Fuse vs Circuit Breakers Fuse Circuit Breaker Works on the thermal and electrical properties of the conducting materials Works on the switching principle and electromagnetism it doesn't give any indication of overloads It gives an indication of overloads Fuse can only be used once A circuit breaker can be used many numbers of times Provides protection against power overloads Provides protection against power overloads and short circuits it detects and interrupts faulty circuit conditions it performs the interruption process only. Faults are detected by a relay system. Low breaking capacity compared to the circuit breaker High breaking capacity Automatic operation Can either be automatic or manually operated Operating time of fuse is 0,002 seconds Operating time of the circuit breaker is 0.02 - 0.05 seconds Low Cost High CostFe cect 6 Ue eee euler ke Une ee BRUT og? categories: linear circuits and non-linear circuits. The distinction between them lies in how De es es cue e et Resale Ue See 4. Linear Circuit: Se Ke a eee aL OR Aa) pCa Ree eens at Urea iene eee Uae Tae ee Tote et Trek Seco ee AE eeu Pra ae to the input. In other words, doubling the input will result in a doubling of the output, and so CMe ete Reece gen AE Ean Pee EUR cus tte inate a Buc ou uta ee ee a ee ee OR oad So Ui ce ROL ie Ee linear circuit, where V is the voltage, lis the current, and Ris the resistance. 4. Non-linear Circuit: PN eet Ru ee unt Ue Teruo Cr UL UO Cae ecg c from the input, and the principle of superposition does not hold true. In non-linear circuits, Peta Segoe kee aR ae Un cece lol Non-linear circuits often contain active components like diodes, transistors, and operational See ee CS heise eC Cee RR ee ener ieee eater eeCuoet try Pore RRA esa Se econo U on te eee We Neto kM cima col ead Dee eae a ear aU a ee es ey CigU eke su El In summary, linear circuits have a direct, predictable relationship between input and output, Dae ele Seu Secu ee ec ee aS CRU Reece eeu Re eet CLs gst SeenDeen TO ee te ee gee ue oe Geet rennet eet ee ieee ieee eee eo of faults in transformers include: Beret gt ee eee ee a ee a eds eee a ees ee a ed from insulation failure, physical damage, or manufacturing defects. Creer grt ee eet gt cen Coen ee te rad ‘one or more windings, causing a complete loss of electrical connection. This type of fault See es eee ee at ea Winding fault: This type of fault involves damage or insulation failure in one or more windings, resulting in imbalanced currents and potential overheating of the transformer. Ce a ee eee mas ete gee eee ed core laminations becoming lease or damaged. Core faults can cause increased core losses Pertenece aa Pet eee ese Te ee eee eee geet Peretti ee te gen oe en eer ene ee] Per teeta ee ee Gee See eee a eet ag higher than its rated capacity for an extended period. This can cause excessive heating and potential damage to the windings and insulation. Ce ere or Renee ea eterno cei een eT] er Pg ta ne ea hoe eet tet ste ea ae) ete Ge eed ae ee ed design frequency, it can lead to increased flux densities, causing saturation and iris or improper ventilation, leading to thermal damage. eres ee ee tee ee fee eee ree edd Fe ar ate oat etna eee te ct ts Dee Coen tet ae ea Gea et ee Rae eRe eg contamination of this oil can lead to reduced insulation properties and other problems.1, What is PLC? PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controllers, PLC is an industrial computer used to monitor inputs and to regulate (turn on / off) their outputs to automate a device or process, depending on their state making choices based on their Pragram or logic. PLC is a software and hardware mixture. It functions as the machine's brain or system for control mechanisms for automation. 2. What is the role of PLC in automation? PLC plays most impertant role in automation. All the monitoring as well as the control actions are taken by PLCs. PLC Senses input via | / P modules, processes logic via CPU and memory, and provides output via output module. Within a very short moment, it conducts accurate activities. That's one of the reasons why PLC is commonly used in the industrial sector today. 