The Official

CompTIA
Linux+
Student Guide
(Exam XK0-005)

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 Course Edition: 1.0

Acknowledgments

Damon Garn, Author

Becky Mann, Director, Product Development
James Chesterfield, Senior Manager, User Experience and Design
Katherine Keyes, Senior Specialist, Product Development

Notices
Disclaimer
While CompTIA, Inc. takes care to ensure the accuracy and quality of these materials, we cannot guarantee their accuracy,
and all materials are provided without any warranty whatsoever, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of
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Trademark Notice
CompTIA®, Linux+®, and the CompTIA logo are registered trademarks of CompTIA, Inc., in the U.S. and other countries.
All other product and service names used may be common law or registered trademarks of their respective proprietors.

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 Table of Contents | iii

Table of Contents

Lesson 1: Introducing Linux............................................................................................. 1

Topic 1A: Identify Linux Characteristics.............................................................. 2

Topic 1B: Understand Bash Interaction with Linux............................................ 9

Topic 1C: Use Help in Linux.................................................................................. 20

Topic 1D: Identify the Linux Troubleshooting Methodology........................... 24

Lesson 2: Administering Users and Groups................................................................. 31

Topic 2A: Manage User Accounts........................................................................ 32

Topic 2B: Manage Group Accounts..................................................................... 43

Topic 2C: Configure Privilege Escalation............................................................ 47

Topic 2D: Troubleshoot User and Group Issues................................................. 54

Lesson 3: Configuring Permissions............................................................................... 61

Topic 3A: Configure Standard Linux Permissions............................................. 62

Topic 3B: Configure Special Linux Permissions................................................. 74

Topic 3C: Configure Access Control Lists............................................................ 77

Lesson 4: Implementing File Management.................................................................. 83

Topic 4A: Understand the Linux File System..................................................... 84

Topic 4B: Use File Management Commands...................................................... 92

Topic 4C: Find File Locations.............................................................................. 108

Lesson 5: Authoring Text Files..................................................................................... 119

Topic 5A: Edit Text Files...................................................................................... 120

Topic 5B: Manage Text Files............................................................................... 128

Lesson 6: Managing Software...................................................................................... 139

Topic 6A: Understand Software Management................................................ 140

Topic 6B: Manage RPM Software Packages and Repositories....................... 145

Topic 6C: Manage Debian-based Software Packages and Repositories....... 157

Table of Contents

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Topic 6D: Compile from Source Code................................................................ 162

Topic 6E: Acquire Software................................................................................ 165

Topic 6F: Run Software in a Sandbox................................................................ 168

Lesson 7: Administering Storage................................................................................. 173

Topic 7A: Understand Storage........................................................................... 174

Topic 7B: Deploy Storage.................................................................................... 179

Topic 7C: Manage Other Storage Options........................................................ 197

Topic 7D: Troubleshoot Storage........................................................................ 205

Lesson 8: Managing Devices, Processes, Memory, and the Kernel......................... 215

Topic 8A: Gather Hardware Information......................................................... 216

Topic 8B: Manage Processes.............................................................................. 223

Topic 8C: Manage Memory................................................................................. 234

Topic 8D: Manage the Linux Kernel.................................................................. 239

Lesson 9: Managing Services....................................................................................... 251

Topic 9A: Manage System Services................................................................... 252

Topic 9B: Configure Common System Services................................................ 263

Topic 9C: Configure Localization Settings........................................................ 277

Lesson 10: Configuring Network Settings.................................................................. 285

Topic 10A: Understand Network Fundamentals............................................. 286

Topic 10B: Manage Network Settings............................................................... 292

Topic 10C: Configure Remote Administrative Access..................................... 305

Topic 10D: Troubleshoot the Network............................................................. 313

Lesson 11: Configuring Network Security.................................................................. 327

Topic 11A: Configure the Firewall..................................................................... 328

Topic 11B: Monitor Network Traffic................................................................. 337

Table of Contents

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Lesson 12: Managing Linux Security........................................................................... 355

Topic 12A: Harden a Linux System.................................................................... 356

Topic 12B: Manage Certificates......................................................................... 363

Topic 12C: Understand Authentication............................................................ 369

Topic 12D: Configure SELinux or AppArmor..................................................... 375

Lesson 13: Implementing Simple Scripts................................................................... 385

Topic 13A: Understand Bash Scripting Basics.................................................. 386

Topic 13B: Use Shell Script Elements................................................................ 390

Topic 13C: Implement Scripts with Logical Controls...................................... 401

Lesson 14: Using Infrastructure as Code.................................................................... 419

Topic 14A: Understand Infrastructure as Code............................................... 420

Topic 14B: Implement Orchestration............................................................... 424

Topic 14C: Manage Version Control with Git................................................... 429

Lesson 15: Managing Containers in Linux.................................................................. 437

Topic 15A: Understand Containers................................................................... 438

Topic 15B: Deploy Containers............................................................................ 441

Topic 15C: Understand Virtualization Concepts.............................................. 448

Lesson 16: Installing Linux........................................................................................... 453

