Customer Name, Customer Surname
FROM Customer
WHERE Customer Number = “Cust02”
Customer Name Customer Surname
Jane Doe
• Combine information from multiple tables using a join

operation.
Example 3:
SELECT Customer Name, Customer Surname, Total
Cost of Order
FROM Customer, Order
WHERE Customer.Customer Number = Order.Customer
Number
Customer Name Customer Total Cost of

Surname Order
John Doe R123
John Doe R333

4.1.2 Normalisation
The efficiency of a relational database can be improved through

the process of normalization (Bidgoli, 2017). Normalisation
improves the efficiency of a relational database by reducing
redundancy and ensuring that only related data is stored in a
table (Bidgoli, 2017).
5 Trends In Database Design and Use

Various trends in the development and use of Databases have
emerged and will be discussed in the sections below.
5.1 Data-Driven Websites

A data-driven website’s content is determined by the content of
a database, therefore, as the contents in the database change,
so too does the content of the website (Bidgoli, 2017). Data-
driven web sites allow users to interact with the database,
writing content to the database as well as retrieving information
from the database (Bidgoli, 2017). Data-driven websites are
very useful for the following applications (Bidgoli, 2017):
Can you identify one
• E-commerce sites that need frequent updates; example of each type of
application?
• News sites that needs their content updated regularly;
• Forums and discussion groups; and
• Subscription services, such as newsletters.
5.2 Distributed Databases

Distributed databases allow for data to be stored on multiple
servers, throughout the organization (Bidgoli, 2017). Distributed
databases make use of a distributed database management
system (DDBMS) (Bidgoli, 2017).
Several reasons could be used to justify the use of a distributed

database (Bidgoli, 2017):
• A distributed database might represent a better alignment

with the organisation’s structure;
• A distributed database might yield cost reductions;
• A distributed database may reduce the effects of
computer failure i.e. if one of the servers on which the data
resides goes down, it will not take the entire database out
of commission;

• A distributed design might be more in line with user’s

needs and can be adapted quicker to the changing needs
of users and
• A distributed design is not limited to a physical location.
Although a variety of reasons exist for making use of a What potential security
distributed database, one very big concern exists for these risks exists with the use of
databases, namely security and the maintenance of such a distributed database?
(Bidgoli, 2017).
Three approaches exist in terms of how a DDBMS can be set

up (Bidgoli, 2017).
5.2.1 Fragmentation
Fragmentation is the term given to the approach that will

address how tables will be distributed to the different servers in
a distributed database setup (Bidgoli, 2017). There are two
types of fragmentation approaches, namely horizontal
fragmentation, vertical fragmentation, and mixed fragmentation
(Bidgoli, 2017).
With horizontal fragmentation, fragmentation of the database

takes place by grouping the rows in a table based on the values
of certain fields (tutorialspoint, 2019). In order to understand the
concept of horizontal fragmentation, one can consider a table
which contains the details of students and the disciplines they
study:
StNumber StName StSurname StDiscipline

12345 Chris Carter IT
67890 Christine Myburgh Art
45678 Clarens Nkuna IT
If horizontal fragmentation is to be applied and one will fragment

the tale based on discipline, the fragments will look as follow:
Fragment 1:

12345 Chris Carter IT
45678 Clarens Nkuna IT
Fragment 2:

67890 Christine Myburgh Art

In Fragment 1 and 2 above, horizontal fragmentation was

implemented because the table was split into groups of rows
that have a common field value for one of the fields.
When vertical fragmentation is applied, the table is divided into

fragments by grouping together certain columns (tutorialspoint,
2019). Each fragment contains the column holding the primary
key of the table (tutorialspoint, 2019). If one considers the table
with the students and their disciplines, the implementation of
vertical fragmentation can be illustrated as follow:
Fragment 1:
StNumber StDiscipline
12345 IT
67890 Art
45678 IT
Fragment 2:
StNumber StName StSurname

12345 Chris Carter
67890 Christine Myburgh
45678 Clarens Nkuna
Mixed fragmentation combines horizontal and vertical

fragmentation by enabling site specific data to be stored in each
location (Bidgoli, 2017).
5.2.2 Replication
With this approach, data is not fragmented, but, instead, each

server in the distributed database architecture will contain a
copy of the data stored in the organization’s database (Bidgoli,
2017).
5.2.3 Allocation
This approach combines fragmentation and replication by

ensuring that each site hosts a copy of the organization’s data
that the particular site uses most frequently (Bidgoli, 2017).

5.3 Object-Oriented Databases

Object-Oriented Databases are databases that group together
both data descriptions and procedures that act on the data so
that the user can manipulate these fields more efficiently (The
IIE, 2019). This feature distinguishes them from relational
databases.
The grouping of the data and the procedures that act on the data
is known as encapsulation (Bidgoli, 2017).
Object-oriented database management systems (ORDBMS)

are programs used in these databases and can accommodate
multimedia applications such as video clips, photo clips, etc.
(Multi-media applications are not efficiently accommodated in
relational databases) (The IIE, 2019).
Object-oriented databases have several advantages compared

to relational databases:
• They can store more types of data;

• They can access the data faster;
• They allow programmers to reuse objects (Shelly et al,
2007, cited in The IIE, 2019).
• They support the faster creation of new objects through
inheritance (Bidgoli, 2019).
6 Data Warehouses
A data warehouse can be considered a collection of data, from
different sources, which has been collected for the purpose of
supporting decision-making and generating business
intelligence (Bidgoli, 2017).
6.1 Data Warehouse Data

The data in a data warehouse will typically have the following
characteristics:
• The data will be subject oriented i.e. the data will share a
common area of focus necessary for decision making and
generating business intelligence in a specific area of the
business (Bidgoli, 2019);
• The data will not have a single origin, but will in fact have
been collected from many sources (Bidgoli, 2019);

• The data in the data warehouse will be categorized in

terms of whether the data is recent or historical (Bidgoli,
2019);
• The data in the data warehouse will be aggregated
(Bidgoli, 2019) and
• The data in the data warehouse will be used for analytical
purposes (Bidgoli, 2019).
6.2 Components of a Data Warehouse

Just as with other systems, data warehouses comprise of input,
storage and output. One component that differentiates a data
warehouse from other systems is the ETL (Extraction,
transformation and loading component) (Bidgoli, 2017).
6.2.1 Input
As mentioned in the definition of a data warehouse, the data

comes from a variety of sources and therefore input is provided
by a variety external data sources such as databases,
enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, and customer
relationship management (CRM) systems (Bidgoli, 2017).
Together these sources provide the input that the data

warehouse needs to provide the required decision-making
support and business-intelligence generating capacity (Bidgoli,
2017).
6.2.2 ETL
This abbreviation, when expanded, refers to the processing that

takes place in the data warehouse, namely: extraction,
transformation and loading (Bidgoli, 2017).
Extraction involves collecting data from the various sources and

parsing the data to ensure that it is in a format supported by the
data warehouse (Bidgoli, 2017). Where extraction focus on
collecting the data in a suitable format, transformation focuses
on selecting only the data that is needed and that this data is in
the appropriate format (Bidgoli, 2017). Once the data has been
extracted and transformed, it can be loaded into the data
warehouse (Bidgoli, 2017). Depending on the storage capacity
of the data warehouse, the loading process can overwrite
previously stored data or merely add to existing data (Bidgoli,
2017).

6.2.3 Storage
The data is stored in the data warehouse as either raw data,

summary data, or metadata (Bidgoli, 2017). Raw data
represents data in its original form, summary data provides
details such as subtotals and metadata tell users how, when,
and by whom data was collected and how data has been
converted into its present form (Bidgoli, 2017).
6.2.4 Output
A data warehouse supports different types of analysis and

generates a variety of reports that will in turn support decision
making (Bidgoli, 2017).
Further to this, data warehouses provide support for the

following in relation to its output (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Online Transaction Processing (OLTP):

OLTP manages transaction-oriented application. It uses
internal data and responds in real time providing
information such as, for example, which product was
associated with the highest sales in the previous month?
• Online Analytical Processing (OLAP):
OLAP supports decision making by being able to provide
answers to multi-dimensional queries quickly. It supports
the generation of business intelligence because of its
multi-dimensional analysis capabilities.
• Data Mining Analysis:
Data mining helps to uncover patterns and relationships
in the data that has been captured.
• Decision-Making Reports:
A wide variety of reports can be generated. Examples
of a data-warehouse’s report generating capability
include:
o Cross-referencing segments of an organization’s

operations for comparison purposes;
o Quickly generating complex queries and reports;
o Generating reports that relies on data from a
variety of data sources;
o Analysing large amounts of historical data quickly
and efficiently;
o Finding patterns and trends in data;

7 Data Marts
A data mart is a subset of a data warehouse and as such
represents a smaller version of the data warehouse (Bidgoli,
2017). Data marts typically supports a specific functional area
of a business and have the following advantages over data
warehouses (Bidgoli, 2017):
• They offer faster access to data;

• Their response time is faster;
• They are less costly to develop; and
• They offer a more focused service to their users.
8 Business Analytics
In earlier sections, business intelligence was discussed.
Business intelligence is about understanding the current
situation an organization might find themselves in, given the
available data (Bidgoli, 2017). Business Analytics on the other
hand looks to the future and what might possibly happen in the
future (Bidgoli, 2017). Business Analytics (BA) makes use of
statistical methods to gain insight into data that will aid decision
makers in taking action (Bidgoli, 2017).
Popular BA methods include, descriptive, predictive and

prescriptive analytics.
8.1 Descriptive Analytics

When making use of descriptive analytics, historical data is
analysed, a report prepared and a decision or set of decisions
are taken with regards to future actions (Bidgoli, 2017). This is
a reactive strategy as the decision makers are preparing a
course of action based on a reaction to what has already
happened (Bidgoli, 2017).
8.2 Predictive Analytics

This leads to the implementation of a more proactive strategy
by an organization’s decision makers (Bidgoli, 2017). An
organization’s decision makers consider present trends in the
data to help them prepare for the future (Bidgoli, 2017).

