Mark Van Selst

San Jose State University

COGNITION
Kellogg Chapter 3
ATTENTION
Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology
(Kellogg)

“Only in the last 100 years has it been realized that human cognition could be the subject of
scientific study rather than philosophical speculation" (Anderson, 1995).
Fall 2013
Cognition
• The collection of mental processes and activities
used in perceiving, learning, remembering,
thinking, understanding, and the act of using
those processes.

• The study of how people perceive, learn,

remember, and think about information.

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Attention
Assumptions & Foundations of
Cognitive Psychology
1. Mental Processes Exist
• Why say this? History of Behaviorism (struggle in
the mid-50s in proving that thought and mental
processes could be subject to scientific empirical
research)
2. Firm Commitment to Objective Observational Methods
• Why say this? History of Introspection
3. Information Processing Approach
• Why say this? This metatheory (overall approach)
captures the philosophy of Cognitive Psychology
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 Seven Themes of Cognition
• Attention
• TODAY
• Automatic vs. controlled processing
• the study of consciousness and control. (also TODAY)
• Data-Driven vs. Conceptually driven processing.
• processing driven by environment (data-driven) or existing
knowledge (conceptually-driven)
• Representation
• how is information represented? same memory codes or different?
• Implicit vs. Explicit Memory
• aware vs unaware; can information for which you have no
conscious awareness affect your behavior? (also TODAY)
• Metacognition
• our own perceived awareness of our own cognitive systems and
capabilities
• Brain
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 Cognition (History)
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is regarded as the founder of psychology as a formal academic
discipline. His method of inquiry was largely introspection
Hermann Helmholtz had a particular interest in the speed of neural impulses. His research was one
of the first to demonstrate that it is possible to experiment on and measure a psychophysiological
process. Helmholtz also developed the Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) was determined to study higher mental processes and examine
these processes neglected by Wundt. Ebbinghaus used the study of nonsense syllables to discover
the fundamental laws of learning and developed the forgetting curve based on his “method of
savings.”
Frances Galton (1822-1911) believed in innate social worth determined human character not the
environment (thus his advocacy for eugenics). He was interested in a small portion of the
population, the exceptional. Galton was the first to systematically apply statistical methods to
compare individuals. He invented the correlation coefficient, did substantial research about the
debate of Nature vs. Nurture, and invented the free-association technique.
Edward Titchener (1867-1927) was a follower of Wundt. Titchener's view was that all
consciousness was capable of being reduced to three states: sensations, which are the basic
elements of perception; images, which are the pictures formed in our minds to characterize what is
perceived; and affections, which are the constituents of emotions. According to his theory of
meaning, core referred to raw experiences such as sensations of light, sound, touch, and smell;
context consisted of associations brought on by raw experiences. Context is what gives meaning to
the core. Titchener also believed that emotions are intensified feelings arising from sensations
inside the body.
William James (1842-1910) wrote the first psychology textbook, Principles of Psychology. The
concept of functionalism, the adaption of living persons to their environment, is expressed in James'
psychology. James also contributed to the James-Lange theory (we feel an emotion because of the
action in which we choose to engage; e.g., we infer we are afraid because we run).

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 Cognition (History)
Edward Tolman was known for "his work that centered around demonstrating
that animals had both expectations and internal representations that guided
their behavior." (Galotti, 1994) He believed that rats used a cognitive map in
order to complete the maze instead of memorization.

Wolfgang Kohler looked at the sudden solution that followed the quiet time
"insight" and concluded that it was a typical property of problem solving.

Frederick Bartlett was known for his study of memory. He placed his emphasis
on studies under natural conditions. Therefore, he rejected laboratory
research. He felt that past experiences helped reconstruct the material able
to be retrieved. He focused on information that was remembered and "
misremembered". He saw memory as an active and often inaccurate
process.

