HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

DE 5th Semester, Civil Engineering

P. N. SOLANKI
Lecturer
Civil Engineering Department
Dr. J. N. Mehta Government Polytechnic, Amreli
 INTRODUCTION
o Geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout
of visible features of the highway and vertical alignments, sight
distances and intersections.

o The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide efficiency

in traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

o Geometric design of highways deals with following elements:

• Cross section elements
• Sight distance considerations
• Horizontal alignment details
• Vertical alignment details
• Intersection elements
 INTRODUCTION
Geometric design of highways depends on following factors:

o Design Speed the most important factor affecting geometric

design which is decided taking into account overall requirements
of the highway.

o Topography

o Traffic Factors that affect geometric design of roads are

vehicular characteristics & road user characteristics

o Design hourly volume and capacity keeps on fluctuating with

time so it will be uneconomical to design the roadway facilities for
the peak traffic flow or the highest hourly traffic volume

o Environmental Factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air

pollution, noise pollution & other local conditions must be
considered in geometric design
C/S Of Road And Its Components
C/S Of Road And Its Components
C/S Of Road And Its Components
C/S Of Road And Its Components
C/S Of Road And Its Components
C/S Of Road And Its Components
C/S Of Road And Its Components
C/S Of Road And Its Components
Carriage Way OR Width of Pavement
o Carriageway width depends on
• Width of traffic lane
• Number of lanes

o The portion of carriageway width that is intended for one line of

traffic movement is called traffic lane.

o The width of traffic lane is decided on the basis of standard

vehicle, width of largest vehicle class, lateral clearance on either
side of moving vehicle.

o The number of traffic lanes required on a highway depends on

the predicted traffic or the design traffic volumes and desired
level of service.
Carriage Way OR Width of Pavement
Carriage way OR Width of Pavement
Carriage way OR Width of Pavement
Width of Pavement or Carriageway
The width of carriageway for various classes of roads standardised by
the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) are as follows:

Class of Road Width of Carriageway, m

Single lane road 3.75

Two lanes without raised kerbs 7.0
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5
Intermediate carriageway 5.5
Multilane pavements 3.5 per lane

2.5 m is considered as standard width of vehicle and clearance of 0.625

m is added on both sides to achieve width of 3.75 m
Carriage Way OR Width of Pavement
o Carriageway width depends on
• Width of traffic lane
• Number of lanes

o The portion of carriageway width that is intended for one line of

traffic movement is called traffic lane.

o The width of traffic lane is decided on the basis of standard

vehicle, width of largest vehicle class, lateral clearance on either
side of moving vehicle.

o The number of traffic lanes required on a highway depends on

the predicted traffic or the design traffic volumes and desired
level of service.
Carriage Way OR Width of Pavement
Carriage way OR Width of Pavement
Carriage way OR Width of Pavement
Width of Pavement or Carriageway
The width of carriageway for various classes of roads standardised by
the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) are as follows:

Class of Road Width of Carriageway, m

Single lane road 3.75

Two lanes without raised kerbs 7.0
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5
Intermediate carriageway 5.5
Multilane pavements 3.5 per lane

2.5 m is considered as standard width of vehicle and clearance of 0.625

m is added on both sides to achieve width of 3.75 m
 Formation Width
Formation or Roadway width is the top width of the highway
embankment or the bottom width of highway cutting excluding side drains

Width of formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement or

carriageway including separators if any and the shoulders.

Formation Width = widths of pavement (Including Separators) +

widths of shoulders (on either side)
 Formation Width
Width of roadway for various classes of roads as per IRC is given in the
table below:

Roadway width, m
Road Classification Plain & Rolling Mountainous &
Terrain Steep Terrain
National Highway Single lane 12.0 6.25
& State Highway Two lanes 12.0 8.80
Single lane 9.0 4.75
Major District Road
Two lanes 9.0 -
Single lane 7.5 4.75
Other District Road
Two lanes 9.0 -
Village Road Single lane 7.5 4.0
 Right of Way
• Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. The width of the acquired land for the right of way is known
as land width.
 Right of Way

Recommended land width in m for different roads in rural & urban areas:

Mountainous & Steep

Plain & Rolling Terrain
Terrain
Rural Open Built-up
Roads Open Areas Built-up Areas Urban
Areas Areas Land Width
Roads
Normal Range Normal Range Normal Normal

NE 90 -- -- -- 60/30 --
NH & SH 45 30-60 30 30-60 24 20 Arterial 50-60

MDR 25 25-30 20 15-25 18 15 Sub-arterial 30-40

ODR 15 15-25 15 15-20 15 12 Collector 20-30

VR 12 12-18 10 10-15 9 9 Local 10-20

 Road Shoulders
• Shoulders are provided on both sides of the pavement all along the
road in the case of undivided carriageway and on the outer edge of the
carriageway in the case of divided carriageway.