8.3 Prescriptive Analytics

Prescriptive analytics goes beyond descriptive and predictive
analytics by prescribing the actions that organizational-decision
makers have to follow and what the outcome of those actions
will be (Bidgoli, 2017).
8.4 Other Analytic Domains

It is important to realize that within the general domain of
analytics one can also perform what is known as Web Analytics
which involves the collection and analysis of Web data in order What potential uses can
you identify for web
to determine the efficiency and effectiveness of a Web site
analytics and mobile
(Bidgoli, 2017). analytics?
It is also possible to perform mobile analytics which assesses

and measures traffic between mobile devices and between the
application installed on these mobile devices (Bidgoli, 2017).
9 The Big Data Era

As the number of digital footprints increased, the volumes of
data increased. We now live in the era where traditional
computing methods are no longer able to adequately process
these large volumes of data and it is this era which we term the
big data era (Bidgoli, 2017).
Big data has three dimensions, namely volume, variety and

velocity (Bidgoli, 2017).
How big is a petabyte and

Volume refers to the sheer number of transactions, currently
an exabyte?
measured in petabytes or exabytes (Bidgoli, 2017).
Variety refers to the combination of structured and unstructured

data available (Bidgoli, 2017). Structured data are specific such
as a customer’s name or a rating on a scale of one to five Where, in your life as a
student do you find the
whereas unstructured data is less structured such as a
largest volume of
customer complaint, which can be well- anything or a unstructured data?
conversation which can also be about anything (Bidgoli, 2017).
Velocity refers to the speed at which data has to be collected

and processed (Bidgoli, 2017).

9.1 Who Benefits From Big Data?

The beneficiaries of Big Data spans numerous industries
(Bidgoli, 2017). Below are a few examples of beneficiaries of big
data:
• Retail – The analysis of big data can provide corporates

with sufficient information to customise their offerings for
their specific customers more efficiently;
• Financial Services – This industry can benefit from the
richness of the information to make more accurate Can you think of more
projections, detect financial malfeasances quicker and examples as to how people
attract new customers; can benefit from the use of
• Advertising and public relations – The richness of the data big data?
can help enhance advertising and public relations efforts;
• Government – Big data can help support security efforts
in all areas of government.
9.2 Tools and Technologies of Big Data

Many tools and technologies have contributed to the popularity
and growth of big data (Bidgoli, 2017). Today, the most
commonly used platforms for big data analytics include:
Apache-Hadoop, NoSQL, Cassandra, SAP Big Data Analytics,
Tableau and SAS Big Data Analytics (Bidgoli, 2017).
9.3 Big Data Privacy Risks

As much as big data can benefit decision-makers, as important
it is to ensure that the data is protected and that the impact of
data breaches be eliminated as much as possible (Bidgoli,
2017). The risks associated with big data include (Bidgoli,
2017):
• Discrimination – Findings from an analysis of big data

might result in biases in the minds of decision makers.
• Privacy breaches and embarrassments – big data might
reveal more data about an individual than what they might How do you think the POPI
act can aid organisations in
be willing to share publicly. Decision makers should
minimising big data privacy
therefore carefully guard and use the insights gained from risks?
big data.
• Loss of anonymity – Through the power of big data
analytics, individuals might be identified who initially
chose to remain anonymous.
• Limited legal protection.


Vavilis, S., Petković, M. and Zannone, N. 2016, 'A severity-
based quantification of data leakages in database
systems', Journal Of Computer Security, 24, 3, pp.321-345,
Academic Search Ultimate, EBSCOhost, [Accessed 16
November 2020].
Letkowski, J. 2017, 'Complementing Database Design for

Microsoft Access with MySQL Workbench', Proceedings For
The Northeast Region Decision Sciences Institute (NEDSI),
pp.401-418, Business Source Ultimate, EBSCOhost, [Accessed
16 November 2020].
AlShawi, A. 2016, 'Applying Data Mining Techniques to Improve

Information Security in the Cloud: A Single Cache System
Approach', Scientific Programming, pp.1-5, Academic Search
Ultimate, EBSCOhost, [Accessed 16 November 2020].

and Activities
Do an online search for MS Access 2013. What type of
database model does MS Access represent? If you were to
create a customer database on it, to keep track of customers,
their orders, the products they order, the suppliers of the
products, and the employees responsible for the orders, how
would you do this on MS Access? What fields would you set up
for each entity? (No practical work is required. Only a theory-
based knowledge application is needed).

12 Activities
12.1 Activity 1
You have been requested to compile a report to non-IT
managers to explain how an information system would benefit a
clothing manufacture business. Draft a basic report outlining
what an IS comprises, and how an IS would be beneficial to the
organisation.
1. Explain the different ways of viewing data in a DBMS.
2. Create a database that contains two hypothetical tables:
2.1 STUDENT table (fields: Student no., Name, Marks).
2.2 ASSIGNMENT table (fields: Assignment type,

Student no.)
2.3 The STUDENT table contains three students whose

marks are 60, 75, and 90 respectively.
2.4 The ASSIGNMENT table contains A, B and C as

assignment types.
2.5 Each student is assigned only one assignment.
2.6 Identify the primary key in the STUDENT table.
2.7 Predict the output file generated by the following

query: Select STUDENT NO. from STUDENT
Where MARKS <= 90
3. What is the major difference between a data warehouse

and data mart?


1. Two data views are considered in a DBMS:
Physical view:
This view deals with how data is physically (i.e. actually)

arranged, stored and accessed on some type of
secondary devices such as magnetic disc, CD-ROM.
Programmers and developers of DBMS, in order to make
changes to existing databases and to create new
databases, use this view.
Logical view:
This data view focuses on how the users need the data to
be arranged.
2.1
STUDENT table
Student no. Name Marks
120 John 60
121 Francois 75
122 Brown 90
2.2
ASSIGNMENT table
Assignment type Student no.
A 120
B 121
C 122
2.3
Student no. Name Marks

120 John 60
121 Francois 75
122 Brown 90
2.4 Identify the primary key in the STUDENT table.

Student no.

2.5
Student no. Marks
120 60
121 75
122 90
3. A data mart is seen as a sub-set of a data warehouse.

Learning Unit 4: Data Communication

• Describe major applications of a

data communication system;
• Explain the major components of a
data communication system;
• Describe the major types of
processing configurations;
• Explain the three types of
networks;
• Describe the main network
topologies;
• Explain important networking
concepts, such as bandwidth,
routing, routers, and the
client/server model;
• Describe wireless and mobile
technologies and networks;
• Discuss the importance of wireless
security and the techniques used;
• Summarise the convergence
phenomenon and its applications
for business and personal use.

Bidgoli.

unit.

1 Introduction
This learning unit will discuss the importance of data
communication systems in delivering much needed information
to decision makers. These decision makers are not only those
individuals in organizations who are responsible for guiding the
actions of an organisation, but also us as individuals, who rely
on data to make decisions in our everyday lives.
A data communication within the context of this learning unit will

refer to the electronic transfer of data from one location to
another (Bidgoli, 2017).
2 The Application Of Data

Communication Systems
Data communication systems enable the transfer of data
efficiently from one location to another (Bidgoli, 2017). Not only
do these systems enable the transfer of data from one location
to another, but they also aid in the flexibility of data collection
(Bidgoli, 2017). Because of the fact that these systems support
the transfer of information from one location to another, they
form the basis of virtual organizations, supporting
communication between geographically dispersed members of
an organization and between members of an organization
(virtual and not) and their customers (Bidgoli, 2017). Data
communication systems also support communication between
organizations (Bidgoli, 2017). Data communication systems
play a big role in supporting collaboration, so that efforts to
implement a project from multiple locations can take place in a
seamless manner (Bidgoli, 2017). These systems also support
just-in-time delivery of goods and service which helps
organizations to maintain the necessary stock levels and only
keep the right amount of stock in inventory (Bidgoli, 2017).
Bidgoli (2017) has identified the following ways in which data

communication systems affect the workplace:
• Training of employees can now take place online and

therefore save the organization money;
• The availability of the internet and the vast amount of
information available at the fingertips of employees means
that employees are up to date with the latest trends and
innovations that takes place in their work environment;
• Employees can engage in lifelong learning;
• To maintain a work-life balance has become harder due
to the boundaries being blurred e.g. an employee can no How does data
communication systems
impact you as a student in
© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 your Page
daily77 of 129
life?
longer leave their work at work because developments

such as cloud computing and the ability to respond to
emails from home now exist; and
• For companies whose employees are geographically
dispersed, these systems make it possible for these
employees to cross time and location barriers through
video calls.
Data communication systems are therefore not only important

for supporting the flow of data within an organisation but also
between organizations and external stakeholders.
3 The Components Of A Data

Communication System
A typical data communication system consists of the following
components (Bidgoli, 2017):
• A device that sends and receives data;

• Modems or routers; and
• A channel (communication medium) which will carry the
data.
Before we delph into these various components, it is important

that you understand the following terminology:
• Bandwidth: The amount of data, expressed in terms of,

bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps),
megabits per second (Mbps) or gigabits per second
(Gbps) transferred between various locations in a given
time period (Bidgoli, 2017).
• Attenuation: This term refers to the weakening of the
signal as it travels from the sending device to the receiving
device (Bidgoli, 2017).
• Broadband transmission channel: A channel which allows
multiple pieces of data to be transferred simultaneously in
order to increase the speed at which data is being
transmitted (Bidgoli, 2017).
• Narrowband transmission channel: This channel is a
voice-grade transmission channel which allows only a
limited amount information to be transferred at a given
time (Bidgoli, 2017).
• Protocols: These are the rules that govern how data
communication takes place and governs for example how
the link between the sending and receiving device is
established (Bidgoli, 2017).

