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Tissue Processing

The document discusses the steps of tissue processing which prepares biological tissues for microscopic examination. It involves fixation with formalin to preserve tissues, followed by dehydration using graded alcohols, clearing with xylene, infiltration and embedding in paraffin wax. Tissue processing can be done manually or automatically and involves changing tissues through solutions in each processing step over time to maintain cellular structure for sectioning and staining. The goal is to produce paraffin-embedded tissue blocks suitable for microtomy.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
793 views44 pages

Tissue Processing

The document discusses the steps of tissue processing which prepares biological tissues for microscopic examination. It involves fixation with formalin to preserve tissues, followed by dehydration using graded alcohols, clearing with xylene, infiltration and embedding in paraffin wax. Tissue processing can be done manually or automatically and involves changing tissues through solutions in each processing step over time to maintain cellular structure for sectioning and staining. The goal is to produce paraffin-embedded tissue blocks suitable for microtomy.

Uploaded by

Natalia Haikali
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Department: Health

Programme: Medical Laboratory Sciences

Tissue
Processing
Prepared by: Ms. Roselin Tsauses
Anatomical Pathology 2A (ANP611S)
March 2022
Quiz on previous lectures

• Define fixation.
• Fixation refers to the preservation of biological tissues from decay due to
autolysis or putrefaction.
• Name the chemical that is used to fix tissue?
• 10% Neutral Buffered Formalin (NBF)
• What do we mean by buffered?
• To lessen or moderate the impact of something. E.g., 10% formalin
solutions are usually buffered to pH 6.8 – 7.2
• Why is formalin buffered?
• To avoid the formation of formalin pigments.
• Name any two (2) tips for better grossing.
• Avoid Specimen Trauma
• Avoid Overloading Cassettes
Pre-learning activity

• Name the five stages of tissue processing:


• Fixation
• Dehydration
• Clearing
• Infiltration
• Embedding
Contents
• Concepts and definitions
• Steps to tissue processing:
• Fixation
• Dehydration
• Clearing
• Infiltration
• Embedding
• Automated and manual tissue processing
• Microwave processing
• Illustrative examples of the different steps
• Summary
Learning objectives

• Demonstrate practical understanding of the stages involved in tissue


processing for microscopic examination.
• Discuss principles and practices to tissue processing.
• Discuss chemicals, equipment/ instruments used during each stage of
tissue processing.
Introduction

• In previous lectures, we looked at specimen collection, reception,


fixation and dissection.
• In this lecture, we will briefly revise fixation and look in more detail at
the laboratory processes which follow specimen dissection as part of
tissue processing.
• Tissue processing involves preparing tissues so that they are
infiltrated with a supporting medium.
• The supporting medium is usually paraffin wax.
Concepts and definitions

• Fixation:
• Prevents autolysis and stabilizes tissue to maintain cellular structure.
• Dehydration:
• Removes water and unbound fixative from the tissue.
• Clearing:
• Displaces dehydrating solutions, making the tissue components
receptive to the infiltrating medium.
• Infiltration:
• Permeates the tissue with a support medium.
• Embedding:
• Orientation of the tissue sample in a support medium to create a tissue
“block” suitable for sectioning.
Revision: Fixation…

• Preserving cells and tissue components with minimal distortion is the


most important aim of processing tissue samples.
• Fixation does the following:
• Stabilizes proteins, rendering the cell and its components resistant to further
autolysis by inactivating lysosomal enzymes.
• Changes the tissues’ receptiveness to further processing.
• Fixation must finish before subsequent steps in the processing
schedule are initiated.
• If fixation is not complete prior to processing, stations should be
designated on the processor for this purpose.
• If the tissue is inadequately fixed, the subsequent dehydration
solutions may complete the process, possibly altering the staining
characteristics of the tissue.
Fixation cont.

• The size and type of specimen in the tissue cassette determines the
time required for complete fixation and processing.
• The tissue should be dissected to 2 – 4 mm in thickness.
• Care must be taken not to overfill the cassette, as this would impede
the flow of reagents around the tissue.
• If possible, larger and smaller pieces of tissue should be separated
and processed using different schedules.
• The most commonly used reagent for the fixation of histological
specimens is:
• 10% NBF
• The usual 10% formalin used in fixation of tissues is a 10% solution of
formalin; i. e. it contains about 4% weight to volume of
formaldehyde.
Dehydration

• The first stage of processing is the removal of “free "unbound water


and aqueous fixatives from the tissue components.
• Dehydration should be accomplished slowly.
• If the concentration gradient is excessive, diffusion currents across
the cell membranes may increase the possibility of cell distortion.
• Specimens are therefore processed through a graded series of
reagents of increasing concentration.
• Excessive dehydration may cause the tissue to become hard, brittle
and shrunken.
• Incomplete dehydration will impair the penetration of the clearing
reagents into the tissue, leaving the specimen soft and non-receptive
to infiltration.
Dehydration cont.

• There are numerous dehydrating agents:


• Ethanol
• Ethanol acetone
• Methanol
• Isopropyl
• Glycol
• Denatured alcohols
• Graded concentrations of ethanol are used for dehydration.
• The tissue is immersed in 70% ethanol, followed by 95% and 100%
solutions.
• Ethanol ensures total dehydration, making it the reagent of choice for
processing.
• For delicate tissue it is recommended that the processing starts in
30% ethanol.
Dehydration cont.
Clearing

• Clearing reagents act as an intermediary between the dehydration


and infiltration solutions.
• They should be miscible (forming a homogeneous mixture when
added together) with both solutions.
• When the dehydrating agent has been entirely replaced by most of
these solvents, the tissue has a translucent appearance: hence the
term clearing agent.
• Criteria for choosing a suitable clearing agent are:
• Rapid penetration of tissues
• Rapid removal of dehydrating agent
• Ease of removal by melted paraffin wax
• Minimal tissue damage
• Low flammability
• Low toxicity
• Low cost
Clearing cont.