Topic 16A: The Linux Boot Process.................................................................... 454

Topic 16B: Modify Boot Settings........................................................................ 462

Topic 16C: Deploy Linux..................................................................................... 468

Appendix A: Mapping Course Content to CompTIA Linux+ (Exam XK0-005)...........A-1

Appendix B: Linux Command Reference Guide..........................................................B-1

Solutions......................................................................................................................... S-1

Glossary...........................................................................................................................G-1

Index................................................................................................................................. I-1

Table of Contents

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 1
About This Course
CompTIA is a not-for-profit trade association with the purpose of advancing the
interests of IT professionals and IT channel organizations; its industry-leading IT
certifications are an important part of that mission. CompTIA’s Linux+ certification
is an intermediate-level certification designed for professionals with at least 12
months of hands-on experience working with Linux servers in a junior Linux
support engineer or junior cloud/DevOps support engineer job role. In addition,
the knowledge gained in CompTIA’s A+, Network+, and Server+ courses, or the
equivalent, is strongly recommended.
The CompTIA Linux+ certification exam will verify the successful candidate
has the knowledge and skills required to configure, manage, operate, and
troubleshoot Linux in on-premises and cloud-based server environments while
using security best practices, scripting, containerization, and automation.

CompTIA Linux+ Exam Objectives

Course Description
Course Objectives
This course can benefit you in two ways. If you intend to pass the CompTIA Linux+
(Exam XK0-005) certification examination, this course can be a significant part of
your preparation. But certification is not the only key to professional success in
the field of systems administration. Today’s job market demands individuals with
demonstrable skills, and the information and activities in this course can help you
build your sysadmin skill set so that you can confidently perform your duties in any
intermediate-level Linux systems administration role.
On course completion, you will be able to:
• Configure, manage, and troubleshoot Linux systems.

• Operate Linux in both on-premises and cloud-based server environments.

• Implement security best practices.

• Use scripting, containerization, and automation to optimize a Linux system.

Target Student
The Official CompTIA Linux+ (Exam XK0-005) is the primary course you will need to
take if your job responsibilities include Linux system administration, installation,
and security within your organization. You can take this course to prepare for the
CompTIA Linux+ (Exam XK0-005) certification examination.

Prerequisites
To ensure your success in this course, you should have at least 12 months of
hands-on experience working with Linux servers. CompTIA A+, Network+, and
Server+ certifications, or the equivalent knowledge, are strongly recommended.

The prerequisites for this course might differ significantly from the prerequisites for
the CompTIA certification exams. For the most up-to-date information about the exam
prerequisites, complete the form on this page: www.comptia.org/training/resources/
exam-objectives.

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 viii | Preface

How to Use the Study Notes

The following notes will help you understand how the course structure and
components are designed to support mastery of the competencies and tasks
associated with the target job roles and will help you prepare to take the
certification exam.

As You Learn
At the top level, this course is divided into Lessons, with each representing an area
of competency within the target job roles. Each Lesson is composed of a number of
topics. A Topic contains subjects that are related to a discrete job task and mapped
to objectives and content examples in the CompTIA exam objectives document.
Rather than follow the exam domains and objectives sequence, lessons and topics
are arranged in order of increasing proficiency. Each topic is intended to be studied
within a short period (typically 30 minutes at most). Each topic is concluded by one
or more activities, designed to help you apply your understanding of the study
notes to practical scenarios and tasks.
In addition to the study content in the lessons, there is a glossary of the terms and
concepts used throughout the course. There is also an index to assist in locating
particular terminology, concepts, technologies, and tasks within the Lesson and
topic content.

In many electronic versions of the book, you can click links on key words in the topic
content to move to the associated glossary definition and on page references in the
index to move to that term in the content. To return to the previous location in the
document after clicking a link, use the appropriate functionality in your eBook viewing
software.

Watch throughout the material for the following visual cues.

Student Icon Student Icon Descriptive Text

A Note provides additional information, guidance, or hints about a
topic or task.

A Caution note makes you aware of places where you need to be

particularly careful with your actions, settings, or decisions so that
you can be sure to get the desired results of an activity or task.

As You Review
Any method of instruction is only as effective as the time and effort you, the
student, are willing to invest in it. In addition, some of the information that you
learn in class may not be important to you immediately, but it may become
important later. For this reason, we encourage you to spend some time reviewing
the content of the course after your time in the classroom.
Following the lesson content, you will find a table mapping the lessons and topics to
the exam domains, objectives, and content examples. You can use this as a checklist
as you prepare to take the exam and review any content that you are uncertain
about.

About This Course

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 Preface | ix

As a Reference
The organization and layout of this book make it an easy-to-use resource for future
reference. Guidelines can be used during class and as after-class references when
you’re back on the job and need to refresh your understanding. When taking
advantage of the glossary, index, and table of contents, you can use this book as a
first source of definitions, background information, and summaries.