Skinner, B. F. (1904-1995) is famous for his theory of operant conditioning. He

believed that behaviors and language were learned through reinforcement.
He believed that behavioral changes resulted from responses of the
individual to environmental stimuli. He believed that the cognitive revolution
was a backward, rather than a forward, step in the history of psychology.

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 Cognition (History)
Noam Chomsky’s review of Skinner's book on language (Verbal Behavior) is
considered the famous turning point for Cognitive psychology. Chomsky, a
linguist, argued that language cannot be explained through a stimulus response
process as Skinner claimed. Language is a way to express ideas, and the way
that these ideas are turned into language is a cognitive process. He showed
that language was much more complex than anyone previously believed and
that S-R accounts could not reasonably explain the complexities. Chomsky
posits two types of structures: surface and deep structures.

David Rumelhart & James McClelland argued that information processing happens
simultaneously (parallel) as opposed to serially (one at a time). Their Parallel
Distributed Processing (PDP) Models suggest that many simple processing
units are responsible for sending excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units.
By understanding these basic features, they believe that complex system can be
explained. The idea that processing involves interconnected elements and the
reference to neural models, makes up their Connectionist Theory. (also see
Newell).

George Miller is a professor at Princeton University. He studies information

processing and focuses his studies on the capacity of Short-term Memory
(STM). His name is associated with the "Magic Number 7." This theory suggests
that most people can remember 7 plus/minus 2 bits of information using their
STM. Miller also found that recall of information is better when it is chunked
together.
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 Attention
(History and Definition)

William James describes attention as “the taking

possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form,
of one out of what may seem several
simultaneous possible trains of thought…
Focalization [and] concentration of
consciousness are of its essence” (pp. 403-404)

This view largely describes what we refer to as

“SELECTIVE ATTENTION”

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Attention
 Attention
• Attention is the all important but poorly understood
process that can act to limit and affect our cognitive
processing.
• Attention refers to the concentration and focusing of
mental effort. It is:
• Selective
• Shiftable
• Divisable
• It is essential to most cognitive processing but only
partially under our control.
• Is it a mechanism?
• a pool of resources?
• an epiphenomenon?

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 Attention

Attention is the means by which we actively process a

limited amount of the enormous amount of information
available through our senses, our stored memories, or
other cognitive processes. It includes both Conscious
and Unconscious processes.

• Conscious/Unconscious
• Attended/Unattended (no longer direct linkage – some
active attentional processing occurs without conscious
awareness)
• Aware/Unaware
• Direct/Indirect Measures…

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 Functions of Attention
(What does attention do?)

Monitors our interaction with the environment

Assists linking past (memories) with present

(sensations) to give continuity to our experiences

Helps us to control and plan future actions

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 Functions of Attention
(What does attention do?)
1) Divided attention
2) Vigilance and signal detection
• Vigilance: fatigue decreases detection of low probability
events
• Signal detection theory (Hit vs miss / False alarm vs correct
rejection)
3) Search (e.g., Target vs. distractor)
• Feature Integration Theory (Triesman)
• Guided Search (Wolfe)
• parallel stage (preselection) followed by serial
4) Selective attention
• Filter Models
• ADHD illustrates failure to focus attention

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 Filter Models vs.
Capacity Models

• Filter models assume that attention operates as a

filter that blocks the processing of some stimuli
and allows processing of other stimuli

• Capacity models assume the agent selects

stimuli for additional processing

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 Filter Models
(Early Selection)
• Broadbent (1958) put forward the first well-defined model of attention
– a filter model with “early selection” – to account for results from
SHADOWING tasks and from DICHOTIC LISTENING tasks.

• Cherry (1953) used a shadowing task, in which one (auditory)

message was to be repeated back out aloud (i.e., “shadowed”) while
a second auditory message was presented to the other ear.
• Results suggest that very little semantic information from the second
(“non-attended”) message is absorbed.
• Physical changes to the to-be-unattended message were more likely to
be noticed (e.g., the insertion of a pure tone, changing the sex of the
speaker, changing the intensity of sound).