3. What are the general functions of a PLC? The functions of PLC are as follows: * Sequential Contral: PLC processes binary signal input into output that is used for the purposes of sequential technical processing, here PLC keeps all steps in the sequential process in the right order. * Plant Monitoring: PLC continuously monitors the status of a system and takes the necessary actions in connection with the process being controlled or displaying the message to the operator. = Shutdown System: The working principle of a PLC is to receive a process input signal that is controlled and then process the input signal in accordance with the program stored in memory and then produce an output signal to control the actuator or other equipment4. What are the types of PLC programming languages? Based on |EC-61131-3 Intemational Standards, there are 5 types of PLC programming languages, namely: 1. Ladder Diagram (LD) 2. Function Block Diagram (FED) 3, Sequential Function Chart (SFC) 4, Structure Text (ST) 5. Instruction List (1L) 5. Describe about basic elements in Ladder logic programming: There are three basic organizational elements associated with ladder logic: + RUNG: Ladder logic instructions are written on a function. During the sean program, the processor scans from left to right, one by one ladder from top to bottom, + INSTRUCTION: Ladder logic Instruction is divided into 2 parts, = Input instructions: * Displayed on the left side of the ladder Check, comparison, or specific conditions * Output instructions: + Shown on the right side Do something action * BRANCHES: Branches are used in ladder logic to create different paths that directly read the state of inputs and outputs. 6. What are the different PLC brands known? 1. ABB 2. Allen-Bradley 3. Siemens 4. Honeywell 5. Mitsubishi 6. Yokogawa 7. Toshiba 8 General Electric 9. Omron7. Power supply in PLC system: Power supply provides processor, | / © and communication modules with system energy requirements. Typically the input voltage of the energy supply is 120 V - 230 V AC or 24 V DC and the output voltage of the back plane is 2 Ato S Aat SV bc. 8. What is Sinking & Sourcing? The most brief definition of these two concepts would be: SINKING = Common GND line (-) SOURCING = Common VCC line (+) ® Sinking |/O circuits an the I/O modules receive (sink) current fram sourcing field devices. Sinking output modules used for interfacing with electronic equipment. * Sourcing I/O are the sourcing output modules used for interfacing with solenoids. 9. Types of PLC: There are two fundamental kinds of PLC bases based an PLC building and operation: * Compact PLC * Modular PLC 10. Difference Between Fixed and Modular PLCs ? The processor will have integrated power supply and | / Os in one unit in non- modular PLCs. The modular PLC, for parts such as power supply, | / O madules, will have distinct slots. The | / Os or energy supply can be selected as required.11. Timer instruction for PLC & Types of Timers: Timer is a instruction that waits for a certain amount of time befare doing anything (control time). Timers use the internal CPU clock to count fractions of seconds or seconds. The preset is called the time duration for which a timer was set and is set in multiples of the time base used. Timers Types: On-Delay timer- simply “delays turning on”. It is called TON, TIM or TMR. Off-Delay timer- simply “delays tuming off’. It is called TOF and is less common than the on-delay type. 12. What are counters? A counter is set to some preset value and will function its contacts when this value of input pulses is obtained. The normal counters are typically “software” counters - they don't physically exist in the PLC but rather they are simulated in software 13. Types of counters « Up-counters counts from zero up to the preset value. These are called CTU, CNT, C, or CTR. = Down-counters count down from the preset value to zero. These are called CTD. = Up-down counters count up and/or down. These are called CTUD.14. Types of PLC inputs & Outputs: Inputs: DC Inputs: DC input modules allow to connect either PNP (sourcing) or NPN. (sinking) transistor type devices to them. AC Inputs: There is na polarized AC voltage. The AC voltage is most frequently shifted via a limit switch or other form of switch. Outputs: 15. Relay Outputs: One of the most common types of outputs available is the relay output. Existence of relays as outputs makes it easier to connect with external devices. Transistor Outputs: Transistor type outputs can only switch a DC current. The PLC applies a small current to the transistor base and the transistor output “closes”. Triac Output: Triac output can be used to control AC loads only. Triac output is faster in operation and has longer life than relay output. How to test and commission a PLC system? Ensure that all cable connections between the PLC and the plant are full, secure and in accordance with the specifications needed and meet local