3.1 Sender and Receiver Devices

These devices can be in a variety of forms, including, but not
limited to the following as identified by Bidgoli (2017):
• Input/Output devices, or “thin client”: These devices do not

possess any processing capability of their own and can
therefore only be used to send and receive information;
• Smart terminals: Smart terminals, unlike thin clients have
very limited processing capabilities and is mainly used for
collecting data and transmitting data to main computer
systems. These terminals are mainly found on assembly
lines in factories;
• Intelligent terminal, workstation, or personal computers;
• Netbook computers;
• Minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers;
• Smartphones, mobile phones, MP3 players, PDAs, and
gaming consoles.
3.2 Modems and Routers

Modems connect users to the internet and is short for
“modulator-demodulator” (Bidgoli, 2017). If a user connects to
the internet via a wireless connection or satellite, they will not
make use of a modem. However, when a user’s connection to
the internet requires the use of telephone lines such as in the
case of Digital Subscriber Lines (DSL) or cable for TVs and
Internet connections, a DSL or cable modem will be used
(Bidgoli, 2017)
A router is a device or set of software that determines the next

network point to which data should be forwarded (The IIE,
2019).
3.3 Communication Media

Communication media is the channel which connects the
sending and receiving devices participating in an exchange of
information (Bidgoli, 2017). Communication media can be wired
or wireless (Bidgoli, 2017).

Bidgoli (2017), summarises the different communication media

as follows:
3.3.1 Wired Communication Media
Wired or conducted media provides a physical path along which

the signal will travel (Bidgoli, 2017). Wired media include:
twisted pair copper cable, coaxial cable, and fiber optics
(Bidgoli, 2017).
The different types of wired communication media, their use and

characteristics can be summarised in the following table
adapted from The IIE (2019):

3.3.2 Wireless Communication Media
Wireless communication media is also known as radiated media

(Bidgoli, 2017). Wireless communication media makes use of
an antenna for transmitting data through air or water (Bidgoli,
2017).
Wireless transmission involves the broadcast of

communications in one of three frequency ranges: radio,
microwave, or infrared frequencies (The IIE, 2019). Microwaves
are radio waves that can be used for high-speed data/voice
transmission (The IIE, 2019). One disadvantage of microwaves
is that they have to be sent in a straight line without obstructions,
i.e. line-of-site-transmission (The IIE, 2019). Because they are
line-of-sight devices, microwaves dishes must be placed in
relatively high locations such as mountains, towers and tall
buildings (The IIE, 2019).
Communications satellites are positioned about 50 000km

above the earth in a geosynchronous orbit, i.e. they orbit at the
same speed as the earth. As a result, the dish antennas at the
earth stations remain permanently fixed on the correct satellite,
and microwave transmission can take place continuously.
Transmission to the orbiting satellite is called the uplink, while
transmission back to the receiving earth station is called the
downlink. Private satellite dishes are becoming more common
as prices come down and are used to beam TV programs,
business data, e-mail etc (The IIE, 2019).
Many wireless solutions provide communications over very

short distances including near field communications, Bluetooth,
ultra-wideband, infrared transmission, and Zigbee.
Bluetooth is a wireless communications specification that

describes how cell phones, computers, personal digital
assistants, printers, and other electronic devices can be
interconnected over distances of 10m–100m (Peshin, 2017).
This range is determined by the number of obstacles a signal
has to travel through and the initial strength of the signal
(Peshin, 2017). Bluetooth enables users of multifunctional
devices to synchronise with information in a desktop computer,
send or receive faxes, print, and, in general, coordinate all
mobile and fixed computer devices. The Bluetooth technology
is named after the tenth century Danish King Harald Blatand, or
Harold Bluetooth in English.

He had been instrumental in uniting warring factions in parts of

what is now Norway, Sweden, and Denmark—just as the
technology named after him is designed to allow collaboration
between differing devices such as computers, phones, and
other electronic devices (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 230).
Infrared transmission sends signals at a frequency of 300 GHz

and above. Infrared transmission requires line-of-sight
transmission and short distances—such as a few yards. Infrared
transmission allows handheld computers to transmit data and
information to larger computers within the same room and to
connect a display screen, printer, and mouse to a computer
(The IIE, 2019).
Zigbee is a form of wireless communications frequently used in

security systems and heating and cooling control systems.
Zigbee is a relatively low-cost technology and requires little
power, which allows longer life with smaller batteries (Stair and
Reynolds, 2010: 230).
Wireless mesh uses multiple Wi-Fi access points to link a series

of interconnected local area networks to form a wide area
network capable of serving a large campus or entire city (The
IIE, 2019). Communications are routed among network nodes
by allowing for continuous connections and reconfiguration
around blocked paths by “hopping” from node to node until a
connection can be established. Mesh networks are very robust:
If one node fails, all the other nodes can still communicate with
each other, directly or through one or more intermediate nodes
(The IIE, 2019).
3G wireless communication is useful for business travellers,

people on the go, and people who need to get or stay
connected. Although Wi-Fi is an option, 3G is preferable to
mobile users concerned about the availability, cost, and security
associated with the use of public Wi-Fi networks (The IIE, 2019).
4G stands for fourth-generation broadband mobile wireless,

which is expected to deliver more advanced versions of
enhanced multimedia, smooth streaming video, universal
access, portability across all types of devices, and eventually,
worldwide roaming capability. 4G will also provide increased
data transmission rates in the 20–40 Mbps range (Stair and
Reynolds, 2010: 234).

5G represents the latest stage in the evolution in mobile

communications (Telekom, 2019). It will boast greater capacity
to deal more efficiently with the ever increase in data traffic and
the capacity to deal with this increase in traffic quickly (Telekom,
2019).
4 Processing Configurations
The user’s needs will determine how data communication
systems will be configured (Bidgoli, 2017). The various
configurations will be discussed below.
4.1 Centralised Processing

With centralized processing, all processing is done at one
central computer (Bidgoli, 2017). Centralised processing allows
for greater control over systems and applications (Bidgoli,
2017). The disadvantage of centralised processing lies in its
lack of responsiveness to users’ needs because the system and
users could be in different physical locations (Bidgoli, 2017).
4.2 Decentralized Processing

In a decentralized processing configuration, each functional
area within an organization has its own computer for performing
the processing required by the department (Bidgoli, 2017).
This configuration offers greater responsiveness to the users of

a communication system configured in this way (Bidgoli, 2017).
Drawbacks to this configuration include a lack of coordination

amongst the functional units within the organization, high costs
and a duplication of efforts (Bidgoli, 2017).
4.3 Distributed Processing

Distributed processing offers greater responsiveness and
improved coordination by maintaining centralized control and
decentralizing operations (Bidgoli, 2017).

Bidgoli (2017) identifies the following advantages of distributed

processing:
• This configuration makes full use of available processing

power;
• It offers a modular design which allows for easy expansion
of the communication system;
• It overcomes distance and location limitations;
• It supports organizational growth;
• High fault tolerance;
• Resources can be shared;
• Improved reliability;
• This configuration is highly responsive.
Bidgoli (2017) identifies the following drawbacks to this

configuration:
• Security and privacy challenges;

• The possibility of incompatibility between various pieces
of equipment;
• An increase in the complexity associated with managing
the network.
4.4 Open Systems Interconnection Model

This model consists of a seven-layer architecture for defining
how data is transmitted from computer to computer in a network
(Bidgoli, 2017). This model also provides for the standardization
of interactions between computers on a network (Bidgoli, 2017).

Graphically, the OSI (Open System Interconnection) model

developed by the ISO can be represented as follow (Escotal,
2015):
Each layer in the OSI model performs a particular function.
• The Application Layer: This layer supports users’ tasks,

such as transfers, database access, and email (Bidgoli,
2017).
• Presentation Layer: Formats message packets (Bidgoli,
2017).
• Session Layer: The session layer establishes
communication sessions between computers (Bidgoli,
2017).
• Transport Layer: Generates the receiver’s address and
ensures the integrity of messages by making sure packets
are delivered without error, in sequence, and with no loss
or duplication (Bidgoli, 2017).
• Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for
routing messages (Bidgoli, 2017).
• Data Link Layer: Oversees the establishment and control
of the communication link (Bidgoli, 2017).

• Physical Layer: This layer is primarily concerned with

transmitting binary data, or bits, over a communication
network (Bidgoli, 2017).
5 Types Of Networks
There are three major types of networks, namely local area
networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs) and metropolitan
area networks (MANs) (Bidgoli, 2017).
In order to connect to a network, a computer will need a network

interface card (NIC) (Bidgoli, 2017). An NIC operates at the Data
Link Layer of the OSI model (Bidgoli, 2017). In addition to an
NIC, a network operating system (NOS) must also be installed
(Bidgoli, 2017). Examples of network operating systems include
Windows Server or Novell Enterprise Server (Bidgoli, 2017).
5.1 Local Area Networks

This type of network is a group of computers and peripherals
that share information within a relatively small geographical
area. These computers are typically linked together via a system
of cables and network cards (NICs) (The IIE, 2019).
Although LANs often use unshielded twisted-pair wire, other

media - including fibre-optic cable - is also popular. Increasingly,
LANs are using some form of wireless communications. You
can build LANs to connect personal computers, laptop
computers, or powerful mainframe computers (Stair and
Reynolds, 2010: 237, cited in The IIE, 2019).
A basic type of LAN is a simple peer-to-peer network that a small

business might use to share files and hardware devices such as
printers. In a peer-to-peer network, you set up each computer
as an independent computer, but let other computers access
specific files on its hard drive or share its printer. These types of
networks have no server. Instead, each computer is connected
to the next machine (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 237, cited in The
IIE, 2019).
Therefore, essentially a Local Area Network is a network that is

limited in physical area, such as an office, that cannot extend
beyond the boundaries of a building. It is private and high-
speed, and provides connections that are typically permanent,
using full-duplex communications. Example: Network at virtually
any office in South Africa.