• Broadbent argues that the unattended auditory information receives

very little processing because the message is filtered out based on
perceptual characteristics.

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 Filter Models
(Early Selection)

• The Shadowing Task

• Listeners rarely noticed even when the

unattended message was spoken in a foreign
language, reversed speech, or words repeated
35 times.

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Attention
 Shadowing
Shadowing: Messages are presented to both ears but
subject is told to attend to only one of the messages and
repeat it out loud.

• By and large subjects find it easy to perform this task

• Subjects can remember what was said on the attended channel.

• Some things subjects DON'T know about the unattended

channel
• What words were spoken.
• The topic being discussed.
• The language of the voice.

• Some things subjects DO know about the unattended channel

• Whether it was a human voice or just noise
• Whether it was a male or female voice.
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 DICHOTIC LISTENING

• Subjects tended to report all the information

coming to one ear first then all the information
coming to the other ear.
• If subjects are required to report digits in the order
of arrival they did better the more time there is
between presentations.

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 Early Selection
(Broadbent)
The basic claims of the model
• Sensory channels have an unlimited capacity
• There is a bottleneck allowing only one piece of information into
working memory at a time.
• A selective filter allows in information from only one channel at a time.
• Information from unattended channel is completely blocked
• Time is required to switch from one channel to the next

Evidence for this “early selection” Bottleneck Model

• Explains the results of shadowing experiments.
• People can't repeat the message from the unattended ear (according to
Broadbent) because the message was completely blocked.
• Broadbent (1958): Subject in dichotic listening task are presented with
digits simultaneously to each ear. They are asked to report all of the
numbers.
• Subjects tended to report one channel, then the other.
• If subjects are required to report digits in the order of arrival they do better
when there is more time between presentations.

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 Evidence Against “Early
Selection” Bottleneck Models
The cocktail party effect (hearing your name)(Moray, 1959)
 INFORMATION MUST BE PROCESSED “LATE”
(at least to a semantic level)
Contextually generated semantic errors in shadowing
(Treisman, 1960)
 INFORMATION MUST BE PROCESSED “LATE”
(at least to a semantic level)
Priming without Awareness
 INFORMATION MUST BE PROCESSED “LATE”
(at least to a semantic level)
Galvanic Skin Response studies.
 INFORMATION MUST BE PROCESSED “LATE”
(at least to a semantic level)

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 Evidence Against
“EARLY” Models
Galvanic skin response (GSR) is a measure of the electrical
conductance of the skin and can be used to indicate
increased emotional arousal.
• During the training phase, subjects were given a mild
electric shock every time a certain word was presented.
• Dog, Hat, Beer, Couch ("Ow!"). Rabbit, Money, Cup, Couch
("Ow!"), Pine, .....

• After training, hearing the word "Couch", even without the

electric shock, produced a mild fear response (via Classical
Conditioning) which could be measured by GSR.
• Later on in a shadowing task the word "Couch" was
presented to the non-shadowed ear.
• Subjects showed an emotional response to the word even
though they were not consciously aware of hearing it.

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 Treisman's
Attenuation Model
The Basic Claims of the Attentional Attenuation Model

• Messages differ in terms of "subjective loudness". Paying

attention means increasing subjective loudness (turning up the
dial)

• When shadowing, messages from the shadowed ear have a

higher subjective loudness than messages from the non-
shadowed ear.

• Different concepts have different awareness thresholds – these

are the subjective loudness required for that concept to be
noticed.

• Some concepts are permanently set with a low threshold for

awareness (like one's name) and others depend on context.

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 Attentional Attenuation
Model (Triesman)
Evidence supporting the attenuation model
• Your name has a permanently low threshold for
activation – It will be recognized even if it is part of
the “non-attended” message (cocktail party effect).
• It explains contextual errors in shadowing.
Concepts related to the message in the shadowed
ear temporarily have their recognition threshold
lowered.
• It explains the GSR experiments because
unattended messages aren't completely blocked
they are just attenuated (such that the subject is
not conscious of them).