• The minimum shoulder width recommended by IRC is 2.5 m.

• In India, the outward minimum slope of shoulders for earthen surfaces

is 0.5 % steeper than the pavement camber (which is minimum 3%).

Benefits of shoulder are

• Provides structural stability & support
edges of the flexible pavement
• Increases traffic capacity of carriageway
• Serves as an emergency lane for vehicle
compelled to be taken out of the main
carriageway
• Act as service lanes for vehicles that are
disabled
Shoulder
 Side Slope
• The slope of earthwork in filling or in cutting is called Side slope. It
imparts stability to the earthwork.

• For Filling, For Cutting:

Normally 1:2 Types of Soil Slope
Ordinary Soil 1:1 to 1:1\2
Broken Rock 1:1\2 to 1:1\4
Soft Rock 1:1\4 to 1:1\8
Hard Rock Approx. perpendicular to
 Road Boundaries
• Building Line (B.L.), up to which no construction activity should take
place.

• Control Line (C.L.), In case of a public building such as cinemas, a

commercial concern, factories, which attract a large number of
vehicles, should be set back at a further distance apart from the
building line. The line which accounts for this extra margin is known as
the control line
Road Boundaries
Road Boundaries
 Road Margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can
be generally called road margin.

Cycle Track Parking lanes Embankment Slope

Foot path Bus Lane Guard rails

 Kerbs
• Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or
foot path or shoulder.
 Kerbs
Kerbs may be mainly divided into three groups based on their
functions
• Low kerb or mountable type kerb
• Semi-barrier type kerb
• Barrier type kerb

1. Low kerb or mountable type kerb

• Also known as Class-1 Kerb

• This type of kerbs are provided such that they encourage the traffic to
remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the
shoulder area with little difficulty.

• The height of this kerb is about 10 cm

 Kerbs
2. Semi barrier kerbs: (Class-2 Kerb)
• When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height
is 15 cm above the pavement edge.
• This type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute
emergency it is possible to
drive over this kerb with some difficulty.

3. Barrier type kerbs:

• They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
• They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian
traffic.
• They are placed at a height of 20 cm.
 Camber OR Cross Slope
Cross slope or Camber is the slope provided to the road surface
in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the road
surface.
Cross slope is provided for following purpose:
• To prevent the entry of surface water into the pavement
layer and the subgrade soil through pavement
• To prevent the entry of water into bituminous pavement
layers
• To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as
quickly as possible and to allow the pavement to get dry
soon after the rain
• The camber is provided on the straight roads by raising the
centre of the carriageway with respect to the edges, forming a
crown along the centre line.
 Camber OR Cross Slope
• At horizontal curves with superelevation, the surface drainage
is provided by raising the outer edge of pavement with respect
to the inner edge.
• The rate of camber is usually designated by 1 in n which
means 1 vertical to n horizontal.
• Camber may also be expressed as percentage. If the camber
is x %, the cross slope is x in 100
• The required camber of a pavement depends on:
• Type of pavement surface
• Amount of rainfall
 Camber OR Cross Slope
In the field, camber of the pavement can be provided in any of the
following shapes:
• Straight Line is generally provided for CC pavement to facilitate
construction

• Parabolic Shape is suitable on roads where vehicles frequently

cross the centre line and overtake at high speed
 Camber OR Cross Slope
• Combined Shape in which a straight line slope is provided at
edges and the middle part is curved
 Camber OR Cross Slope
EXERCISE:
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, two types of road pavement are to
be constructed:
Two lane State Highway with bituminous concrete surface
Major District Road of WBM pavement, 3.8 m wide
What should be the height of the crown with respect to the edges in these
two cases, assuming straight line camber?
 Camber OR Cross Slope
EXERCISE:
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, two types of road pavement are to
be constructed:
Two lane State Highway with bituminous concrete surface
Major District Road of WBM pavement, 3.8 m wide
What should be the height of the crown with respect to the edges in these
two cases, assuming straight line camber?