How to Use the CompTIA Learning Center

The CompTIA Learning Center is an intuitive online platform that provides access
to the eBook and all accompanying resources to support The Official CompTIA
curriculum. The CompTIA Learning Center can be accessed at learn.comptia.org.
An access key to the CompTIA Learning Center is delivered upon purchase of the
eBook.
Use the CompTIA Learning Center to access the following resources:
• Online Reader: The interactive online reader provides the ability to search,
highlight, take notes, and bookmark passages in the eBook. You can also access
the eBook through the CompTIA Learning Center eReader mobile app.

• Videos: Videos complement the topic presentations in this study guide by

providing short, engaging discussions and demonstrations of key technologies
referenced in the course.

• Assessments: Practice questions help to verify your understanding of the

material for each lesson. Answers and feedback can be reviewed after each
question or at the end of the assessment. A timed Final Assessment provides
a practice-test-like experience to help you determine how prepared you feel to
attempt the CompTIA certification exam. You can review correct answers and full
feedback after attempting the Final Assessment.

• Strengths and Weaknesses Dashboard: The Strengths and Weaknesses

Dashboard provides you with a snapshot of your performance. Data flows into
the dashboard from your practice questions, final assessment scores, and your
indicated confidence levels throughout the course.

About This Course

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 Lesson 1
Introducing Linux
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Working with Linux begins with an understanding of licensing and the operating
system’s history. The open-source nature of Linux has resulted in many different
distributions, so it’s important to understand how distributions differ from each
other. Linux servers are primarily managed from the command line, using shells
such as Bash. Bash enforces a particular syntax, or way of structuring commands.
In addition, Linux holds its configurations in text files, so it’s critical that sysadmins
can edit these files to manage system settings. Man pages are available as
quick reference documents to help administrators recall the function of specific
commands and any available options.
Misconfigurations or physical failures may provide troubleshooting opportunities,
so sysadmins should follow a standard methodology to help narrow the scope of
problems, solve the root cause of the issue, and manage documentation related to
configuration issues.

Lesson Objectives
In this Lesson, you will:
• Identify Linux characteristics.

• Understand basic interaction with Linux.

• Use help documentation in Linux.

• Identify the troubleshooting methodology.

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Topic 1A
Identify Linux Characteristics
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

This topic provides background information about the history and features of Linux and
does not cover a specific exam objective.

Linux is characterized by a free and open-source software licensing approach,

which makes the operating system freely distributable and encourages the release
of modified versions. These versions are known as distros or distributions. Distros
are purpose-specific combinations of the Linux OS and particular applications
geared toward supporting defined goals, such as enterprise services, database
management, or virtualization hosting. Finally, Linux is distinctive for frequently
being managed from a command-line interface, which is often more efficient and
easier on resources, rather than a graphical interface.

Characteristics of Free and Open-Source Software

Much of today’s software is closed-source software, or proprietary software
that’s released under copyright law. These laws restrict intellectual property,
such as closed-source software, from duplication and re-release by competitors.
Open-source software takes a different approach.
In general, software licensed as open-source can be duplicated, shared, and
modified, and the modified versions can be released to consumers. Code licensed
as free and open-source software (FOSS) can be used and changed without cost.
In fact, changes are encouraged as a form of improvement, even by individuals who
do not work for the original developers. Any changes must also be made available
and released for free.

Some examples of open-source licenses include the Apache License 2.0, the GNU
General Public License, and Mozilla's Public License. While the exam does not focus on
the specifics of these licenses, they are a good sample of the open-source requirements
and permissions.

The History and Philosophy of Unix and Linux

Unix is one of the oldest operating systems still in use. It was created in 1969, and it
was not released as open-source software. Instead, Unix versions were associated
with many different tech organizations, including IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and AT&T.
These various Unix versions are referred to as Unix “flavors” and were proprietary
to each company.
In 1991, Linus Torvalds created a new Unix-like operating system kernel. He
released this kernel, which he called Linux, under the GPL license. The Linux
kernel, as well as much of the software released with it, is open-source; it can be
modified, shared freely, and re-released. This collaborative approach allows Linux
to grow and evolve rapidly. As a result of this approach, there are now more than
200 Linux versions, or distributions (abbreviated “distros”).

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Of the three primary operating systems in the marketplace today (Linux, macOS,
and Windows), two can trace their roots back to Unix. The macOS kernel evolved
from a Unix flavor named BSD and shares many of the same standards and some
software as Linux. However, Apple’s OS is not FOSS. Microsoft Windows also uses a
proprietary kernel with a more restrictive licensing method.

The timeline of early OS development. Unix, released in 1969, directly generated the Linux and the
macOS systems.

Traits of the Linux Operating System

Like any operating system, Linux has characteristics that may or may not fit the
needs of a given organization. Here are a few general considerations:
• Free: No licensing fees or tracking associated with most Linux distributions.

• Security: Because of the open-source nature of Linux and its associated

software, many developers can and do review code for vulnerabilities. Such
vulnerabilities tend to be addressed quickly.

• Support: Community-driven support may provide easy, efficient, and cost-

effective solutions. However, support may be limited to the community, without
a strong corporate support structure implemented by the distribution’s vendor.

• Performance: Linux often provides greater performance and stability compared

to other operating systems.