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 Deutsch & Deutsch’s “Late Selection”
model and Norman’s Pertinence Model

Deutsch and Deutsch suggested that both channels of information are

fully processed but are quickly forgotten (unless attended to – e.g., if
they hold personal pertinence to the individual).

In shadowing experiments, the participant is asked to repeat a certain

message, that would create the personal significance needed for
retention.

Norman elaborated on Deutsch and Deutsch's model by suggesting

that selection is determined not only by the pertinence of the sensory
input but also the strength of the input.

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 Early vs. Late Selection
Models
Triesman and Broadbent posit that attention serves to determine the
nature of the information that gets into Short Term Memory. They are
“Early Selection” Models because they assume that attentional
selection occurs early, before information enters Short Term Memory.

Late Selection Models (Norman, 1968) assume that all information gets
into Short Term Memory but that information which isn't attended to is
rapidly forgotten (within a fraction of a second). They are called Late
Selection Models because the selection doesn't occur until fairly late in
the process, when information is already in Short Term Memory.

Early Selection models treat Short Term Memory as a small box into
which only a few (7 +/- 2) items can fit. Attention picks items to go into
that small box.

Late selection models treat Short Term Memory as large box into which
many items can fit but in which items disappear quite rapidly unless
they are attended to.
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 Capacity Theories

• Kahneman (1973) introduced the notion of

“capacity” with “attention” as a mental resource
that could be shared or distributed across
multiple tasks.

• Johnston & Heinz (1978) developed the

“multimode model of attention” to reflect the
increasing mental costs for selection at various
stages of processing

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 Multi-Mode Model of Attention
(Johnston & Heinz, 1978)

Cost on Secondary Task during

Dichotic Listening (Selection)
200
Cost (RT2)

150
100
50
0
1 2 3
Number of Incoming Messages
d(meaning) d(physical) d(both)
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 Multiple Resources

• Johnston & Heinz (1978) “mulitmode model of

attention” says attention can operate at a
number of different stages
• Wickens (1980) proposes a multiple resource
model with perceptual, cognitive, and output-
related domains each separated across the task-
defined verbal and spatial coding required. He
treats each “bin” as a separate pool of resources
that a task might draw on (and/or be constrained
by limitations encountered).
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 Consciousness

Consciousness
one’s awareness of stimuli and events inside and
outside of one’s self;
An awareness of the sensations, thoughts, &
feelings that one is attending to at a given
moment;

Awareness of one’s surroundings and of what’s

on one’s mind at a given moment (per text)
Wakefulness (arousal) vs. Awareness
Lucid Dreaming

Minimally Conscious

Minimally
Conscious State Vegetative

Persistent Vegetative
Van Selst State
(Winter 2009)
 Wakefulness &
Awareness

Glasgow Coma Scale

Wakefulness: degree of alertness (awake
vs. asleep)
Awareness: monitoring of information from
environment and from one’s own
thoughts
Vegetative State: minimal consciousness;
eyes may be open but person is
otherwise non-responsive
Coma: eyes are closed and person is
unresponsive and unarousable
 Consciousness
Illustrations of “UNCONSCIOUS” Processing:

Subliminal Messages? – A stimulus that is presented below the threshold for

awareness
• Greenwald “unconscious self-help” tapes… perceived effectiveness.
• Greenwald/Merikle “perception without awareness”???
Mere Exposure – the more often you see a stimulus, the
• more you come to like it. Form of influence w/o awareness
Priming – Tendency for a recently presented word or concept to facilitate
responses in a subsequent situation. Quicker to read “doctor” after “nurse”
presented than after “apple”
Prosopagnosia – inability to recognize familiar faces, although brain activity
increases despite non-recognition
Blindsight – damage to visual cortex resulting in the encoding of visual info without
awareness
Tip-of-the-Toungue (ToT) Phenomena – some information is present but
unavailable
 Consciousness

What constitutes “Subliminal” (below

threshold) Perception?
• Limen: “limit” or threshold …
subliminal… below threshold.
• Which Threshold?
• Problem of declaring an absolute
absence of conscious awareness
 Consciousness

Subliminal?
Cards down the hall until “cannot identify it” subjectively; but is this truly
“unconscious” despite subjective reports that there is no “conscious” experience of
identification.