SOLUTION:

1. For SH, width of two-lane pavement = 7.0 m

For BC surface in heavy rainfall area provide slope of 1 in 50, thus rise of
crown w.r.t. edges = (7.0/2.0) X (1/50) = 0.070 m

2. For WBM roads in heavy rainfall area provide slope of 1 in 33, thus rise
of crown w.r.t. edges = (3.8/2.0) X (1/33) = 0.058 m
 Sight Distance
Sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any
instance.

Sight distance available at any location of the carriageway is the actual

distance a driver with his eye level at a specified height above pavement
surface has visibility of stationary or moving object of specified height
which is on the carriageway ahead.

Sight distance can be categorised into following (Mainly):

• Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• Sight Distance at Intersection
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• The minimum distance (length of roadway) visible to the driver at
any spot should be sufficiently long to stop a vehicle travelling at
or a near the design speed before reaching a stationary object in
its path to avoid accident.
• For the purpose of measuring SSD, IRC has suggested
• the height of eye level of driver as 1.2 m and
• the height of the object as 0.15 m above the road surface.
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
SSD depends on following factors:
1. Total reaction time of driver
2. Speed of vehicle
3. Efficiency of Brakes
4. Frictional resistance between road & tyres
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
SSD depends on following factors:
Total reaction time of driver is divided into four parts

(i) Perception time is the time required

for the sensations received by the eyes
or ears of the driver to be transmitted to
brain.
(ii)Intellection time is the time required
for the driver to understand the
situation
(iii) Emotion time is the time elapsed
during emotional sensations and other
mental disturbance such as fear, anger
or superstition feelings.
(iv) Volition time is the time taken by the
driver for the final action
As per IRC, Total Reaction Time = 2.5 Sec.
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
SSD depends on following factors:
• Speed of vehicle increases and so stopping distance increases

• Efficiency of Brakes is said to be 100% if the wheels are fully

locked resulting in skidding which is undesirable. So to avoid skid,
braking forces shall not exceed the frictional force between road &
tyre.

• Frictional resistance between road & tyres depends on

coefficient of friction ‘f’ between road & tyre. IRC has suggested
values of f in between 0.35 to 0.40 depending on design speed. As
the value of ‘f’ decreases, the braking distance increases.
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):
SSD is the summation of following distances:
• The distance travelled by the vehicle at uniform speed during the total
reaction time ‘t’, which is known as lag distance.
• The distance travelled by the vehicle after the application of the brakes,
until the vehicle comes to a dead stop which is known as braking
distance.
SSD = Lag Distance + Braking Distance
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):
Lag distance in m = v x t,
Here, v is in m/sec and t = 2.5 seconds
Lag distance in m = 0.278 V x t,
Here, V is in km/Hr and t = 2.5 seconds
• Braking distance may be obtained by equating the work done in
stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the vehicle moving at
design speed.

Braking Distance, = v2 / 2gf

Here, v is speed of vehicle, m/sec
g is acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2 and
f is coefficient of friction (0.4 to 0.35)
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Analysis of Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):

SSD = Lag Distance + Braking Distance

SSD = v.t + v2 / 2gf ………. v is in m/s

SSD = 0.278 V.t + V2 / 254 f ………. V is in km/s

Ascending gradient of say +n%

Descending gradient of say -n%

Recommended longitudinal friction coefficient values for providing SSD:

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
EXERCISE: Calculate safe stopping sight distance on a level road stretch
for design speed of 50 kmph for (a) two-way traffic on a two-lane road (b)
two-way traffic on a single lane road. Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37
and reaction time of driver as 2.5 seconds.

SOLUTION:

Given: V = 50 kmph, v = 50/3.6 m/s = 13.9 m/s

f= 0.37 & t = 2.5 s

Stopping Sight Distance

𝑣2
SSD = 𝑣𝑡 + …………….v is in m/s
2𝑔𝑓
13.92
= 13.9 x 2.5 +
2 X 9.8 X 0.37
= 61.4 m
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
EXERCISE: Calculate safe stopping sight distance on a level road stretch
for design speed of 50 kmph for (a) two-way traffic on a two-lane road (b)
two-way traffic on a single lane road. Assume coefficient of friction as 0.37
and reaction time of driver as 2.5 seconds.