requirements. Checking that all the incoming power supply matches the voltage setting for which the PLC is set. Check that all protective devices are set to suitable environments for the journey. Checking that emergency stop button work. Checking that all input/output devices are connected to the correct input/output paints and giving the correct signals, Loading and testing the software.eS Cas uru nnn ace Mein emer een oN ue! Dee Ue CUM gue teehee eu Ru eet eure aun aie Cre mo cs eeu teaiys) al user interface (GUD SU EMOTE WELT eres eta Pree eR ORC aL UeC UUuCeaet eee ed ge Romu gee lil systems. It provides a visual representation of the equipment or processes being controlled eo ees Sere a eos eA ey Peed HMIs often incorporate touchscreen displays, buttons, indicators, and other input/output devices to facilitate user interaction. They can display real-time data, such as temperature, Peta rue erm ata Cee eter er ees may also provide alarms, notifications, and diagnostic information to alert operators about Drie Oe rite enters: ications, HMIs can be found in various other domains, including CST ge te ee OOS Cute owe Wee Tei ss software interfaces. The goal of an HMI is to create an intuitive and user-friendly interface that enables efficient control and monitoring of machines or systems, improving productivity, safety, and overall user experience.PLC BLOCK DIAGRAM — => From aE. s Tw “_ OUTPUT Prashbutioas, ‘coamets, ‘tee mit ewitebes, onan alarms 7 ete.« Processor section (CPU) The processor section is brain of PLC which consists of RAM, ROM, logic solver and user memory, The central processing unit is heart of PLC. CPU controls monitors and supervises all operation within PLC. The CPU makes decision and executes contro! instructions based on the program instruction in memory. © Input and output module The input module is a mediator between input devices and central processing unit (CPU) which is used to convert analog signal into digital signal. The output module is a mediator between output devices and central processing unit (CPU) which is convert digital signal into analog signal. Power supply Power supply is provided to the processor unit, input and output module unit, Power supply may be integral or separately mounted unit. Most of the PLC operates on 0 voits DC and 24 volts. o Memory section The memory section is the area of the CPU in which data and information is stored and retrieved. Data Memory is used to store numerical data required in math calculation, bar code data etc. User memory contains user’s application program. « Programming device Programming devices are dedicated devices used for loading the user program into the program memory or edit it and to monitor the execution of the program of the PLC. It is also used to troubleshoot the PLC ladder logic program. Hand held terminal (HHT) or dedicated terminal or personal computer are programming devices commonly used in most of the PLCs.oe Moire Sect wep Aes MET RP ce elem ee een ele i monitoring and controlling industrial processes, infrastructure, and facilities. SCADA systems are commonly used in industries such as manufacturing, power generation and Ore NCU EUS EES cca UCU Meee ect BUC Ae ee eee UE RO Umea RRC elle Cem ee tee RR Ue CR eR uC Roe Bee eR Cia lem UC kel ea emul CUclie Rae eee UC ete Md ee a ee ee Ree asi ccy Cee uate EO Mor un et i. Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) or Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): These devices are installed in the field and are responsible for collecting data from sensors and Pron eee IE teat eek rte sd p Ce tn ee ea ua REC Meat acy BieUSuee mee nk eT a eee el ate el de lad using wired or wireless communication technologies such as Ethernet, serial Tata Te Meigen cs UCU ULE tG lua ta Ce lek lel a Leute elt cee a Gee UM eM Eee iC Ce Cure nou CCR UE ese Genet eu Ue Re ie Ce Lr] eee ecto Paice cue My coms ee Mo ume Cul ecee cic E ls eee ccd capabilities. Historical data can be used for trend analysis, performance optimization, maintenance planning, and regulatory compliance. Bae ee eat aoe) Woe Canter Caren i een eres eet) predefined conditions or thresholds. These notifications alert operators to abnormal RU aCe ae cc beg tele The main benefits of using a SCADA system include improved operational efficiency, rece Re hcl ACen ee eet Cre ge eee Le) De ee Ce Et ace ee cu mice uke aol Cerna er Pees ee tae Duero oe naeIn the context of programmable logic controllers (PLCs), the scan time referstothetimeit 0 Peg eke cone co one Ct eT DU ee Cs Cu aah ue el lu we TUL