“nulling consciousness”: required if you are to claim that all information presented is
available ONLY to the unconscious (this is a MAJOR problem for “absolute
threshold” of consciousness type arguments (e.g., “subliminal perception” is
perception below the threshold of consciousness – and thus we should be unaware
of it at ANY conscious level).

Multiple-choice versus identification

Explicit vs. Implicit

Task focused versus “other questions” (e.g., which brighter?)

Processes in opposition:
place “conscious” knowledge such that it operates in the opposite direction as the
“unconscious” knowledge. For instance, when completing a STEM-COMPLETION
task (e.g., D _ _ K), the instruction to include items from the previous memory list
versus instructions to exclude the items from the previous memory lists.
 Unconscious Influence?

Despite not being

aware of the words
that they “saw”, those
exposed to positive
words were happier
and those exposed to
negative words
reported being
sadder. This indicates
that moods can be
influenced without
awareness
 Consciousness

Attention: a state of awareness consisting of the

sensations, thoughts, & feelings that one is
focused on in a given moment

AWARE UNAWARE
CONSCIOUS UNCONSCIOUS
EXPLICIT IMPLICIT
ATTENDED UNATTENDED
 Consciousness

Selective attention
• Ability to focus awareness on a single stimulus to the
exclusion of other stimuli.
• Ability to focus awareness on specific features in the
environment while ignoring others (text)
Dichotic listening task (analogy)
• Unable to follow/remember competing conversation.
Cocktail party effect
• Ability to attend selectively to one person’s speech among
competing conversations but highly relevant stimuli still detected

Failures of selective attention

Stroop Interference
 Selective Attention

Read the “black words” only

In performing an experiment like this one on man attention

car it house is boy critically hat important shoe that candy
the old material horse that tree is pen being phone read
cow by the hot subject tape for pin the stand relevant
view task sky be red cohesive man and car grammatically
house complete boy but hat without shoe either candy
being horse so tree easy that phone full cow attention is
hot not tape required pin in stand order view to sky read
red it nor too difficult

When people do this type of task they do not effectively

remember the red words
 Selective Attention

What happens to unattended information?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo
Failures of Selective Attention
Ironic Processes
The harder ones tries to control a thought or behavior, the
less likely one is to succeed, especially if distracted,
tired, or under stress.
Examples:
1) Do not think about a white bear
2) Subjects instructed to control a pendulum moved it
more than those not instructed.
3) Golfers were more likely to overshoot a putt when trying
not to do so.
Van Selst (Winter 2009)
 Automatic vs. Controlled Processing
(Posner & Snyder, 1975, 1975)

CONTROLLED AUTOMATIC
• With intent (only) • without intention
• Aware (Conscious) • Not open to awareness
• Attention demanding • Low attentional requirement
• Slow (1 second +) • Rapid
• Characteristic of novel or • Characteristic of familiar
unpracticed tasks with and highly practiced tasks
many variable features (automaticity develops with
• Requires analysis or practice – e.g., Bryan &
synthesis of information Harter, 1899 [telegraph
• Usually difficult tasks operators])
• Minimal analysis or
synthesis of information
• Typically fairly easy tasks

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 Automatic vs.
Controlled Processing
• Difference between automatic and controlled
processing can be illustrated by Priming (e.g.,
Neely)

• Automaticity can be bad

• Airplane (de-icer “off”.. yes [though should be “on”

for icy conditions])