Figure 6.10: This is an example of a Local Area Network.

(Source: O’ Brien, 2002: p.522)
5.2 Wide Area Networks

This is a group of computers sharing resources and information,
but these computers are geographically more dispersed than
those of a LAN (The IIE, 2019). The WAN usually combines
cables, high-speed telephone-lines and wireless channels (The
IIE, 2019).
A WAN is a network that crosses metropolitan, regional or

national boundaries (The IIE, 2019). It covers large distances,
speeds are typically slower than LAN, consists of dynamic links
(sometimes not available) or connections (The IIE, 2019).
A WAN might be privately owned or rented and includes public

(shared users) networks. When you make a long-distance
phone call or access the Internet, you are using a WAN. WANs
usually consist of computer equipment owned by the user,
together with data communications equipment and
telecommunications links provided by various carriers and
service providers (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 238, cited in The
IIE, 2019).
Example: LANS can be connected to Telkom’s national WAN,

which can also be connected to the Internet.

WANs often provide communications across national borders,

which involves national and international laws regulating the
electronic flow of data across international boundaries, often
called trans-border data flow. Many countries, including those in
the European Union, have strict laws limiting the use of
telecommunications and databases, making normal business
transactions such as payroll costly and slow (The IIE, 2019).
5.2.1 Enterprise Network
This is a variant of a WAN. LANs proliferate, and WANs are

used to connect expanding organisations, it is important to make
these networks work together building inter-networks (The IIE,
2019). Internetworking for an entire organisation is called
enterprise networking (The IIE, 2019).
5.2.2 International Network
This is a network enabling communication between different

countries (The IIE, 2019). Problems with this type of network
include: connecting equipment, managing power differences
and time differences, international relations between
governments, etc (The IIE, 2019).
5.3 Metropolitan Area Network

Note that MAN is referred to as metropolitan area network which
is a high-speed network that connects local area networks in
metropolitan area such as city or town and handles the bulk of
computer communications activity across the region (Shelly, et
al, 2007, cited in The IIE, 2019).
Most MANs have a range of roughly 30 to 90 miles. For

example, a MAN might redefine the many networks within a city
into a single larger network or connect several LANs into a
single campus LAN (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 236, cited in The
IIE, 2019).

Bidgoli (2017) summarizes the main differences between the

three types of networks as follow:
Network Ownership Data Scope

Type Transfer
Speed
LAN One party 100Mbps
A building or
campus
WAN Multiple 28.8Kbps to Intercity to
parties 155 Mbps international
MAN One to Many 34 Mbps to One to many
parties 155 Mbps interconnected
cities
6 Network Topologies
A network topology describes the physical layout of a network
(Bidgoli, 2017). This section will describe the most prevalent
topologies in use.
6.1 Star Topology

In a star topology a series of workstations or peripheral devices,
termed nodes, are connected to a central computer such as a
server or hub (Bidgoli, 2017).
A star topology can be graphically represented as follow (The

IIE, 2019):

Bidgoli (2017) lists the following advantages of this type of

network:
• The layout of the cables can be easily modified;

• Troubleshooting can be conducted with relative ease;
• It is easy to expand the network;
• Can effectively handle short bursts of increases in
network traffic.
The star topology does have some short comings which Bidgoli
(2017) points out to be the following:
• If the central host fails, the entire network’s operations are

halted;
• Because each node is connected to the central point using
its own cable, many cables are required which increases
the cost of this typology as new nodes are added.
6.2 Ring Topology

In a ring topology, more than one device shares a single
communications channel but the ends are connected (The IIE,
2019). This reduces cost because many devices share a single
channel, but if the channel fails none of the devices can transmit
to or receive data from the host (The IIE, 2019).
This topology is easy to troubleshoot but is expensive, difficult

to configure, and provides no fault tolerance (if one devices
goes down, the rest will go down as well) (The IIE, 2019). A ring
is useful in a decentralised organisation, such as food franchise
stores in South Africa, because it makes possible a distributed
data processing system (The IIE, 2019).
A ring topology can be illustrated as follow (O’ Brien, 2002: 522,

cited in The IIE, 2019)

6.3 Bus Topology

In a bus topology, more than one device shares one channel but
the ends of the channel are not connected (The IIE, 2019). They
are however terminated, or else, the network will fail (The IIE,
2019). A typical use of bus topology is with an airline reservation
system, such as Kulula, where all the data has to stay in one
centralised place, such as a mainframe or minicomputer (The
IIE, 2019).
All computers in the network are attached to a “bus” cable (The

IIE, 2019). This topology is simple, inexpensive, and uses less
cable. However, it is difficult to move or change, and provides
little fault tolerance (The IIE, 2019).
Graphically, the bus topology can be represented as follow

(O’Brien, 2002:522, cited in The IIE, 2019):

6.4 Hierarchical Topology

In this topology, computers with different processing strengths
are connected in different organizational levels (Bidgoli, 2017).
If one were to consider a traditional organizational structure in
consisting of multiple levels, the computers on the lowest level
of the organizational structure might have less processing
power than those in higher levels (Bidgoli, 2017). This topology
works well for companies that span a wide geographical area
but that are still organized hierarchically (Bidgoli, 2017). This
topology offers relatively high fault tolerance (Bidgoli, 2017).
Typically, this topology is structured in such a way that

mainframe computers are at the top of the hierarchy, with
controllers and multiplexers in the level below and terminals and
workstations at the bottom of the hierarchy (Bidgoli, 2017).
Controllers consist of hardware and software that controls the

transfer of data between computers and peripheral devices
(Bidgoli, 2017). Multiplexers are hardware devices that allow the
nodes on the network to make use of one communication
channel (Bidgoli, 2017).
Although these types of topologies are difficult to expand and

may experience bottlenecks, they still offer a greater degree of
control and lower cost than for example a star topology (Bidgoli,
2017).
Graphically a hierarchical topology can be represented as follow

(Jain, 2017):

6.5 Mesh Topology

With mesh topologies, each computer (node) on the network
connects to the other, creating a point-to-point between every
network device (The IIE, 2019). The devices in a network are
connected with many redundant interconnections between the
network nodes (The IIE, 2019). In a true mesh topology, every
node has a connection to every other node in the network (The
IIE, 2019). If one network cable fails, the data always has an
alternative path to get to its destination (The IIE, 2019). With this
topology, there is more than one channel between the nodes of
a network. This makes it reliable because it offers alternative
channels if a line failure occurs (The IIE, 2019).
The cabling in a mesh network can be very complicated, as

reflected in the graphic below (The IIE, 2019):
Two types of mesh topologies exist, namely:
• Full mesh: Every node is connected to every other node

in the network (The IIE, 2019). Full mesh is generally quite
expensive to implement, because of the large number of
cables required (The IIE, 2019). This type of mesh
introduces a high degree of redundancy into the network.
With redundancy, comes reliability (The IIE, 2019).
• Partial mesh: Selected nodes are connected on a full
mesh basis, while the remaining nodes are connected to
a few nodes in the network (The IIE, 2019). Partial mesh
is cheaper to implement (The IIE, 2019). This type of mesh
introduces a lesser degree of redundancy (The IIE, 2019).

7 Major Networking Concepts

7.1 Protocols
Protocols are the rules that govern exchange of information over
a network (Bidgoli, 2017). Some protocols manage the
hardware connections, whilst other control the data
transmissions and file transmissions that take place across a
network (Bidgoli, 2017).
The most widely used network protocol is TCP/IP which is short

for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol (Bidgoli,
2017). TCP/IP’s main advantage is that it supports devices
operating on many different platforms to be linked (Bidgoli,
2017). TCP/IP, in turn, is a combination of two protocols,
namely Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet
Protocol (IP) (Bidgoli, 2017).
TCP is primarily responsible for the following (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Establishing a link between hosts;

• Ensuring message integrity;
• Sequencing and acknowledging packet delivery; and
• Regulating data flow between the source of the data and
the recipient of the data.
IP is primarily responsible for forwarding data packets in the

correct size (Bidgoli, 2017). A data packet is a collection of
binary digits (ones and zeros), sent from one computer to
another (Bidgoli, 2017).
7.2 Routing
Routing refers to the decision taken about the path that a data
packet will take over a network in order to reach its destination
(Bidgoli, 2017). In most cases, this decision is based on the
information contained in a routing table, which specifies the best
possible route for a packet (Bidgoli, 2017).
7.3 Routers
A router is a device that connects network systems and controls
the data traffic which flows between them (Bidgoli, 2017). These
devices are capable of choosing the best possible path for a
packet to follow based on distance or cost (Bidgoli, 2017).
Routers can prevent bottlenecks and deal with packets of
different sizes (Bidgoli, 2017).