De i Sica) BU kere ess tier Re Mee eu Aes een oe Pol rears ORCC tre coun gi eat te] MSU ee gL eee Ree Rec Bd sensors and other devices in the controlled system. It checks the status of these inputs to Cee RU ec Ren eo eC rele rer ay Ree en Cnn cg lege CUR aot DORR eC Ue ee Cre ete coy Dr es cee eg te Cuma Ld Bon MAC AUR neh ure Cue Ur Rec Eka id eed a cee ie BLT eC UU een le cone cee De RL Lr Ree oe ooh UCL Rue Roh PT eau LED ce esas aR ee ML ag Renee Te eo Poet in aon ie eter Ot tar ten CR au kee ut Tete ear BUry input scanning stage The time taken to complete all these stages constitutes the scan time Pea mem eee liars Rem ce scenes le Meal elle ne my Cee RU me ce ee eee RU ee Seu] feria ted Dra eee a and the overall system performance. A shorter scan time allows the PLC to respond more Cr ORC Se ic a cau eu Me eeu Tae PUR ee URC Meee IR i Cue ee eka) Taunt er c tee lich ie Ren emi a ni Aue etal eeu AU Re rs ted specifications. It is important to consider the scan time when designing control systems to Sura au eeu Leola u le eae Rerun i e uel ieken ily Dee UE EarSuitable for industrial control applications, Here are some of the key characteristics of PLCS: i. Robustness and Reliability: PLCs are designed to operate in harsh industrial See Can ERC Ra ale oe vibrations, and other challenging conditions. This robustness ensures reliable operation Eee Deer eu ee lina tere ae an egies configuration and expansion. They consist of a base unit or rack that accommodates ee tree age a nt mete ae oR Core Tre et ue fe ‘This modularity makes it easy to customize and scale the control system-according to the Peer eee ete 3. Progtammiability: PLCs offer the ability to program and customize the control logic to suit Cie oe te te ou eae Tere a tec nratr ae) Per ee eee ace gre aie ieee gece eM ae tr a Cee ee MC Sn te Sei ere | Cree te Ee Cee i. Real-time Operation: PLCs are designed for real-time control, meaning they can respond to input changes and execute control actions in a deterministic.and predictable manner. Real-time capabilities are crucial for applications where precise timing and synchronization are required, such as in motion control or high-speed processes. iver eee MU ee ue ne ere eer a SC ete eee ee eee sg Red types of signals, including digital inputs and outputs, analog inputs and outputs, and Gee ee ere LC ee cen] Cees 6 Communication. and Networking: PLCs offer built-in communication capabilities to Se Ue ee Cu Uc ame eect] communication protocols such as Modbus, Ethemet/IP, Profibus, and Profinet, allowing See Eu aot uae eu ue aa eta See en EER EE ees ce LSE ect Dee eens Reap eet tg Ceci tes nea eit lL wg De ue ee ate eee or ed Le Ee Deets tet ee ee eee Oe ee ee ee etre) Suc Ect enn Se sa a tea epi Ce sai ued Pee eu ee a ee echt cd Ce ae ea eee gC Re ores gg ket d Se Ct Puede a edPLC BLOCK DIAGRAM © Processor section (CPU) The processor section is brain of PLC wich consists of RAM. ROM, logic solver and user memory, The central processing unit is heart of PLE. CPU controls monitors and supervises al operation within PLC. The CPU makes decision and executes control instructions hased an the program instruction in memory. © Input and output module ‘The input module is a meditor between input dewies and central processing unit (CPU) which is used to convert ansiog signal into digital signal ‘The output module & a medistor between output devices and central processing unit (CPU) which is conver digits! signal inte analog signal © Power supply ‘Power supply is provided to the processor unit, input and output module unit. Power Supply may be integral or separately mounted unit Mast of the PLC operates on 0 volts DC and 24 vots. © Memory section ‘The memory section is the ares of the CPU in which dats and information is stored snd retrieved. Dats Memoryis used to store numerical data required in math calculation, bar code dats etc. User memory contains user's application program. © Programming device ‘Programming devices are dedicated devices used for loading the user program into the memory or edit I and to monitor the execution of the prograrh of the PLC. Its ‘also used to troubleshoot the PLC ladder logic program. Hand held terminal (HHT) or Saditated terminal of personal computer are programming devices commanly used in most of the PLCs.Cet eta erate ced wee a eee etl ett st ia acm au ed CaO tec Chenu etn telecine teat CR CU EUS Re Neus cc eM stor cease] Pere MEE tes eee oe Cue Reese cm ems cue ue Ree Mee Ue a ear ce eee Cluct aT CUree Ue Comets PT Caer atc cad se Eu UO Cee UCU (sealers