SOLUTION:

SOLUTION:

1) SSD for two-way traffic on a two lane road = 61.4 m

2) SSD for two-way traffic on a single lane road = 61.4 x 2 = 122.8 m

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
EXERCISE: Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a
head on collision of two cars approaching from the opposite directions at
90 and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 seconds, coefficient
of friction 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent in both cases.

SOLUTION:

Given: V1 = 90 kmph, v1 = 90/3.6 m/s = 25 m/s

V2 = 60 kmph, v2 = 60/3.6 m/s = 16.67 m/s
f= 0.7, braking efficiency = 50 % & t = 2.5 s

SSD of Car-1 SSD of Car-2

𝑣12
SSD = 𝑣1 𝑡 + …………….v1 is in m/s
2𝑔𝑓 𝑣2 2
252 SSD = 𝑣2 𝑡 + …………….v2 is in m/s
= 25 x 2.5 + 2𝑔𝑓
2 X 9.8 X 0.7 X 0.5
= 153.6 m 16.672
= 16.67 x 2.5 +
2 X 9.8 X 0.7 X 0.5

= 82.2 m
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
EXERCISE: Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a
head on collision of two cars approaching from the opposite directions at
90 and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 seconds, coefficient
of friction 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent in both cases.

SOLUTION:

Total sight distance required to avoid head on collision of the two

approaching cars = 153.6 + 82.2 = 235.8 m say 236 m
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
EXERCISE: Calculate the stopping sight distance on highway at a
descending gradient of 2% for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume
other data as per IRC recommendations.

SOLUTION:

Given:

V = 80 kmph, v = 80/3.6 m/s = 22.2 m/s, gradient n = - 2 % = - 0.02

Assume f= 0.35, g = 9.8 m/sec2 & t = 2.5 s

Stopping Sight Distance

𝑣2
SSD = 𝑣𝑡 + …………….v is in m/s
2𝑔(𝑓 −𝑛%)

22.22
= 22.2 x 2.5 + 2 X 9.8 X (0.35 −0.02)

= 131.7 m say 132 m

 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• If all the vehicles travel along a road at the design speed, then
theoretically there should be no need for any overtaking.

• In fact all the vehicles do not move at the design speed as each vehicle
driver is free to travel at lower speeds and this is particularly true
under ‘mixed traffic’ conditions.

• In such circumstances, it is necessary for fast moving vehicles to

overtake or pass the slow-moving vehicles.

• Therefore efforts should be made to provide adequate sight distance

along the road alignment to enable vehicles travelling at design speed
to safely overtake slow moving vehicles.
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety against the
traffic of opposite direction is known as the minimum overtaking
sight distance (OSD)

• OSD is the distance measured

along the centre of the road
which a driver with his eye level
at 1.2 m above the road surface
can see the top of an object 1.2
m above the road surface.
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

• Yellow car is travelling at speed of vb m/sec,

• Blue car and cream car are travelling at higher speed of v m/sec

• d1 (distance travelled by blue car) = vb t ……….. Assume t = Reaction Time

• Blue car must reduce its speed & travel behind yellow car at same speed as that of yellow car
waiting for an opportunity to overtake. The distance covered in reaction time of t seconds at a
speed of vb m/sec is d1
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

• d2 (distance travelled by blue car) = b + 2s = vbT + 2s

• b = vbT
• b is the distance travelled by yellow car.

• T is the overtaking time in seconds. Value of T depends on speed of

overtaken vehicle (yellow car) & average acceleration a m/sec2 of
overtaking vehicle (Blue car).
𝟒𝒔
• T= seconds & S = 0.7vb + 6
𝒂

• s is the minimum spacing between vehicles which depends on their speed.