Static routers requires the network routing manager to provide

the router with the addresses on the network, whilst a dynamic
router is capable of building tables that identify addresses on
each network (Bidgoli, 2017).
7.4 Client/Server Model

In the client/server model a client is a computer with specific
software installed on it. The client, through the use of this
software, is able to request certain services and information
from a server which then fulfils the request from the client
(Bidgoli, 2017).
In its most basic configuration, the following events take place

within the client/server model (Bidgoli, 2017):
1. A user runs the client software in order to create a request;

2. The client formats the request so that the server will be able
to understand the request;
3. The request is sent to the server;
4. The server receives the request and processes it;
5. The server sends the result of the request to the client;
6. The result is formatted and presented to the user in an
understandable format.
The main advantage of the client/server model is its ability to be

expanded as needed (Bidgoli, 2017).
Three levels of logic exist within the client/server model (Bidgoli,

2017):
• Presentation logic, which is mainly concerned with how

the data is returned to the client and more specifically
whether the user will understand the result.
• Application logic, which is mainly concerned with the
software processing requests; and
• Data management logic which is concerned with data
management and storage.
To help address the question as to how the aforementioned

types of logic is to be distributed between the client and the
server, one can consider the architectures described below.

7.4.1 Two-Tier Architecture
In this architecture, a client (tier one) communicates directly with

the server (tier two) (Bidgoli, 2017). In a two-tier architecture,
the presentation logic will reside with the client and the data
management logic on the server (Bidgoli, 2017). The application
logic can then be split between the client and the server, but
usually resides with the client (Bidgoli, 2017).
This implementation works best for small work groups, in which

there are typically less than 50 clients (Bidgoli, 2017).
If the application logic resides with the client, the speed of

application development, simplicity and power increases
(Bidgoli, 2017). On the downside, changes to the application
logic, might result in costly changes and major modifications to
the clients (Bidgoli, 2017).
Bidgoli (2017), graphically presents the implementation as

follow:
7.4.2 N-Tier Architectures
N-Tier architectures remove the application processing logic

from both the clients and servers and places it on a middle-tier
server, thereby balancing the workload of both the client and the
server (Bidgoli, 2017). The most common implementation of the
n-tier architecture is the three-tier architecture which can be
graphically illustrated as follow (Bidgoli, 2017):

This architecture lends itself to improved network performance

(Bidgoli, 2017). On the downside, network management
becomes more complicated if this architecture is used (Bidgoli,
2017).
8 Wireless and Mobile Networks

Wireless networks make use of wireless technologies (Bidgoli,
2017). Mobile networks, also referred to as cellular networks,
make use of radio frequency (Bidgoli, 2017).
Wireless and mobile networks present the following benefits

(Bidgoli, 2017):
• Mobility;
• Flexibility;
• Ease of installation; and
• Low cost.

Drawbacks to the use of mobile and wireless networks include

(Bidgoli, 2017):
• Limited throughput in terms of the amount of data that can

be transferred and processed.
• The distance a signal can travel without losing strength is
limited.
• Certain building materials are capable of blocking signals.
• Interference from other signals can interfere with
operations.
• Limitations in security.
8.1 Wireless Technologies

Wireless technologies generally fall within two groups: Wireless
LANs (WLANs) and Wireless WANs (WWANs).
A wireless LAN has the same characteristics as a wired LAN

except for the fact that it makes use of wireless technologies
(Bidgoli, 2017). A comparison of wireless LANs and wireless
WANs has yielded the following summary by Bidgoli (2017):
WLANs:
• Coverage: approximately 100m

• Speed: Depending on the wireless standard used, the
speed can range from 11Mbps to 100Mbps.
• Data security: Security is lower than for a WWAN
WWANs:
• Coverage: Capable of regional, national or international

range.
• Speed: Depending on the technology used, the speed
can vary between 115Kbps and 14Mbps.
• Data security: Higher than for WLAN.

8.2 Mobile Networks

Mobile networks have a three-part architecture. This
architecture can be graphically illustrated as follow (Bidgoli,
2017):
The diagram above represents the three-main components of

the mobile network architecture and how they interact.
1. Subscribers (users) connect to base stations by using

mobile communication devices (Bidgoli, 2017).
Subscribers are users of mobile devices that have
subscribed to a carrier service licensed for certain
geographic areas (Bidgoli, 2017).
2. Base stations send and receive transmissions to and from
subscribers (Bidgoli, 2017).
3. Mobile telephone switching offices (MTSOs) transfer calls
between national or global phone networks and base
stations (Bidgoli, 2017).
When a user moves outside the provider’s coverage area, which

often happens when one travels oversees, roaming occurs
(Bidgoli, 2017).

Two technologies have been developed to improve the

efficiency and quality of digital communications:
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): With this

technology, each communication channel is divided into
six slots (Bidgoli, 2017). Each user is allocated two slots,
one for transmission and one for reception (Bidgoli, 2017).
By dividing the communication channel in this way, the
efficiency with which communication takes place
increases because one channel can carry multiple calls
(Bidgoli, 2017).
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): This technology
transmits multiple encoded messages over a wide
frequency and then decodes them at the receiving end
(Bidgoli, 2017).
8.3 Wireless Security

Wireless security is of extreme importance as anyone within the
Which types of attacks are
vicinity of an access point (AP) can gain access to the wireless
networks susceptible to?
network if it is not properly secured (Bidgoli, 2017). Once a
person gains access to a network via an AP, that network
becomes susceptible to the same types of attacks wired
networks are exposed to (Bidgoli, 2017).
Several techniques are available for improving the security of

wireless networks (Bidgoli, 2017):
• SSID (Service Set Identifier): If a user of the network

transmits a data packet without the network’s SSID, the
data packet will not be processed.
• WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy): This security
mechanism requires a key to be entered in the AP and the
client computer.
• EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol): EAP keys are
dynamically generated based on a user’s ID and
password and a new key is issued every time the user logs
back into the network.
• WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access): This technique combines
the strengths of the EAP and WEP mechanisms by
ensuring that a longer key is used.
• WPA2 or 802.11: This technique uses EAP to obtain a
master key. With this master key, a user’s computer and
the AP negotiate for a key that will be used for a session.
After the session is terminated, the key is discarded. This
technique uses Advanced Encryption Standard, which is
more complex than WPA and much harder to break.
Guidelines for securing a Wi-Fi network (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Ensure that your router has a strong password.

• Change the network’s SSID to be different from the default
SSID value.
• Enable the network encryption to WPA2.
• Filter MAC addresses on your router.
• If your wireless device is in a small place, reduce the
range of the wireless signal.
• Ensure that the router’s firmware remains updated.
9 Convergence Of Voice, Video, and

Data
Convergence refers to an instance in which voice, video and
data is integrated in such a way that multimedia information can
be used for making decisions (Bidgoli, 2017). Convergence
require broadband bandwidth capabilities (Bidgoli, 2017).
More and more content providers, network operators,

telecommunication companies, and broadcasting networks
have moved towards convergence (Bidgoli, 2017). Common
applications of convergence include the following (Bidgoli,
2017):
• E-Commerce;
• Entertainment;
• Video conferencing;
• E-Learning.

AGADEESAN, N. and KRISHNAMACHARI, B 2015, 'Software-
Defined Networking Paradigms in Wireless Networks: A
Survey', ACM Computing Surveys, 47, 2, pp.27:1-27:11,
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EBSCOhost, [Accessed 16 November 2020].

and Activities
Conduct additional research, then write a properly referenced
report in which you answer the following questions:
11.1 What are wireless standards?

11.2 Which wireless standards are currently in use?
1. Identify three ways in which a data communication system
can benefit an organisation.
2. Distinguish between broadband and narrowband

communication channels.
3. In terms of sender and receiver devices, which devices do

you as a student use for sending and receiving
information?
4. Identify and briefly describe each of the three main types

of networks.
5. Draw a diagram that will show three computers connected

to a hub using a star topology.
6. Briefly explain what convergence is.

1. Students’ answers may vary, but in essence, data
communication systems supports collaboration within an
organisation, it allows employees to remain up to date with
the latest developments in their field, it facilitates the
availability of key decision makers by providing them with
the information they need quickly and efficiently.
2. Broadband transmission channel: A channel which allows

multiple pieces of data to be transferred simultaneously in
order to increase the speed at which data is being
transmitted (Bidgoli, 2017).
Narrowband transmission channel: This channel is a
voice-grade transmission channel which allows only a
limited amount information to be transferred at a given
time (Bidgoli, 2017).
3. Students answers may differ, but may include a cell phone

and laptop.
4. Students should have described each of the following:

Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN)
and Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
5. Below is a model answer showing a star topology which

include three computers connected to a hub:
Computer
1 Computer
3
HUB
Computer
2
6. Convergence refers to integrating voice, video, and data

so that multimedia information can be used for decision
making (Bidgoli, 2017).
Learning Unit 5: The Internet, Intranets

and Extranets
• Describe the makeup of the

Internet and World Wide Web;
• Discuss navigational tools, search
engines, and directories;
• Describe common Internet
services;
• Summarise widely used Web
applications;
• Explain the purpose of intranets;
• Explain the purpose of extranets;
• Summarise new trends in the Web
2.0 and 3.0 eras.
• The content of this learning unit is

Bidgoli.

unit.
1 Introduction
This learning unit will introduce you to a variety of internet and
web technologies and introduce you to different concepts that
support the use of internet and web technologies.
2 The Internet and the World Wide

Web
The Internet refers to a collection of inter-networked computers
and networks of all sizes (Bidgoli, 2017). All the networks that
form the Internet is supported by a backbone. The Internet
backbone consists of fiber-optic cables as well as many
interconnected government, academic, commercial, and other
high-capacity data routers that can support very high bandwidth
(Bidgoli, 2017).
Each organization’s LAN serve as localized internet

connections which connects to the Internet backbone using
Network Access Points (NAPs) (Bidgoli, 2017).
The World Wide Web provides a graphical interface to the