• Software availability: Fewer or less familiar software options may exist,

especially for nonbusiness applications, such as games.

• Hardware requirements: Linux may consume fewer hardware resources,

making it easier to retain older systems for longer.

• Hardware flexibility: Linux runs on a wide variety of hardware platforms,

adding to its flexibility in areas such as Internet of Things (IoT). Specialized
hardware may require specific drivers that may not exist for Linux.

• Learning curve: Some find that Linux has a steeper learning curve than
Windows or macOS does.

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• Distribution creation: If existing Linux distributions do not fit your needs,

you are welcome (and encouraged) to create your own. The sheer number and
purpose of Linux distributions can be confusing and overwhelming. There is
not a big name in the marketplace that represents Linux and lends it a sense of
stability.

Understand Linux Distributions

Because anyone can create and release their own version of Linux, there are
thousands of different options. These individual releases are called distributions
(or “distros” for short). Distributions are purpose-specific versions of Linux that
address a specific need, such as system security or application hosting.
Many distributions trace their history back to one of two specific Linux distributions:
Red Hat Linux or Debian Linux. One of the main differentiators between these two
distros is how they manage software. Those distros derived from Red Hat Linux use
different software managers than those derived from Debian Linux. The software is
also packaged differently.

Software management, including more differences between the Red Hat method and the
Debian method, are discussed in a later section.

Some of the most common distros include:

• Fedora Linux

• Ubuntu Desktop, Server, Core

• Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL)

• Linux Mint

• Debian

• openSUSE

After the release of Linux in 1991, the two major branches, Debian and Red Hat, followed quickly
and generated hundreds of distros.

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Many of these distributions fulfill specific roles in the marketplace, including

desktop or workstation computer, server, IoT device, mobile device, or other
functions. While mobile and IoT implementations are common, the focus of this
course is on server deployments. One of the most important characteristics of a
distribution is its included software.
Some distributions contain end-user applications, such as word processors or
presentation software. Others contain server services, such as web services or file
storage. Still other distributions include security software or creative applications,
such as music editing.
Linux server deployments are put to use in the following ways:
• Webserver: Hosts one or more websites.

• Name resolution: Hosts Domain Name System (DNS) name resolution services.

• File: Stores business data, usually in some form of text document.

• Print: Manages the print process and access to print services.

• Log: Centralizes and stores log files from other systems.

• Virtualization/container: Hosts virtual machine or container virtualization

software.

• Database: Hosts one or more databases.

• Cluster: Works with other cluster nodes to host high-performance, fault-tolerant

services.

Linux is heavily involved in newer forms of infrastructure management. A DevOps

approach to the management of such Linux servers and services works toward high
quality, iterative, and frequent updates and releases. Linux tends to include security
in design and implementation throughout the development lifecycle (this approach
is sometimes called DevSecOps).

Most commands are consistent across distributions. A few commands, such as those
for software management, may be specific to one group of distributions or another. For
example, Red Hat Linux uses the rpm command to manage software, while Debian
Linux uses apt.

The Command-Line Interface

One distinguishing characteristic of Linux compared to other operating systems is
its reliance on the command-line interface (CLI). Linux administrators frequently
use the CLI for everyday tasks, while administrators of other platforms often use
graphical user interface (GUI) utilities. In fact, the installation of a GUI is often
optional with Linux and may be frowned upon for performance and security
reasons.
A GUI consumes a great many hardware resources, specifically memory and
processor time. On a server, these resources should be dedicated to the service
provided, such as handling database queries or managing print jobs. Desktop
systems might need a user-friendly GUI but servers usually do not.
CLI advantages:
• Quicker: It’s usually quicker to execute a series of commands at the CLI
(assuming you know the commands).

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• Performance: CLI environments consume fewer hardware resources, leaving

those resources free to support the server’s purpose.

• Scriptable: CLI commands can be written into a text file, which the system then
reads and executes in a consistent, efficient, repeatable, and scheduled manner.

CLI disadvantages:
• Learning curve: Remembering many different commands and their related
options is difficult.

• Nonintuitive: Commands are often difficult to relate to or understand, with no

apparent logic.

• Inconsistent: Many commands differ from each other in small but distinctive
ways, making it difficult to recall exactly how to use them.

Common CLIs
Command-line interfaces are available in Linux, Windows, and macOS. Users type
commands using a specific syntax, and the system processes the commands. At
first, such input may seem intimidating or difficult, but CLI environments get easier
with use. These environments are usually faster and offer automation options that
are not available in GUIs.

Several sample commands and their output, including whoami, pwd, and date.

Shells provide the CLI. Each shell has its own syntax, or way of structuring
commands.
Common Linux shells:
• Bash: Default Linux shell

• ksh: Korn shell

• zsh: Z shell

These shells are differentiated by their syntax and user-friendly features.

The Bash shell is covered in more detail later in this Lesson. It is the only shell covered
by the CompTIA Linux+ exam objectives.