cM ee sso psoas) Plo elem Lice Mea item ere tel Meee tees Ee eM ee ioe CEM o kee een eS ro Peete et catego ss aacs fon EU tReet tee ote Rey NE CMs lM meet el Rese ee Tue eR Ce na eee MEU Recetas BUC ks a] aoe Meer eet uc ero cbse claire Wel aula ele aie Recalls bcs eet eames wee ica: RRC gece ule] Seneca etait eau lee eke i) Cte bee eke u ng OE Ue lee Ueto Cle eect ecu tek ure lear ue len te) eee etre Esa ugar eteitaes A cece ee ea ara ated Mor Peete tego teem On cums eee cunt accu aca enue to and the central control system. ference ey Ma mea te Rr eo rs Cues 0b) Woes Cire ior Pieterietee ete g te ute Metre ce ube iets kes kee aon sie Cy the field devices. It typically includes a human-machine interface (HMI) for visualization, monitoring, and control purposes.| AC Current DC Current Import The current moves in both directions. The current moves only in one direction. Overview Its load can be resistive, capacitive, or inductive. Its load is only resistive. Branches Its frequency is between 50-60 Hz. Its frequency is always zero, Murphys Ithas a negative as well as a positive polarity. It has no polarity at all. Weightle: The direction of the flow is bidirectional. The direction of the flow is unidirectional, rail Its power factor is between 0 and 1. Its power factor is always 1. Humicity Its passive parameter is impedance. Its passive parameter is resistance. The Inter Units It gets transmitted over long distances and also It does not get transmitted over long distanc maintains its electric power. also loses its electric power. Measure It has a rotating magnetism. Ithas a steady magnetism. ‘Spherom Its magnitude of current varies over time. Its magnitude of current remains constant. Microme' Sonomet Its electron flow goes from forward to backwards | Its electron flow goes only forward. d . anawrce verse Differenc Volume Its waveform types are sinusoidal, triangular, and | Its waveform types are pure and pulsating. square trapezoidal. Unit of IV Its source is an AC generator. Its source is batteries, electrochemical cells, and photovoltaic cells. Itis mainly used in electric motors present in Itis used in mobile phones, television sets, etc. electric appliances, It is also used in industries, factories as well as in| It is also used in electrolysis, electroplating, electronicDTM tae ordeal ee et eee en ened eee Ee rae ot i a power supply, not a 60 Hz frequency. There are historical reasons behind this choice, and it's Drea ee oe he De eee te | Se ee eS RL ce eure acd ee eee ese eee ee ee ee Re ean ea ees eed Ree fee eas te re ME een ce eae ee ke td when electricity was first being adopted for widespread use, there was no global standard for power frequency. Different countries and even different regione within countries adopted different frequencies based on technological advancements, historical reesons, and Oe Re oe te ete a Reg Resear eas cae Cenk eters ene sists riser ag eee eu ees eee eee SO nt Eee st ses ae ee ee esl se ees eth eae eel ce eee ee ea a ee Dee ese eae eg egies eee eee Geers eure ret eaters geese ioe Mogren ey een ga Neate ares anc tse Seeger eet otecce Senet eta rer ee ee eer ete eee ane tee challenge that could disrupt power supply and potentially lead to compatibility issues. Dee te ene ee er ee ee tne eect ol Fe nase eee esha teeta aoe wg eee sme re ee te nue gee ee ee are et a power grid’s infrastructure. The 50 Hz frequency used in India has been successfully serving eee ee ee er ee et en er eerie een) Bech cds ae[3] WHAT HAPPEN IF FREQUENCY GOES LOWER THAN 50HZ 6 Ifthe frequency of an electrical power system goes lower than its rated frequency (in this ie Pee a ee ee cuenta me ene eee Cy is tightly controlled and maintained by grid operators to ensure stable and reliable electricity ET Eee eur eeu ro LeU ee 1. Equipment Damage: Many electrical devices and motors are designed to operate optimally at the rated frequency of the power system. If the frequency drops, the motors may draw CRU RUC LC Rl Ce Line kt LAU EUS damaging the equipment. PaO ie ed ae i eeu le aun lower than the design frequency. This inefficiency can lead to increased energy Pee OU Ua cu ee ees ee 8. Light Flickering: When the frequency drops, the voltage supplied to homes and businesses DN Re esc MCU UR hemor RC RSC UC Plc indicating a power quality issue. Pau oss ete eeu Cet ee Ree) Geer oc CRUE eh se ec ee ee et Ue teen eRe ea Te Ue) CET to 5. Power Instability: Power grids are designed to balance generation and consumption. If the frequency drops significantly, it can indicate an imbalance in the