 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)

• d3 (distance travelled by cream car) = vT

• d3 is the distance travelled by cream car moving at a design speed of v m/s
during the overtaking operation of blue car i.e., during overtaking time T
seconds

• Thus, OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 (For two-way traffic)

OSD = d1 + d2 (For one-way traffic)
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
Overtaking Zone

Minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 x OSD

Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5 x OSD
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
EXERCISE: The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and
40 kmph, respectively on a two-way traffic road. The average acceleration
during overtaking may be assumed as 0.99 m/sec2.
(a) Calculate safe overtaking sight distance
(b) What is the minimum and desirable length of overtaking zone?
(c) Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking zone and show the
positions of the signposts.

SOLUTION:
Given: V = 70 kmph, v = 70/3.6 m/s = 19.4 m/s
Vb = 40 kmph, vb = 40/3.6 m/s = 11.1 m/s
Average acceleration = 0.99 m/sec2
Assume reaction time = 2.0 seconds
 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
• SOLUTION:

(a) Overtaking sight distance for two-way traffic = d1 + d2 + d3

• d1 = vbt = 11.1 x 2 = 22.2 m

• s = 0.7 vb + 6 = 0.7 x 11.1 + 6 = 13.8 m

4𝑠 4 𝑋 13.8
• T= = = 7.47 seconds
𝑎 0.99

• d2 = b + 2s = vbT + 2s = (11.1 x 7.47) + (2 x 13.8) = 110.5 m

• d3 = vT = 19.4 x 7.47 = 144.9 m

• OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 = 22.2 + 110.5 + 144.9 = 277.6 m say 278 m

 Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
SOLUTION:

(b) Minimum length of overtaking zone = 3 (OSD) = 3 x 278 = 834 m

Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5 (OSD) = 5 x 278 = 1390 m

(c) Sketch of overtaking zone

 NOTE

Super elevation

• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the

tendency of the vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer edge of the
pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a
transverse slope throughout the length of horizontal curve.

• This transverse inclination is called superelevation or cant or banking.

 Super elevation NOTE

• The rate of superelevation, ‘e’ is expressed as the ratio of the height of

outer edge with respect to the horizontal width.
• It is shown in the figure that the outer edge of the pavement is raised by XZ
= E and the rate of superelevation, ‘e’ is given as:
𝐘𝐙
e= = tan Ɵ
𝐗𝐙
• In practice the inclination Ɵ with the horizontal is very small and the value
of tan Ɵ seldom exceeds 0.07.
𝐗𝐘 𝑬
∴ XZ = XY, ∴ e= = = tan Ɵ ≈ sin Ɵ
𝐗𝐙 𝑩
 Super elevation NOTE

∴ YZ = E = e B = Total rise of outer edge of pavement

 Super elevation NOTE

Equation for design of superelevation:

v2
e+f= …v is in m/sec
gR

V2
e+f= …V is in Km/hr
127R

e = rate of superelevation
f = design value of coefficient of lateral friction = 0.15
v = speed of vehicle in m/sec
R = Radius of the horizontal curve, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec2
Note:
• The maximum value of superelevation is
limited to 7% or 0.07 and the value of
coefficient of lateral friction is taken as
0.15 for design of superelevation.
 Super elevation NOTE

EXERCISE: The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100 m. The design speed is 50 kmph
and the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
(a) calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
(b) calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.

SOLUTION:
Given: V = 50 kmph, v = 50/3.6 m/s = 13.89 m/s
f = 0.15, R = 100 m
(a) Superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
v2
e+f=
gR
13.892
e + 0.15 =
9.8 x 100
e = 0.047 < 0.07 permitted
Thus superelevation rate when full lateral friction is developed is 0.047 or 1 in 21.2
 Super elevation NOTE

EXERCISE: The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100 m. The design speed is 50 kmph
and the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
(a) calculate the superelevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to develop.
(b) calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no superelevation is provided.

SOLUTION:
Given: V = 50 kmph, v = 50/3.6 m/s = 13.89 m/s
f = 0.15, R = 100 m
(b) Coefficient of friction needed when no superelevation is provided
v2
e+f=
gR
13.892
0+f=
9.8 x 100
f = 0.1968 > 0.15 not permitted.
 Super elevation NOTE

Minimum Superelevation:
• The IRC recommendation giving the radii of horizontal curves beyond which
normal cambered section may be maintained and no superelevation is
required at horizontal curves are presented in following table for different
design speeds .
 Super elevation NOTE

Steps for Design of Superelevation:

• Design of super elevation for mixed traffic conditions is complex problem, as
different vehicles ply on the road with a wide range of speeds.