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Common GUIs
Just as there are many different Linux distributions, there are also many different
Linux graphical environments. Windows and macOS users have one GUI available
to them—whatever graphical environment Microsoft and Apple choose to provide.
Linux users have the freedom to install zero, one, or many GUI environments and
switch between them.
These GUIs are usually distinguished by two characteristics: user-friendly interface
and performance. Some users like the look and feel of a particular GUI over others.
In addition, some GUIs consume more processor time and memory than others do.
Luckily, many options are available in the Linux world.
Common GUI environments include GNOME, KDE Plasma, Cinnamon, and MATE.

Example of a GUI with running apps and menus.

Another important attribute of Linux GUIs is support for graphics-based

applications, such as web browsers, presentation software, and image-editing
programs. These types of software are critical to today’s business environments and
users.
Linux graphical interfaces provide many accessibility features that are worth
exploring. Some of these include high-contrast displays, screen readers, magnifiers,
visual alerts, and keyboard sticky keys.

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Review Activity:
3

Linux Characteristics
Answer the following questions:

1. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of GUI and CLI

environments.

2. Explain how distributions differ from each other.

3. Why do servers tend to rely on CLI administration and desktops rely on

GUI environments?

4. How might anyone contribute improvements to a piece of free and

open-source software?

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Topic 1B
Understand Bash Interaction
with Linux
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Given a scenario, manage files and directories.

Command-line administration relies on interfaces called shells. The default Linux

shell is Bash, which has a particular syntax, or way of structuring commands. The
syntax includes commands, command modifiers called options, and arguments.
Bash also includes features such as tab completion and a history file. There are
several common commands, directories, and applications available on most Linux
systems, including the Vim and Nano text editors. Bash also supports privilege
escalation. A solid understanding of Bash and its syntax makes Linux administration
much easier.

Command Shells
The CLI is provided by software called a shell. The shell accepts user input,
processes the input for syntax, and provides output back to the user. The default
shell for most Linux distributions is Bash, and this is the shell that sysadmins
should be prepared to work with.
Other common Linux shells include ksh, or KornShell, which is common among
Unix servers; Zsh, or Z Shell, with quite powerful scripting capabilities; and Fish, or
friendly interactive shell, an interface that provides a user-friendly experience and
web-based configurations.
By way of comparison, Windows Server also uses shells: the traditional, DOS-like
cmd.exe shell and Microsoft PowerShell. The current (at the time of this writing)
default shell for macOS is the Zsh.

Bash is the Linux default and the only shell to concern yourself with for CompTIA Linux+.

Bash Characteristics and Syntax

Commands must be entered into Bash using a specific structure, or syntax. Each
component of the syntax has a name to make it easier to understand.
The syntax components are:
• Command: The primary instruction given to the system.

• Subcommand: A secondary, more detailed instruction supporting the

primary command.

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• Option: A command modifier that slightly changes the way a command is processed.

• Argument: The object on which the command acts. For example, in a command
to delete a file, the argument is the name of the file to be deleted.

There are two basic forms, normal command and command-subcommand, to this
syntax.

Normal Command Syntax

The normal command syntax relies on the three primary components of the Bash
syntax: the command, options to modify the command, and an argument for the
command to act upon.

Observe that there is a space between each of the three components!

As an example, here are several ways to use the list (ls) command with options
and arguments.

Normal Command Syntax for

the ls Command Purpose
ls List directory contents.

ls -la List all (-a) directory contents in long format

(-l).
ls /var/log List the contents of the /var/log directory.
ls -la /var/log List all contents of the /var/log directory
in long format.

Most Bash error messages are descriptive, so be careful to read the error message to
understand what went wrong.

Command-Subcommand Syntax
Many Linux commands support subcommands to specify particular information
that the sysadmin needs. These commands rely on a different syntax from the basic
format in normal command syntax. The sysadmin enters the primary command,
then follows it with a space and a subcommand, and then a space and argument.
The ip command uses this format.

Command-Subcommand Syntax for

the ip Command Purpose
ip addr Display all IP addresses for all
interfaces.
ip addr show eth0 Display only IP address information for
the eth0 interface.
ip help Display basic help about the ip
command.
ip link help Display help about the ip link
subcommand.

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The ip command showing address information for the eth0 interface.

Use Basic Bash Commands

There are many Bash commands. Some of the most often-used commands deal
with file management functions, such as displaying files and file contents, moving
from one directory (or folder) to another, or editing files.

It is customary in Linux to refer to folders as "directories."

Use Common Commands

The following commands exemplify the Bash syntax and enable users to begin
working with the files and directories that make up Linux. These commands are
used throughout this course and will quickly become familiar.

Example with
Command Purpose Options Result
ls List the contents of the ls /tmp List the contents of
current directory the /tmp directory
touch Create a new empty file touch Create a new file
or update the timestamp newfile.txt named newfile.txt
on an existing file
cd Change from one cd /etc Changes the
directory to another current directory
to /etc
cat Display the contents of a cat data.txt Display the
text file on the screen contents of the
data.txt file
less Display the contents of a less Display the
file in windows that fit on data.txt contents of the
the screen data.txt file screen
at a time when
the file would not
normally fit on one
screen
tree Display the directory tree /etc Display the
structure in a tree subdirectories and
format files in the /etc
directory in a tree
structure
shutdown Shut down the system shutdown Restart the system
-r now immediately

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Two common commands do not use options to generate an output. Use whoami
to display the current user, and use pwd to display the present working directory.