Internet (Bidgoli, 2017). The Web organizes information by
using documents that include embedded references to audio,
text, images, video or other documents. These documents are
referred to as hypermedia (Bidgoli, 2017). The embedded
references in the hypermedia documents are referred to as
hypertext (Bidgoli, 2017). The World Wide Web constitutes a
large portion of the internet (Bidgoli, 2017). Any computer that
stores hypermedia documents and makes them available to
other computers on the Internet is known as a server or Web
server and computers that requests or accesses these
documents are known as clients (Bidgoli, 2017).
In order to connect to the Internet and access web pages on the

Internet, one needs the following hardware and software (The
IIE, 2019):
• A PC with a modem or network connection;

• An account with an ISP i.e. an Internet host;
Which browsers do you
• Cabling, either via the LAN or via your telephone; make use of?
• TCP/IP running on one’s computer;
• Internet front-end applications such as a web browser and
an e-mail client such as such as Microsoft Outlook®.
2.1 The Domain Name System

Every computer on a network, and by implication on the Internet,
has an IP address that consists of a set of numbers e.g.
208.77.188.166 (Bidgoli, 2017). IP numbers are hard to
remember and for this reason, language-based domain names
are used (Bidgoli, 2017). When information is transferred from
one network to another, the domain name system converts the
language-based domain name such as sars.gov into an IP
address (Bidgoli, 2017).
The language-based domain name used by a document or web

site on the Internet can be identified by inspecting the URL
(Uniform Resource Locators) in the address bar of a web
browser (Bidgoli, 2017). If we consider the URL
http://www.advtech.co.za, advtech.co.za represents the domain
name. Present in the domain name is a top-level domain (TLD)
which can indicate the organizational domain (generic top-level
domains, gTLDs) and geographic domains (country code top-

level domains, ccTLDs) (Bidgoli, 2017).
Considering the domain name advtech.co.za, we can identify

ADvTECH as a company (.co) based in South Africa (.za).
Other generic top-level domains include the following (The IIE,

2019):
• .com for commercial organisations (.co.za is used for most

commercial organisations in South Africa, instead of
.com);
• .edu for educational organisations and institutions (.ac is
used in South Africa for many educational institutions,
such as www.unisa.ac.za);
• .gov for government organisations;
• .info for distributors of information;
• .int for international organisations;
• .net for gateway or host networks, or network providers;
• .org for non-profit organisations;
• .web for businesses related to the Web;
• .biz for businesses of all sizes.
A web address (URL) is made of up to five parts and must be

typed correctly if you are to gain access to the web page (The
IIE, 2019).
http://www.musica.co.za
Indicates the web Indicates the
server domain country
Indicates the Indicates the type

organisation name of organisation
• http: - HyperText Transfer/Transport Protocol, which is a

set of rules for sending and receiving hypertext
documents. This is based on the standard hypertext
language called hypertext markup language (HTML). http
defines how messages are formatted and transmitted and
what actions Web servers and browsers should take to
response to various commands (The IIE, 2019).
• www – World Wide Web (The IIE, 2019).
• musica – Name of the server computer containing the web
documents (The IIE, 2019).
• co.za – Type of site (co: commercial site, za: shows the
country, i.e. South Africa) (The IIE, 2019).
2.2 Types of Internet Connections

One can connect to the Internet using a dial-up connection,
cable modems as well as Digital Subscriber Lines (Bidgoli,
2017). Several types of Digital Subscriber Lines (DSLs) exist
(Bidgoli, 2017):
• Symmetric DSL – In symmetric DSL, the same data

transmission rate is maintained to and from the phone
network.
• Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) – ADSL has a lower
transmission rate to the phone network than from the
phone network.
• Very High-Speed DSL (VDSL) – VDSL has a very high-
speed transmission rate to and from the phone network
over short distances.
Organizations often use T1 or T3 lines (Bidgoli, 2017). These

lines are provided by telephone companies and are capable of
transporting the equivalent of 24 conventional telephone lines
using only two pairs of copper wires (Bidgoli, 2017).
3 Navigational Tools, Search Engines,

and Directories
In the previous section, how one connects to the Internet was
discussed. This section will take a closer look at how to find
information on the Internet (Bidgoli, 2017). These tools can be
divided into three categories, namely: navigational tools, search
engines and directories (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.1 Navigational Tools

Navigational tools are used to travel from Web site to Web site
(Bidgoli, 2017). These tools include graphical Web browsers
such as Google Chrome, Microsoft Internet Explorer, Apple
Safari, and Opera (Bidgoli, 2017).
The following logos represent the various Web browsers

(Internet.com, 2015)
Can you identify which

browser is associated with
which logo?
Browsers provide one with the ability to view one’s browsing

history and bookmark favourite web sites and set several
viewing preferences (Bidgoli, 2017).
3.2 Search Engines and Directories

Search engines enable users to locate and retrieve information Do you know of any other
from hypermedia documents stored on the Web (Bidgoli, 2017). search engines?
Popular search engines include Google, Bing, DuckDucGo and
ask (Bidgoli, 2017).
All search engines follow a three-step process. This process can

be summarised as follow (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Step 1: The search engine will perform “crawl” the web for
information by making use of special software termed web
crawlers, spiders or bots. This process takes place on a
continuous basis to ensure that search engines always
have access to the latest information on the web.
• Step 2: Indexing is the second step performed by a search
engine. All the information retrieved through the process
of web crawling is indexed according to the keywords
appearing in the information retrieved. Indexing makes it
possible for search engines to retrieve all relevant Web
pages when a search term is entered.
• Step 3: After the web crawlers have gathered the
information from the web and indexing has taken place,
the index will be searched for the particular keyword to
identify relevant web pages and present them to the user.
Directories organize information into categories (Bidgoli, 2017).

Two kinds of directories can be found on the web:
• Automated directories: These directories are created

automatically by a search engine’s crawlers.
• Human-powered directories: If the owner of a web-page
wishes to ensure that their web-page is listed in the search
results presented to a user, the owner of the web-page
can submit keywords to a human-powered directory. The
keywords submitted by the owner of a web-page will then
be indexed together with those indexed by the search
engine.
4 Internet Services
Many services are made available through the Internet (Bidgoli,
2017). Many of these services are made possible by the TCP
suite of protocols (Bidgoli, 2017).
4.1 E-Mail
E-mail is one of the most widely used services provided by the
Internet (Bidgoli, 2017). As a student, for example will use this
service to communicate with their lecturers, other students and
the academic institution in general. Companies use this service What advantages do the
to facilitate communication amongst employees and between use of e-mail hold for
the company and its customers (Bidgoli, 2017). companies?
There are two main types of e-mail:
Web-based e-mail: This type of e-mail enables one to access

one’s email from any computer or device connected to the
Internet (Bidgoli, 2017).
Client-based e-mail: Client-based e-mail relies on an e-mail
client software being installed on a computer (Bidgoli, 2017).
When this software is launched, emails are downloaded and
stored on the computer on which the software has been installed
(Bidgoli, 2017).
What other features and
Most e-mail programs provide users with the ability to organize capabilities do e-mail
the emails they receive into folders (Bidgoli, 2017). programs offer users?
4.2 Newsgroups and Discussion Groups

Newsgroups and discussion groups helps to establish
connections between people with shared interests (Bidgoli,
2017). Although newsgroups and discussion groups have a
shared purpose, they do differ (Bidgoli, 2017).
Discussion groups are mainly used to support the exchange of

opinions and ideas on a specific topic (Bidgoli, 2017). The
discussions supported by discussion groups are usually
technical or scholarly in nature (Bidgoli, 2017).
Newsgroups, unlike discussion groups, are more general in

nature and can cover any topic (Bidgoli, 2017).
4.3 Instant Messaging

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) provides people with a means of
communicating, in real-time, and across large distances using
an IRC client which operates in a similar fashion to text
messaging (irchelp.org, 2016). Where IRC was originally
designed to support mass communications (irchelp.org, 2016), Do you know of any other
IM clients?
Instant Messaging (IM) provides the same facility to users who
wish to communicate in a one-to-one fashion in a private “chat”
room (Bidgoli, 2017). One example of an IM client includes
Windows Messenger (Bidgoli, 2017).
4.4 Internet Telephony

Internet Telephony supports voice communications through the
use of the Internet rather than conventional telephone networks
(Bidgoli, 2017). The protocol used to support Internet Telephony
is referred to Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) (Bidgoli, 2017).
In order to make use of Internet Telephony, one will therefore
need a high-speed Internet connection and a headset (Bidgoli,
2017).
VOIP offers the following advantages (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Users do not experience busy lines;

• Voicemails can be received on a computer;
• Caller ID is greatly enhanced, even if the caller has
blocked their ID;
• Users can have calls forwarded from anywhere in the
world; and
• Users can direct calls to the correct departments and take
automated orders.
5 Web Applications
Web applications can be used, in a cost effective way, to deliver
a wide range of services to customers in a way that is
convenient for the customer (Bidgoli, 2017). In this section,
various uses of web applications will be described.
5.1 Tourism and Travel

The tourism and travel industry embraced the potential of e-
commerce by enabling tourists and travellers to book and pay
for flights, transport and accommodation through web sites
(Bidgoli, 2017).
Examples of websites offering these services include

www.kulula.com, www.travelstart.co.za and www.avis.co.za.
5.2 Publishing
Several publishers are making use of web applications to
advertise forthcoming attractions, support online ordering and
aid users in searching for books on particular topics or books
written by particular authors (Bidgoli, 2019).
One example of a South African publishing house that

provides similar services is Johnathan Ball Publishers’ website
which can be located using the following URL:
http://www.jonathanball.co.za/.
5.3 Higher Education