• Providing a lower value of superelevation means relying more on lateral

friction would be unsafe for fast moving vehicles.

• On the contrary, providing superelevation of the pavement up to the

maximum neglecting lateral friction would be inconvenient for slow moving
vehicles.

• As a compromise and from practical considerations it is suggested that the

superelevation should be provided to fully counteract the centrifugal force
due to 75 % of design speed (by neglecting lateral friction developed)
 Super elevation NOTE

Steps for Design of Superelevation:

• The superelevation is calculated for 75 % of design speed, neglecting the

friction.
(0.75 x v)2 (0.75 x V)2
e= or e=
gR 127 R
V2
e= ……………V is in KmpH
225 R
• If the value of e is less than 7% or 0.07 the value so obtained is provided. If
the value of e exceeds 7% or 0.07 then provide maximum superelevation of
0.07 and proceed to further steps.

• Check the coefficient of friction developed for the maximum value of

superelevation e = 0.07 at the full value of design speed, v m/sec or V
KmpH.
 Super elevation NOTE

Steps for Design of Superelevation:

v2 V2
f= − 0.07 ……v is in m/s or f= − 0.07 ……V is in KmpH
gR 127R

• If the value of f is less than 0.15, the superelevation of 0.07 is safe for the
design speed and this is accepted as the design superelevation.

• If the value of f is more than 0.15, then either the radius of the horizontal
curve has to be increased or the speed has to be restricted to the safe value
which will be less than the design speed.
• The restricted speed is calculated by considering f & e.

v2 V2
e+f=
gR
…………v is in m/sec or e+f=
127R
…………V is in km/hr

v2 V2
0.07 + 0.15 = 0.07 + 0.15 =
gR 127R
 Super elevation NOTE

EXERCISE: A two-lane road with design speed 80 kmph has horizontal curve
of radius 480 m. Design the rate of superelevation for mixed traffic. By how
much should the outer edges of the pavement be raised with respect to the
inner edge, if the width of the pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5 m.
SOLUTION:
Given: V = 80 kmph, R = 480 m & pavement width = 7.5 m

V2 802
e= = = 0.059 or 5.9 %
225 R 225 x 480
The value of superelevation is less than 0.07 hence OK.
The total width of pavement, B = 7.5 m
Raising of outer edge with respect to the inner edge of the pavement,
E = B x e = 7.5 x 0.059 = 0.44 m
 Super elevation NOTE

EXERCISE: Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve of

radius 500 m and speed 100 kmph.
SOLUTION:
Given: V = 100 kmph, R = 500 m

V2 1002
e= = = 0.089 or 8.9 %
225 R 225 x 500
The value of superelevation is more than 0.07 hence it is not OK. So provide
superelevation of 0.07

So now check for coefficient of lateral friction f considering superelevation of 0.07.

V2 1002
f= − 0.07 = f = − 0.07 = 0.087
127R 127 x 500

The value of f is less than 0.15 hence it is OK to provide superelevation of 0.07

 Super elevation NOTE

EXERCISE: Design The design speed of a highway is 80 kmph. There is a horizontal curve
of radius 200 m on a certain locality. Safe limit of transverse coefficient of friction is 0.15.
(a) Calculate the superelevation required to maintain this speed.
(b) If the maximum superelevation of 0.07 is not be exceeded, calculate the
maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not possible to increase the
radius.
SOLUTION:
Given: V = 80 kmph, R = 200 m & safe limit of transverse coefficient of friction = 0.15
V2 802
e = 225 R = 225 x 200 = 0.142 or 14.2 %

The value of superelevation is more than 0.07 hence it is not OK. So provide superelevation of
0.07
So now check for coefficient of lateral friction f considering superelevation of 0.07.
V2 802
f = 127R − 0.07 = f = 127 x 200 − 0.07 = 0.18

The value of f is more than 0.15 hence it is not OK to provide superelevation of 0.07.
 Super elevation NOTE