Command line interface showing the output of ls, pwd, whoami, and touch.

The number of Bash commands can be overwhelming. Start by using a few commands
at a time, and make them a habit. The longer you work with Linux, the more
comfortable you’ll become with the commands.

Use Bash Tab Completion and History

Bash supports tab completion. Users can type in enough of a command to make
it unique from any other command. Select the Tab key, and Bash automatically
completes the command. This feature also works with file and directory names. Tab
completion reduces typographical errors and increases speed at the CLI.
Bash also keeps a record of previously entered commands in a history file. This file
can be referenced and used to repeat or edit commands.
The simplest way to work with history is by using the Up and Down Arrow keys.
Select the Up Arrow key one time to recall the most recently used command. You
can cycle through the command history by pressing Up Arrow or Down Arrow
multiple times. Select Enter once the appropriate command is displayed.

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Typing the history command displays the contents of the history file. Each entry in
the file is numbered. Type ! and the command number executes that command.

Retrieving a past command with the history command.

Some shells cache command history in memory. When the system is rebooted, the
commands are no longer available. Bash writes the command history to a file stored on
the hard disk. The commands are available even after multiple reboots.

Shell Tips and Tricks

Tab completion and history can make working in Bash far more efficient and less
frustrating. Try to get comfortable using both features as quickly as possible, along
with trying these other tips for easier use:
• Tab completion: Get in the habit of using tab completion for speed and to
minimize typographical errors.

• Use command history instead of rewriting long commands: When you make
a typographical error in a command or file name, do not manually retype the
entire line. Repeat the line with the mistake by hitting the Up Arrow key one
time, and then use the Left and Right Arrow keys to move to the mistake so that
you can correct it.

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• Read the command backward: When troubleshooting your commands, start

from the right and read to the left. This method makes it a great deal easier to
notice missing or duplicate characters.

• Clear the screen: Enter the clear command to clear the CLI of all text. This
is useful when you’re starting a new task and want to eliminate any distracting
information from past command entries.

Introducing Vim and Nano

Linux stores its configurations in text files. When a sysadmin needs to change
system settings, these text files must be edited. There are many familiar text
editors in GUIs, but what about Linux systems that do not have a graphical interface
available, such as Linux server installations?
Two standard text editors exist that are run from the CLI and do not need a mouse
or graphical interface: Vim and Nano. Here is a very brief overview of using these
two editors.

Vim
Vim is very powerful and complex. It uses three different modes, where each
mode maps keyboard keys to different functions. For example, in Insert mode
the keyboard acts as normal, inserting text into the file. If you’re in Insert mode
and type “abc,” those three characters appear in the file’s content. In Command
mode, pressing a key on the keyboard issues commands to Vim instead of entering
text in the file. Selecting the i key tells Vim to switch from Command mode to
Insert mode. The third mode is Execute. This mode is entered by selecting the
colon character, : , and it provides a command prompt to Vim where additional
commands can be issued. For example, :wq places Vim in Execute mode, writes
the files to the disk (save), and then quits Vim (q).
The many modes and commands can make Vim a little confusing. Strive to
understand four basic functions: create/open, edit, save, close.

Function Command Result

Create/Open vim filename Create a new empty file, or open an
existing file in Vim.
Edit i Enter Insert mode, and begin making
edits.
Save ESC and :w Move out of Insert mode and into
Command mode, and then save (write)
changes.
Close ESC and :q Move to Command mode, and then exit.

For efficiency, type :wq to combine the save and close options.

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The Vim editor. Note the INSERT flag in the lower left corner.

Vim is covered in more detail in Lesson 5. A summary is provided here to permit

immediate editing of text files if necessary.

Nano
Nano is a popular and common alternative to Vim. It’s simpler but less powerful.
However, in many cases sysadmins don't need the power offered by Vim, which
makes Nano a useful choice for basic editing functions.
Nano does not have modes. Pressing keys on the keyboard inserts text into the
file, just as expected with most editors. To save and close the file, use keyboard
shortcuts using the Ctrl meta key. For example, Ctrl+O saves the file, and
Ctrl+X exits the file. You may have used similar keyboard shortcuts in other
applications.
As with Vim, it’s critical that you are capable of using Nano to create or open, edit,
save, and close files.
• Type nano filename to create a new empty file or open an existing file with
Nano.

• To edit the file, simply begin typing. Use the arrow keys to move the cursor.

• Type Ctrl+O to save changes.

• Type Ctrl+X to exit Nano after saving changes.

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The Nano editor. Note the menu at bottom of the window.

Nano is covered in more detail in Lesson 5. A summary is provided here to permit

immediate editing of text files if necessary.

Some Linux distributions install both Vim and Nano by default, while others will
include only one or the other. It is essential for you to be able to use both editors at
a very basic level (open, edit, save, close) so that you are capable of editing files with
whichever tool is available.