Many higher education institutions have web sites that What features are provided
showcase their portfolio of courses, their campuses and their by the websites of higher
staff (Bidgoli, 2017). The institution you are a student of is no education institutions in
different: South Africa?
The IIE’s Rosebank College homepage

(https://www.rosebankcollege.co.za/):
The IIE’s Varsity College homepage

(www.varsitycollege.co.za):
Higher Education institutions are also applying web

technologies to provide distance education which largely
involves the student interacting with course material, lecturers
and the institution online, rather than face-to-face (Bidgoli,
2017).
5.4 Real Estate

The real estate industry provides numerous web sites on which
owners and real estate agencies alike can post updated listings
of properties for sale.
South African examples of real estate agencies embracing the

possibilities that web applications provide include:
• www.remax.co.za
• www.kwsouthafrica.co.za
• www.privateproperty.co.za
5.5 Employment
Various web sites offer updated listings of employment
opportunities as well as advice for jobseekers (Bidgoli, 2017).
South African employment sites include: www.pnet.co.za,

www.indeed.co.za and www.careers24.com. These websites
allow jobseekers, to not only search through listings of available
employment opportunities, but also to upload and register their
CVs on these sites, bringing demand and supply together, as
employment agencies can view millions of online CVs for the
candidates they are looking for.
6 Intranets
Intranets are private networks within organizations that make
use of Internet protocols and technologies to assist them in
collecting, storing and distributing information that helps support
the operations of the business (Bidgoli, 2017).
These private networks use the infrastructure and standards of

the Internet and the World Wide Web (The IIE, 2019). Using an
intranet offers one considerable advantage: Many people are
already familiar with Internet technology, so they need little
training to make effective use of their corporate intranet (The
IIE, 2019). An intranet is an inexpensive yet powerful alternative
to other forms of internal communication, including conventional
computer networks (The IIE, 2019). One of an intranet’s most
obvious virtues is its ability to reduce the need for paper which
saves an organization money in terms of printing costs
(including paper) (The IIE, 2019). Because Web browsers run
on any type of computer, the same electronic information can
be viewed by any employee (The IIE, 2019). That means that all
sorts of documents (such as internal phone books, procedure
manuals, training manuals, and requisition forms) can be
inexpensively converted to electronic form on the Web and be
constantly updated (The IIE, 2019).
An intranet provides employees with an easy and intuitive

approach to accessing information that was previously difficult
to obtain. For example, it is an ideal solution to providing
information to a mobile sales-force that needs access to rapidly
changing information (The IIE, 2019).
6.1 The Internet vs. Intranets

The main difference between the Internet and Intranets is that
the Internet is primarily a public network, in the sense that
everyone who is in possession of the necessary equipment can
access and make use of it, whereas an intranet, though relying
on Internet technologies is primarily a private network that can
only be accessed by certain individuals i.e. the employees of an
organization (Bidgoli, 2017).
Intranets also offer organizations the capability to specify a

browser that best supports their technologies such as video
conferencing technologies (Bidgoli, 2017).
Bidgoli (2017), summarises the main differences between the

Internet and intranets as follow:
Intranets:
• Users: Only approved users can access and make use of

the intranet.
• Geographical scope: The geographical coverage
associated with an intranet can be limited or unlimited.
• Speed: Faster than the Internet.
• Security: User’s access is controlled by the organisation,
whereas anyone can have access to the Internet.
Internet:
• Users: Anybody with a device capable of connecting to the

Internet can access it.
• Geographical scope: Unlimited
• Speed: Slower than intranets, depending on the
technological infrastructure used by those accessing it.
• Security: Because there is no central authority managing
the Internet, security is less.
6.2 Applications of an Intranet

Bidgoli (2017) identifies the following uses of an Intranet:
• Human-Resources (HR) can use the Intranet to make all

information pertaining to the policies, procedures, benefits
and job postings available to the employees of an
organisation;
• Sales and Marketing can use the Intranet to keep track of
their activities and customer information;
• Production and Operations can use the Intranet to

maintain and keep track of inventory, industry news,
product catalogues and project information; and
• Accounting and finance can harness the power of the
organization’s Intranet to aid them in planning their
budget.
In addition to the uses identified above, it is also notable that the

use of an Intranet can aid organizations in speeding up and
reducing the cost of document production and distribution by
reducing unnecessary steps in the process (Bidgoli, 2017).
7 Extranets
A growing number of companies offer limited access to their
private corporate network for selected customers and suppliers
(The IIE, 2019). Such networks are referred to as extranets; they
connect people who are external to the company (The IIE,
2019). An extranet is a network that links selected resources of
the intranet of a company with its customers, suppliers, or other
business partners (The IIE, 2019). Again, an extranet is built
around Web technologies (The IIE, 2019). Security and
performance concerns are different for an extranet than for a
website or network-based intranet (The IIE, 2019). User
authentication and privacy are critical on an extranet so that
information is protected. Obviously, the network must perform
well to provide quick response to customers and suppliers (Stair
and Reynolds, 2010: 300, cited in The IIE, 2019).
This is a network based on Web technologies that links selected

resources of the intranet of a company with its business
partners, customers, and suppliers (The IIE, 2019). Example:
communication between Edgars and its suppliers.
Secure intranet and extranet access applications usually require

the use of a virtual private network (VPN) (The IIE, 2019). A
virtual private network (VPN) is a secure connection between
two points on the Internet (The IIE, 2019). VPNs transfer
information by encapsulating traffic in IP packets and sending
the packets over the Internet, a practice called tunnelling (The
IIE, 2019). Most VPNs are built and run by ISPs (The IIE, 2019).
Companies that use a VPN from an ISP have essentially
outsourced their networks to save money on wide area network
equipment and personnel (Stair and Reynolds, 2010: 301, cited
in The IIE, 2019)).
Bidgoli (2017) indicates that in addition to offering companies

the same benefits as those of an intranet, extranets also offer
companies the following benefits:
• Improved coordination between the company, the

company’s suppliers and its customers.
• It provides an improved platform which customers and
suppliers can use to communicate with the company.
• Extranets support e-commerce activities.
• A cost reduction due to the ability to more efficiently and
effectively process the delivery of goods and services.
• Expedited communication.
8 The WEB 2.0 and WEB 3.0 Eras

When the Web first came into existence, it was a source of
information only, no interactive content was provided
(Techopedia, n.d.). Gradually, as technology, and the ease of
access to development tools evolved, the Web 2.0 era was
entered (Techopedia, n.d.).
Web 2.0 brought with it a trend to make the Web more Which Web 2.0
interactive with collaboration and social networking representing technologies are you
the key focus areas of this era (Bidgoli, 2017). Web 2.0 includes currently making use of?
the following technologies (Bidgoli, 2017):
• Blogs (Short for Weblog): Blogs are journals or

newsletters that are frequently updated and intended for
the general public.
• Wikis: Wikis are Websites that allow users to add, delete,
and sometimes modify content. The most common
example of a Wiki can be found at www.wikipedia.com.
• Social Networking Sites: Social networking sites such as
Facebook offers services that allow users to connect with
friends, families as well as other individuals with whom
they share a common interest. Social networking sites are
not only used by individuals but also by companies. These
sites offer companies with an inexpensive platform which
they can use for communication and commerce purposes.
• RSS Feeds: RSS feeds represents a subscription service
that distributes information and content using XML
(Extensible Markup Language). RSS feeds enables the
subscribers to these feeds to stay up to date on a
particular topic by notifying the subscribers when updates
occur.
• Podcasts: A podcast is an electronic audio file which
visitors to a particular web site can download and listen to.
• The Internet2 (I2): I2 refers to an effort by more than 200

U.S. universities to collaboratively create Web
technologies that can be used by higher education
institutions to make education more accessible, make
credible sources of information available to researches
and make these services available across a large
geographical area.
Web 3.0 represents advances that extend beyond the

interactivity afforded by a website by providing support for users
to interact more intelligently with the Web. It does so by
attempting to properly understand what the user is searching for
and then to provide only the most relevant search results
(Bidgoli, 2017). Web 3.0 is also known as the “semantic web”
(Bidgoli, 2017). Web 3.0 incorporates the use of artificial
intelligence technologies with the aim of tailoring online
searching to users’ specific search patterns, preferences and
needs (Bidgoli, 2017).
9 The Internet of Everything and

Beyond
The term ‘Internet of Everything’ (IoE) refers to a Web based
development in which people, processes, data, and different
kinds of devices can all be connected via the Internet using
various devices including RFID, barcodes and QR codes
(Bidgoli, 2017). The more commonly heard of phrase, ‘Internet
of Thins’ (IoT) places an emphasis on the physical devices that
be connected to the Internet and therefore to everything else.
IoE is therefore a much broader concept than IoT.
Beyond IoT, developers are concerned with developing the

Internet of Me(IoM) which will exist as a subset Internet which
has the purpose of gathering information for a specific user in
order to serve the user with a personalized experience (Bidgoli,
2017).

Chris, A. 2019. Top 10 Search Engines In The World. [Online].
Available at: https://www.reliablesoft.net/top-10-search-
engines-in-the-world/ [Accessed 20 November 2020].
GeeksForGeeks.org. n.d. What’s the difference between The

Internet and The Web? [Online]. Available at:
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/whats-difference-internet-web/
[Accessed 16 November 2020].
Marsden, S. 2018. How do Search Engines Work? [Online].