• Errors….
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 Errors
Mistakes: errors in choosing an objective or specifying the means to
achieve the objective (intentional, controlled processes)
Slips: errors in carrying out intended actions (often involve automatic
processing)
Types of slips
Capture error: failure to depart from automatic routine
Omission: interruption in routine leads to skipping one or more steps on
resumption
Perseveration: repeating an already completed process
Description: correct action on the wrong object (due to internal
description of intended action)
Data-Driven error: incoming sensory input overrides intended action
(e.g., dialing numbers heard in the environment rather than intended
phone number)
Associative-Activation error: strong associations lead to wrong
automatic behavior (e.g., wrong name, “come in” to doorbell, etc.)
Loss-of-activation error: “what am I doing here after entering a room”…
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 Neurological Evidence
(visual attention)
• Demonstrable “fine-tuning” of visual receptive
fields (neural responses) occur via the thalamus
(specifically the Pulvinar Thalamic Nucleus)

• Pulvinar Thalamic Nucleus: reads out new

information – other areas control engage,
moving, and disengage functions – failure of this
system produces ‘spatial neglect’ (failure to move
attention)

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 Neurological Evidence
(Executive Attention)

Executive Attention refers to a supervisory attentional

system (based around the function of the anterior
cingulate gyrus [frontal lobe]) that inhibits inappropriate
mental representations or responses and serves to active
appropriate ones.

Executive Attention is needed for: (Norman & Shallice, 1986)

• planning and making decisions;
• correcting errors;
• the required response is novel or not well-learned;
• conditions are cognitively demanding or dangerous; or,
• an automatic response must be inhibited and overcome

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 Neurological Evidence
(the “binding problem”)

The Binding Problem is that features and stimuli

characteristics for a single object are represented
across distributed brain regions. These aspects
need to be integrated into a cohesive percept.
Binding requires attention. Failures of attention
around binding produce INATTENTIONAL
BLINDNESS (when covert attention elsewhere in
the display) and the ATTENTIONAL BLINK
(when attention is occupied with encoding a prior
stimulus).

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Kellogg Chapter 3 Van Selst / Cognition
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 Assignment 3
The Binding Problem
Define the binding problem, as it is described in the text.
Your assignment is to discuss the role of the binding problem as it relates to
inattentional blindness leading to the attentional blink as well as the larger
problem of producing coherent phenomenological percepts despite stimulus
characteristics being represented in widely disparate parts of the brain
(readings on consciousness and in particular the work of Baars may be
pursued by the advanced student).
You must include at least one definition of what the binding problem is, at least
one definition of the attentional blink, at least one definition of inattentional
blindness and, based on the technical readings, provide some insight into
how cognitive psychologists have endeavored to understand the binding
problem.
Note that I anticipate and understand that there will be parts of the additional
readings (those beyond the textbook that you will encounter in your research
to best answer this question) that you will not fully understand. Obviously, I
expect that you will check with a number of secondary sources (including the
textbook) to help clarify the concepts underlying the binding problem. You
should cite these sources (preferably in APA style) where appropriate.

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“Where” versus “What”
pathways

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 Attention

"Everyone knows what attention is. It is the taking

possession by the mind in clear and vivid form, of
one out of what seem several simultaneously
possible objects or trains of thought...It implies
withdrawal from some things in order to deal
effectively with others, and is a condition which
has a real opposite in the confused, dazed,
scatterbrained state." (p. 403)
- William James (1892)

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 Terminology

• Attention • Central Bottleneck

• Selective Attention • Orienting
• Divided Attention • Spatial Neglect
• Shadowing • Alerting
• Early Selection • Executive Action
• Attenuation • Anterior Cingulate Gyrus
• Priming • Feature Integration Theory
• Mental Effort • Binding Problem
• Stroop Effect • Inattentional Blindness
• Automatic Process • Attentional Blink
• Controlled Process • Subliminal Perception
Copyright 2013 / Van Selst

www.calstate.edu
www.sjsu.edu/psych