• Xylene is used as the preferred clearing agent in Histology.


• Xylene is a flammable, colourless liquid with a characteristic
petroleum odor, which is miscible with most organic solvents and
paraffin wax.
• It is suitable for clearing blocks that are less than 5 mm in thickness
and rapidly replaces alcohol from the tissue.
Clearing cont.
Infiltrating and embedding

• Paraffin wax is the most popular infiltration and embedding medium.


• Paraffin wax permeates the tissue in liquid form and solidifies rapidly
when cooled.
• The tissue is impregnated with the medium, forming a matrix and
preventing distortion of the tissue structure during microtomy.
• It has a wide range of melting points, which is important for use in
different climatic regions.
• Paraffin wax is compatible with most routine and special stains, as
well as immunohistochemistry protocols.
Infiltration
Infiltration cont.
Embedding

• Involves the enclosing of properly processed, correctly orientated


specimens in a support medium that provides external support
during microtomy.
• The embedding media must fill the matrix within the tissue,
supporting cellular components.
• The medium should provide elasticity, resisting section distortion
while facilitating sectioning.
Embedding workstation

• Embedding workstation with cold plate.


Embedding workstation cont.
Tissue
embedding
cassettes
Metal moulds
Embedding cont.
Embedding cont.
Wax blocks with different tissues
Automated tissue processing

• The basic principle for tissue processing requires the exchange of


fluids using a series of solutions for a predetermined length of time in
a controlled environment.
Automated tissue processing
Manual tissue processing

• Manual tissue processing has stopped in most laboratories.


• There are circumstances requiring tissue samples to be processed
manually:
• Power failure
• Equipment malfunction
• Large tissue samples requiring more time than can be allocated on an
automated processor
• Small biopsies, such as transplant specimens needing a rapid diagnosis
Manual
tissue
process
ing
Manual tissue processing cont.
Processing schedule - overnight
Microwave tissue processing

• The microwave shortens the processing time from hours to minutes.


• The microwave exposure stimulates the diffusion of the solutions
into the tissue by increasing the internal heat of the specimen, thus
accelerating the reaction.
• Tissues are manually transferred from container to container of the
reagent.
• Most laboratory microwave ovens contain precise temperature
controls, timers and fume extraction systems.
• The processing time depends on the thickness and density of the
specimen.
• Disadvantage: The system is labour intensive, because the solutions
are manually manipulated.
Microwave Processing schedule –
Rapid histopathologic diagnosis
Microwave Processor
Order of Histo-technique steps in
histology

• Collection of specimen
• Fixation
• Grossing
• Dehydration
• Clearing
• Infiltration/ impregnation
• Embedding
• Microtomy
• Staining
• Mounting
• Microscopy
Histo-technique Steps

Collection of Specimen Removal of fresh tissue

Cut to appropriate size - trimmed


Fixing
Decalcifying
Washing/post-fixing
Processing
Dehydrating
Infiltration & Embedding
Clearing

Sectioning of Tissue
Remove paraffin wax

Biological Staining Rehydrating

Clearing
Mounting

Microscopy Observation
Summary:
Alcohol Alcohol
Formaldehyde 90% 96%
Fixing Alcohol Alcohol
70% 96%

Post fixing Alcohol


(water) 100%

Polymere Alcohol
Wax 100%

Polymere
Alcohol
Wax
100%
100%
Wax:Xylene Alc:Xyl
1:1 1:1
Xylene Xylene
100% 100%
Embedding
Summary

• The key aspects you are looking to optimize are:


• Overall morphology
• Nuclear detail
• Tissue integrity
What can go wrong?
Plan before removing tissue – know what you want to
do beforehand.
Collection of Specimen
Fix asap to keep tissue in same state

Fixing Post-wash= rinse excess fixative from tissue- if its not


replaced by clearing agent, affect embedding, sectioning &
staining.
Processing
Clearing= bridging step- alcohol must be extracted for
Infiltration & Embedding wax to penetrate tissue, if not fully extracted, affect
sectioning & staining

Sectioning of Tissue Infiltration= gradual extraction of clearing agent from


tissue without distorting/changing tissue

Biological Staining
Embedded material must be orientated properly &
levelled on microtome block
Mounting
Ensure proper staining with stain & counterstain

Microscopy Observation Careful mounting to avoid bubbles


Quiz 1

• Opens: Thursday, the 10th of March 2022 @ 23:00 pm


• Closes: Thursday, the 17th of March 2022 @ 23:00 pm
• Covers: lectures 1 – 4
• Assessment weight: 5%
• No extensions will be given.
Summary

• In summary, have a look at the following video on YouTube:


• Histology Techniques and Equipment
• Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4DJm4NLECQs
Next lecture

• During our next lecture, we will have a look at microtomy.


References

• John D. Bancroft, Christopher Layton and S.Kim Suvarna, 2013,


Bancroft’s Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques, 7thEdition,
Elsevier, China
• J.A. Kiernan,2015, Histological and Histochemical Methods,
5thEdition, Scion, UK

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