system, potentially leading POR ete meee Wate oe 6. Potential Grid Collapse: In extreme cases, a significant drop in frequency can trigger a Peres Rue ea Ber Rett bc ee ci be eta UE ue BO eta eee See sean ate eRe eet Pere outs Men uae tam esau ut red DCU Soc UUW eee nen tte Cue a frequency regulation services, and coordinating with neighboring grids to balance power Pea ees ee Reus OSes Ue Meum UL EU Ee Scola eee Me UE ie Rs Cee ete ue Ue Coe) Pree UCR ane UL Dae ae We Rut eeAUS ea gee Uns ile ee ene ns om nae Co Lm RU) case, higher than 50 Hz), several issues can arise that may affect the stability and operation of the power grid and connected electrical devices. Here are some of the potential problems that can occur: OS sa ee ee ele ee see Lee ESO ea Le el ey ele eee om ee ue ene RR ote ed Re ee eu cu RRR EU cule eae ten ea 2. Increased Wear and Tear: Higher frequencies can cause increased wear and tear on rear uaa cute atc ete Rg ors uu ilo ede ee Me elena eee tee LU Rey Pde Ce MERC LU ame ELM Mas mee eee Uke fee Rie Ce Nae ee A mene Sec one a Ry fect RCE Reet ue Cele wirenen mg cre SEC eed se eee ec emits oie arate eu te eS higher frequencies, leading to errors or malfunctions in their operation. 5. Grid instability: If the frequency increases significantly, it can indicate an imbalance Deena eee ae eu ue Rerun Me eae te oe Cet eu ET ecu ae eae arn es el 7. Overvoltage Issues: Higher frequencies can lead to an increase in the voltage supplied to Deg ie MRE eee aM Meee) Sere ee ues ee BOCES re ea heen Lal SMe eS CRY ets ea Pe eee CE On era ue a era emt eed CCE US EE Maa ts tie ewer ele ie ACME uE Id Len emcee iE Cue Ee CU eee ra else gs Pee UEC EEC ies esa Ue ge Pee Rec ete We an tod UR ee ce ates Cree fe eee ee CEE As Ste RT ee PO Se ed OE ee minor frequency variations. However, significant and prolonged deviations from the rated Dene Che acer uote eA ute ce cn nes esac)FMRC u eC DE UEC eG MEW g oy Te RU ee UL Ue oe es EU Oe CSL te [a oe primary and secondary winding configuration and their respective voltages. Here's how you Reus Une a SST UOTE A step-up transformer is one where the secondary voltage (output voltage) is higher than RB a eC nace Uo ace Re mae ee CST TUS C uae Sena eC a as ALC Cr LA more turns:than the primary winding (input). b. Observe the voltage ratings: The rated voltage on the secondary side will be higher than GUL R Dolce Cun ULC Ee ee Le CRC UR RCO e ed SUS aU A eT ALCL: PS URLS e DS ee Ee ae ae LA auc Tr pace CL ae a Un ac RCCL ng Eo UE US oli Sena eC a as ALC Cr LA fewer turns than the primary winding (input). b. Observe the voltage ratings: The rated voltage on the secondary side will be lower than RUE Broce un Lee -¢. The turns ratio: The turns ratio (N./N,) will be less than 1, where N, is the number of turns Tee SAUL ACL eS Es ACL Led Remember, transformers are designed to operate at specific voltage levels, and connecting them incorrectly (e.g., applying a higher voltage to a step-down transformer) can lead to Cen Ue Ege eS ae eae Ueno ‘specifications and use it as intended.R 6 WHY IN DC POWERLOSS ISLESS Inadirect current (DC) electrical system, power loss is generally lower compared to an oo? alternating current (AC) system. There are several reasons for this difference in power loss: Pe Mesto Inan ACsystem, the current alternates re Coes eS eRe ae effect, where the current tends to concentrate near the surface of the conductor. Asa result, the effective cross-sectional area for current flow is reduced, increasing the resistance of the conductor and causing higher power losses. In DC systems, there is no ‘skin effect, and the current flows uniformly through the entire cross-section of the een treme ec eee e Weegee eo ne TOR UR en oe ec ‘other devices experience hysteresis loss due to the reversal of magnetic domains. This energy loss is absent in DC systems since the current flows ina single direction Tee el EU te eth ers ‘AC systems can have capacitive and inductive losses due to the presence of capacitance and inductance in the conductors and devices. These losses occur as the electric and magnetic fields continuously alternate and store energy in capacitors and inductors. In DC eR See ee ene reticle SoM CMe aM Ro eRe eC es ae ne Se a Sc aR proportional to the square of the current and the resistance of the lines. Since DC systems Pei ge ners Oe oT Soe the transmission line losses are lower in DC systems. Relea ge} AC systems require reactive power to maintain the magnetic fields in inductive devices like ee eee Renae Ceo Pee ee Un ee CUR eet Teo Preece