Introducing su and sudo

There are three types of accounts on Linux systems: root, standard user, and
service.
The administrator account in Linux is called root. Logging in to the system with
administrator access is frowned upon. The security best practice is to log on with
a standard user account, and then, if necessary, switch your user account to root.
The command to accomplish this is su.
Type su root to switch from the standard user to root.
Type exit to leave the root user and return to the standard user.
Type su - root to switch from the standard user to root with the root profile.
Note that there is a space on each side of the dash character. Again, type exit to
close the root login and return to the standard user account login.

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Elevate privileges from standard user to root, and confirm the change with
the whoami command.

The problem with the su - root command is that it grants all administrative
privileges to the escalating user, assuming the user knows the root password.
In other words, the user is either a non-privileged account with almost no
administrative authority or the full root user account with all possible administrative
authoring—and nothing in between. Sometimes, administrators want to delegate
specific, defined activities that require root authority, but only those particular
activities.
Sysadmins can edit a file named /etc/sudoers to delegate specific tasks to
individual users and groups. The specified identity may exercise that task as if
they are root, but nothing else. This is a much safer alternative than giving full
root privileges to individuals who may not be fully qualified to run the system. This
delegation concept is critical to good security.
To accomplish a delegated task, simply precede the command with sudo. You will
usually be prompted for your password and given a warning to be careful on the
system. The command then executes.
As a security measure, some distributions disable the root user account and force
the use of sudo on specific user accounts.

Privilege escalation using su and sudo are covered in more detail in a later Lesson.
A summary is provided here in case it’s needed for hands-on activities.

Identify Common Directories

With so many Linux distributions available, administrators rely on the Filesystem
Hierarchy Standard to understand the default location of particular resources.
There are three common directories that administrators work with on a regular
basis.

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• /home/username: Each standard user has a specific and private directory used
to store personal files, profile settings, and other data. These user directories are
subdirectories of /home.

• /etc: Most system configuration files are stored in the /etc directory.

• /var/log: Log files for the system and applications are stored in the /var/log directory.

Use the command ls /home to display a few existing user directories.

There are many other standard directories, and they are covered in a later Lesson.

Log In Using the GUI and CLI

If the Linux system is configured to boot to the CLI (or doesn’t have a GUI at all),
users are prompted for a username and password. After entering these two values,
the system authenticates the account and loads profile settings from files stored in
the user’s home directory.

Logging in from the command line.

If the system boots to the GUI, a login prompt is displayed that may show available user
accounts. A password is entered, and then the user is authenticated. Profile settings
related to the GUI—such as desktop backgrounds and menu items—are then loaded.

Logging in from a GUI.

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Review Activity:
Interact with Linux
6

Answer the following questions:

1. An administrator asks you to make a change to the system’s

configuration. Why would you need to use Vim or Nano to accomplish
this task?

2. What types of files will be found in the /etc directory?

3. Explain the difference between the su and sudo commands.

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Topic 1C
Use Help in Linux
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

This topic covers the foundational concepts of documentation and does not address a
specific exam objective.

Linux includes strong built-in documentation in the form of manual pages,

which provide brief explanations of the command, available options, and a few
examples. They are short, concise references. It is essential that sysadmins become
comfortable accessing and using manual pages. More significant documentation
may be built into applications, stored on the system, or available online at vendor
websites.

Linux Documentation
There are several ways of getting help in Linux. The most common are the manual
pages, referred to as “man pages” for short. There is built-in documentation for the
system and some applications, too. Many online resources also exist, and they are
often the most up to date.
Because there are so many commands, and because each command has so many
options, it’s very common to use the man pages as a quick reference for displaying
the available options.

Manual Pages
It’s common for new Linux users to ask for help and then be asked, “Did you check
the man pages?” That’s because man pages are the primary reference for standard
Linux commands. The man pages provide syntax information and usage examples.
Perhaps most important, the available options are displayed. Because of the
number of options for each command, and the fact that many options differ from
command to command, the man pages provide an essential quick reference.
The syntax for using man pages is man {command}.
For example, to display help for the ls command, type man ls.

Obtaining help for the ls command, using the man pages.

Man Page Sections

Man pages are organized into eight sections. A section defines what category the
command belongs to. These sections are displayed by a number following the
command. For example, fsck (8) indicates that the fsck command is found in
section eight.

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The man page for fsck.

Note that the numbers in this list are man page section numbers, not merely
part of the list. In other words, “System calls” is in Section 2 of the man pages
documentation, not just the second item in this grouping.
Section eight is probably the most commonly used section for administrators.

It is not necessary to memorize the section numbers. Sometimes it can be useful to

recognize what section might contain the man page for a given command. If you're
interested in a deeper dive into the conventions and configurations of man pages, take
a look at the man-pages project website.

man Page Navigation

You can use several different keys to navigate through the man pages, all mapped
to specific actions.
Home -- Move to the beginning of the man page.
End -- Move to the end of the man page.
Page Up -- Scroll up one page.
Page Down -- Scroll down one page.
/ -- Begin a search for a term or text string.
n -- Move to the next occurrence of the search term.
p -- Move to the previous occurrence of the search term.
q -- Exit the man page, and return to the shell.
For example, to search for the string “directory” in the ls man page, open the man
page and then type a forward slash character and the word “directory.”
$ man ls
/directory
The first line opens the man page for ls, and the second line searches the keyword
directory.