Available at: https://www.deepcrawl.com/knowledge/technical-
seo-library/how-do-search-engines-work/ [Accessed 20
November 2020].
Morgan, J. 2014. A Simple Explanation Of ‘The Internet of

Things’ [Online]. Available at:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/jacobmorgan/2014/05/13/simple-
explanation-internet-things-that-anyone-can-
understand/#4ed4e0171d09 [Accessed 16 November 2020].

and Activities
Conduct additional research, then summarize in a properly
referenced report how financial institutions, software distribution
health care and politics have made use of Web applications to
support their operations. Provide South African examples to
support your findings.
1. Briefly explain the difference between the Internet and the
World Wide Web.
2. Explain how an organisation can benefit from the use of

e-mail, newsgroups, discussion groups, instant
messaging and internet telephony.
3. Consider the educational brand of the IIE with whom you

are studying. Provide examples as to how they employ
web applications are used by the particular brand.
4. What is the main difference between the Internet,

Intranets and Extranets?
5. Identify any two Web 2.0 technologies supported by the

Learner Management System (LMS) used on your
campus.

1. Students’ answers should make mention that the Internet
refers to a network of networks whereas the Web refer to
what is stored on the Internet and is a subset of the
Internet.
2. Students’ answers will vary and can include cost

reductions as a result of e-mailing invoices to customers
instead of purchasing paper to print and post the invoices
to keeping employees and customers up to date with
company news and supporting communication between
employees and customers.
3. Here students can refer to the particular brand’s web site

offering a chat facility to connect prospective students to
a consultant, the web site hosting a web page that
contains links to the different programmes offered by the
particular brand and portals that supports them in their
studies.
4. Students answer should point out that the main difference

between the Internet, Intranet and Extranets is a matter of
privacy or who has access to it.
5. Students’ answers need to be evaluated, but could

typically include items such as blogs and wikis.
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Intellectual Property
Plagiarism occurs in a variety of forms. Ultimately though, it refers to the use of the
words, ideas or images of another person without acknowledging the source using the
required conventions. The IIE publishes a Quick Reference Guide that provides more
detailed guidance, but a brief description of plagiarism and referencing is included
below for your reference. It is vital that you are familiar with this information and the
Intellectual Integrity Policy before attempting any assignments.
Introduction to Referencing and Plagiarism

What is ‘Plagiarism’?
‘Plagiarism’ is the act of taking someone’s words or ideas and presenting them as your
own.
What is ‘Referencing’?
‘Referencing’ is the act of citing or giving credit to the authors of any work that you
have referred to or consulted. A ‘reference’ then refers to a citation (a credit) or the
actual information from a publication that is referred to.
Referencing is the acknowledgment of any work that is not your own, but is used by
you in an academic document. It is simply a way of giving credit to and acknowledging
the ideas and words of others.
When writing assignments, students are required to acknowledge the work, words or
ideas of others through the technique of referencing. Referencing occurs in the text at
the place where the work of others is being cited, and at the end of the document, in
the bibliography.
The bibliography is a list of all the work (published and unpublished) that a writer has
read in the course of preparing a piece of writing. This includes items that are not
directly cited in the work.
A reference is required when you:
• Quote directly: when you use the exact words as they appear in the source;
• Copy directly: when you copy data, figures, tables, images, music, videos or
frameworks;
• Summarise: when you write a short account of what is in the source;
• Paraphrase: when you state the work, words and ideas of someone else in your
own words.
It is standard practice in the academic world to recognise and respect the ownership
of ideas, known as intellectual property, through good referencing techniques.
However, there are other reasons why referencing is useful.
Good Reasons for Referencing
It is good academic practice to reference because:
• It enhances the quality of your writing;

• It demonstrates the scope, depth and breadth of your research;
• It gives structure and strength to the aims of your article or paper;
• It endorses your arguments;
• It allows readers to access source documents relating to your work, quickly and
easily.
Sources
The following would count as ‘sources’:
• Books,
• Chapters from books,
• Encyclopaedias,
• Articles,
• Journals,
• Magazines,
• Periodicals,
• Newspaper articles,
• Items from the Internet (images, videos, etc.),
• Pictures,
• Unpublished notes, articles, papers, books, manuscripts, dissertations, theses,
etc.,
• Diagrams,
• Videos,
• Films,
• Music,
• Works of fiction (novels, short stories or poetry).
What You Need to Document from the Hard Copy Source You
are Using
(Not every detail will be applicable in every case. However, the following lists provide
a guide to what information is needed.)
You need to acknowledge:
• The words or work of the author(s),

• The author(s)’s or editor(s)’s full names,
• If your source is a group/ organisation/ body, you need all the details,
• Name of the journal, periodical, magazine, book, etc.,
• Edition,
• Publisher’s name,
• Place of publication (i.e. the city of publication),
• Year of publication,
• Volume number,
• Issue number,
• Page numbers.
What You Need to Document if you are Citing Electronic

Sources
• Author(s)’s/ editor(s)’s name,

• Title of the page,
• Title of the site,
• Copyright date, or the date that the page was last updated,
• Full Internet address of page(s),
• Date you accessed/ viewed the source,
• Any other relevant information pertaining to the web page or website.
Referencing Systems
There are a number of referencing systems in use and each has its own consistent
rules. While these may differ from system-to-system, the referencing system followed
needs to be used consistently, throughout the text. Different referencing systems
cannot be mixed in the same piece of work!
A detailed guide to referencing, entitled Referencing and Plagiarism Guide is available

from your library. Please refer to it if you require further assistance.
When is Referencing Not Necessary?
This is a difficult question to answer – usually when something is ‘common knowledge’.

However, it is not always clear what ‘common knowledge’ is.
Examples of ‘common knowledge’ are:
• Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990;

• The world’s largest diamond was found in South Africa;
• South Africa is divided into nine (9) provinces;
• The lion is also known as ‘The King of the Jungle’.
• 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
• The sky is blue.
Usually, all of the above examples would not be referenced. The equation 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
is Einstein’s famous equation for calculations of total energy and has become so
familiar that it is not referenced to Einstein.
Sometimes what we think is ‘common knowledge’, is not. For example, the above
statement about the sky being blue is only partly true. The light from the sun looks
white, but it is actually made up of all the colours of the rainbow. Sunlight reaches the
Earth's atmosphere and is scattered in all directions by all the gases and particles in
the air. The smallest particles are by coincidence the same length as the wavelength
of blue light. Blue is scattered more than the other colours because it travels as shorter,
smaller waves. It is not entirely accurate then to claim that the sky is blue. It is thus
generally safer to always check your facts and try to find a reputable source for your
claim.
Important Plagiarism Reminders

The IIE respects the intellectual property of other people and requires its students to
be familiar with the necessary referencing conventions. Please ensure that you seek
assistance in this regard before submitting work if you are uncertain.
If you fail to acknowledge the work or ideas of others or do so inadequately this will be
handled in terms of the Intellectual Integrity Policy (available in the library) and/ or the
Student Code of Conduct – depending on whether or not plagiarism and/ or cheating
(passing off the work of other people as your own by copying the work of other students
or copying off the Internet or from another source) is suspected.
Your campus offers individual and group training on referencing conventions – please
speak to your librarian or ADC/ Campus Co-Navigator in this regard.
Reiteration of the Declaration you have signed:
1. I have been informed about the seriousness of acts of plagiarism.

2. I understand what plagiarism is.
3. I am aware that The Independent Institute of Education (IIE) has a policy
regarding plagiarism and that it does not accept acts of plagiarism.
4. I am aware that the Intellectual Integrity Policy and the Student Code of Conduct
prescribe the consequences of plagiarism.
5. I am aware that referencing guides are available in my student handbook or

equivalent and in the library and that following them is a requirement for
successful completion of my programme.
6. I am aware that should I require support or assistance in using referencing guides
to avoid plagiarism I may speak to the lecturers, the librarian or the campus ADC/
Campus Co-Navigator.
7. I am aware of the consequences of plagiarism.
Please ask for assistance prior to submitting work if you are at all unsure.

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IIE Module Manual BUIS6122/d/p/w/ BUIS6112/d/p/w/ BUIS5111/d/p/w/ BUIS112

BUSINESS INFORMATION SYSTEMS

The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd is registered with the

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DID YOU KNOW?

Module Guides or Module Manuals

Module Discussion Forum

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IIE Library Online Databases

EBSCO eBook Collection

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4 Processing Configurations ............................................................................................. 83

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As you are preparing for a career in Information Technology, whether it be as a systems

© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 Page 6 of 129

Learning Unit 1: An Overview of

• Discuss common applications of

• The content of this learning unit is

• Work through the contents in this

© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 Page 7 of 129

2 Computers and Information

Individuals engage with social media for the purpose of

Companies on the other hand use the various social media

To be able to connect to the internet one needs access to a

Information systems can be considered a set of components

© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 Page 8 of 129

All systems perform input, processing, output, feedback and

Information systems can support management in the following

2.1 The Components Of An Information

This component of an information system refers to the input to

Data has a time orientation (Bidgoli, 2017). Historical data is

© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 Page 9 of 129

Data can be collected in different forms (Bidgoli, 2017). When

Data is never collected at random. To determine what data

Data that is collected should be stored in an organized and

In order to create this set of organized and integrated files, the

The process component is the component of an information

This component is responsible for generating the required

Information represents the output produced by the information

© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 Page 10 of 129

Data in its own does not support decision making, whereas

For information to be useful and valuable, it needs to possess

Accessible • Information should be easily

© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 Page 11 of 129

3 Computer Literacy vs. Information

3.1 Computer Literacy

An employee can therefore be considered computer literate if

3.2 Information Literacy

Business intelligence provides an information literate individual

The concept of information literacy can be extended beyond the

© The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd 2022 Page 12 of 129

To be information literate, an individual, therefore, needs to

4 Types of Information Systems

4.1 Transaction Processing Systems

The most prominent reason for employing transaction

Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) serves the operational

• Batch processing, where transactions are accumulated