EXERCISE: Design The design speed of a highway is 80 kmph. There is a horizontal curve
of radius 200 m on a certain locality. Safe limit of transverse coefficient of friction is 0.15.
(a) Calculate the superelevation required to maintain this speed.
(b) If the maximum superelevation of 0.07 is not be exceeded, calculate the
maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve as it is not possible to increase the
radius.
SOLUTION:
Given: V = 80 kmph, R = 200 m & safe limit of transverse coefficient of friction = 0.15
So to counteract centrifugal force radius of the curve must be increased but it is given in
the question that radius of curve cannot be increased due to unfavourable site
conditions. Thus, the only option left is to decrease the speed or restrict the speed to a
certain limit and sign post of restricted speed limit must be installed prior to the starting
of the curve.
Maximum allowable speed or restricted speed =
V = 0.22 x 127R = 27.94R = 27.94 x 200 = 74.75 kmpH
So, a sign post displaying 70 KmpH speed must be installed prior to curve
 W idening of Cur ves NOTE

Extra widening of pavements on horizontal curves is due to the following

reasons:

• Automobile has rigid wheel base & only the front wheels can be turned. When
the vehicle takes a turn the rear wheels do not follow the same path as that of
the front wheels. This phenomenon is called ‘off tracking’.

• This means that if inner front wheel takes path on the inner edge of a pavement
at a horizontal curve, inner rear wheel will be off the pavement on the inner
shoulder.
 W idening of Cur ves NOTE

Extra widening of pavements on horizontal curves is due to the following

reasons:

• At speeds higher than design speed, transverse skidding may occur & rear
wheels may take paths on the outside of those traced by the front wheels on
horizontal curve.

• In order to take curved path with larger radius & to have better visibility at curve,
the drivers have tendency to use the outer edge of pavement.

• While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is psychological

tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles than on straights
for increase safety.
W idening of Cur ves NOTE
 W idening of Cur ves NOTE

The widening required to account for the off-tracking due to rigidity of

wheel base is called mechanical widening (Wm)
𝒏l2
Wm = 2R

Wm = Mechanical Widening due to off tracking, m

l = Length of wheel base, m
N = Nos of lane
R = Mean radius of curve (m)

Psychological Widening is given by the equation:

V
Wpsy =
9.5 R
Thus Total Widening We required on a horizontal curve is given by:

V𝒏l2
We = Wm + Wpsy = 2R +
9.5 R
W idening of Cur ves NOTE
 W idening of Cur ves NOTE

EXERCISE: Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement

of width 7.0 m on a horizontal curve of radius 200 m if the longest
wheelbase of vehicle expected on the road is 6.5 m. Design speed
is 65 kmph.

SOLUTION:

Given: V = 65 kmph, R = 200 m & pavement width = 7.0 m thus

number of lanes, n = 2
Wheel base, l = 6.5 m
Extra Widening of Pavement,

𝒏l2 V
We = Wm + Wpsy = +
2R 9.5 R

2 x 6.52 65
=
2 x 200
+ = 0.21 + 0.48 = 0.69 m
9.5 200
 W idening of Cur ves NOTE

• EXERCISE: Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for a

new national highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain with a ruling
minimum radius. Assume necessary data.

• SOLUTION:
Consider:

Design Speed, V = 80kmph (NH on Rolling Terrain)

Normal Pavement Width, W = 7.0 m
Number of Lanes, n = 2 lanes
Wheel Base of the Truck, l = 6 m
Maximum Value of Superelevation, e = 0.07
Transverse Coefficient of Friction, f = 0.15
 W idening of Cur ves NOTE

Radius of Horizontal Curve

V2 802
R= = = 229 m say 230 m
127 (e + f) 127 (0.07 + 0.15)

Extra Widening of Pavement,

𝒏l2 V
We = Wm + Wpsy = +
2R 9.5 R

2 x 6.02 80
2 x 230 9.5 230 = 0.157 + 0.555 = 0.712 m
= +

Total Width of Pavement on Horizontal Curve

= Normal Width + Extra Widening = W + We = 7.0 + 0.712 = 7.712 m
 Transition Cur ve NOTE

• A Transition Curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the

tangent point to a designed radius of the circular curve.

• When a transition curve is introduced between a straight and circular

curve, the radius of the transition curve decreases and becomes
minimum at the beginning of the circular curve.
 Transition Cur ve NOTE

• The objectives of providing transition curve are:

• To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and
the beginning of the circular curve, avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle.

• To enable the driver to turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and
safety.

• To enable gradual introduction of the desired superelevation and extra

widening of the pavement at the start of the circular curve.

• To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road.

 Transition Cur ve NOTE

• The types of transition curves commonly adopted in horizontal alignment of

highways are:
• Spiral
• Lemniscate
• Cubic parabola

• The Indian Roads Congress recommends the use of the spiral as transition curve in the
horizontal alignment due to following reasons:
• The spiral curve satisfies the requirements of an ideal transition, as the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is uniform
throughout the length.

• The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculations and setting out the curve is the field is simple & easy.
 Transition Cur ve NOTE

Calculation of Length of Transition Curve:

• The length Transition Curve is designed to fulfil three conditions:

• Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually

• Rate of introduction of designed superelevation to be at a reasonable rate

• Minimum length by IRC empirical formula

• The length of transition curve fulfilling all three conditions (or the highest of the
three values) is generally accepted.
 Transition Cur ve NOTE

(I) Length of transition curve considering rate of change of

centrifugal acceleration

0.0215V3
Ls = CR
Where, Ls = Length of transition curve, m

V = Speed in Kmph

R = Radius of circular curve, m

• IRC has recommended formula for finding C:

80
C= ……………. m/sec3 (0.5 < C < 0.8)
75 + V
 Transition Cur ve NOTE

(II) Length of transition curve considering rate of introduction of

superelevation

‘e’ be the rate of designed superelevation

V2
e =
225 R
E=eB

Ls = EN/2

Where, E = rise of outer edge of road

B = width of road

N = rate of superelevation

If the road is rotated from the inner edge, Ls = E N

 Transition Cur ve NOTE

(III) Length of transition curve considering empirical formula given by IRC

• For plain & rolling terrains

2.7V2
Ls = R
• For mountainous & steep terrains

V2
Ls = R
 GRADIENT NOTE

• Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with
respect to horizontal. It is expressed as a ratio of 1 in n (1 vertical to n
horizontal).

• The gradient is also expressed as a percentage, such as n %.

• Gradients are divided into four categories:

• Ruling gradient

• Limiting gradient

• Exceptional gradient

• Minimum gradient
 GRADIENT NOTE

• Ruling gradient: It is the maximum gradient within which the designer

attempts to design the vertical profile of a road.
• Limiting gradient: Where topography of place compels adopting steeper
gradient than the ruling gradient, ‘limiting gradient’ is used in view of
enormous in cost in constructing road with gentler gradients.

• Exceptional gradient: In some extraordinary situations it may be

unavoidable to provide still steeper gradients than limiting gradient at
least for shorter stretches and in such cases steeper gradient up to
‘exceptional gradient’ may be provided.

• Minimum gradient: The road can be level with little or no gradient, but
from drainage point of view it is desirable to have a certain minimum
gradient which depends upon rainfall intensity, soil type, topography &
other site conditions.
GRADIENT NOTE
 VERTICAL CURVES NOTE

• Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is

necessary to introduce vertical curve at the intersections of different
grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and thus ease off the
changes in gradients for the fast moving vehicles.

• The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two

categories:
• Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards

• Valley curves or sag curves with concavity upwards

VERTICAL CURVES NOTE
 VERTICAL CURVES NOTE

LENGTH OF SUMMIT CURVES

• While designing the length of the summit curves, it is necessary to consider the SSD and
OSD separately.

Length of summit curve for SSD.

• Two cases are considered in deciding the length

1. When L > SSD

NS2 NS2
• L= 2 =
2H+ 2h 4.4

Where, L = length of summit curve, m

S = Stopping sight distance, m
N = deviation angle
H = height of eye level of driver above road surface, m = 1.2 m
h = height of subject above the pavement surface, m = 0.15 m
 VERTICAL CURVES NOTE

2. When L < SSD

2
2H+ 2h 4.4
L = 2S – = 2S –
N N
Length of summit curve for OSD or ISD.

• Two cases are considered in deciding the length

1. When L > OSD or ISD

NS2 NS2
L= =
8H 9.6
2. When L < OSD or ISD

8H 9.6
L = 2S – = 2S –
N N
 VERTICAL CURVES NOTE

VALLEY CURVES: While designing the length of the valley curves, it is necessary to consider the
allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration (comfort condition) & the required head
light sight distance for night driving.
ANY QUESTIONS??