Built-In Documentation
Most commands include help references. Add the -h option, or help after the
command to display this reference material.
The whatis command provides a brief description of the specified command.
The syntax for whatis is whatis {command}.

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Finally, built-in documentation can be found at /usr/share/doc. This

directory contains some Linux and application help files. Not all applications
store documentation at this location, but it’s worth checking.

Online Documentation
There is a great deal of information available online that covers Linux
administration, applications, security configurations, and network services. This
documentation may be provided by vendors, community groups, online forums,
article repositories, and other sites.
• Linux distribution vendors: Vendors such as Red Hat and Ubuntu have large
repositories of reference information.

• Linux application vendors: Vendors for products such as Apache web server,
Vim, and Firefox provide many references for their applications.

• Linux Documentation Project: This is a community project dedicated to

providing documentation for Linux, including how-to documents, man pages,
and guides. These references are found at https://tldp.org/.

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Review Activity:
Help in Linux
5

Answer the following questions:

1. Name three things a man page might provide a user.

2. Why might vendor websites be the best source of information about an

application or service?

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Topic 1D
Identify the Linux Troubleshooting
Methodology
3

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

This topic covers the foundational concepts of troubleshooting and does not address a
specific exam objective.

One of the primary skills and duties of a systems administrator is to troubleshoot

problems with servers, the network, and data access. It is important to have a
methodology for troubleshooting. You should also recognize that troubleshooting
methods may change by situation, skill level, and experience with the network
environment.

Troubleshooting Methodology
A formalized and consistent troubleshooting methodology can make identifying
issues and discovering fixes more efficient. While the steps can vary depending
on the actual issue and components involved, there are several universal
troubleshooting steps.
The following list represents the basic steps in a troubleshooting methodology:
• Identify the problem.

• Determine the scope of the problem.

• Establish a theory of probable cause/question the obvious.

• Test the theory to determine the cause.

• Establish a plan of action.

• Implement the solution or escalate the issue.

• Verify full system functionality.

• Implement preventive measures.

• Perform a root cause analysis.

Throughout the process you will find it helpful to document findings, actions, and
outcomes of the various steps.

Identify the Problem and Determine the Scope

Identify the Problem
The first troubleshooting phase is to identify the problem. The problem may be
discovered for you by the end users you support, exposed by log files, identified
by monitoring software, or indicated by lights on the server. There are many ways
through which the problem may be detected. Once a problem is identified, a service
desk ticket is used to track it.
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Determine the Scope of the Problem

Once a problem is identified, gather additional information to determine the
scope of the problem. Start this process by asking users for additional details or
examining log files. Attempt to replicate the problem by asking users to show you
what they were doing when the problem was encountered or to try to recreate
the situation where the problem first arose. It is a good practice to back up data
if there is any risk to the data during the troubleshooting phase. You must use
your own judgment as to whether a data backup is necessary before you begin
troubleshooting. Finally, consider whether you have the skills to address the
problem or if you need to escalate the service desk ticket to another administrator.
One of the most important steps is to determine whether the problem exists
on only one server or on multiple servers. The scope of the problem could be
hardware based and, if so, may be isolated to that device. It could be network
based, in which case, multiple devices may be affected. It could be software based,
such as a misconfiguration or a bug. This also may impact multiple servers.
For example, if one workstation cannot access a file server, but all other
workstations can, the problem likely lies with that workstation. If many workstations
cannot access the file server, the problem likely lies with that server or with the
network between the workstations and the server.

In Linux, the log file service is named "rsyslog." Services are covered in Lesson 9.

Establish and Test a Theory of Probable Cause

Establish a Theory of Probable Cause: Question the Obvious
The next troubleshooting phase is to establish a probable cause for the problem.
It is essential to keep this step as simple as possible. Troubleshooting often begins
with very basic steps, such as confirming that the system is plugged in and powered
on. More complex problems may require you to examine log files, talk to users or
other administrators, or check the hardware.
When troubleshooting, identify any common elements or similar problems that might
span multiple servers or network devices. Such common elements might include a
new or updated piece of software, a new device driver, or a new configuration.
Check for any recent changes to the environment. These changes may have been
implemented by another IT staff member or a stakeholder, such as a manager or
other user. Recent changes are common culprits for issues.

Test the Theory to Determine the Cause

Next, test the theory by verifying that the likely cause is indeed the culprit. This
phase involves research or other testing. Very simple problems may actually be
solved during this step. If your theory is confirmed, then move on to the next phase,
which is to establish a plan of action. If your theory is not confirmed, then you must
establish and test a new theory.

Establish and Implement a Plan of Action

Establish a Plan of Action
The plan of action for addressing the problem must recognize that service
interruptions and data loss should be avoided. If a server needs to be brought
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down to replace hardware, or if data has been lost due to a HDD failure, the end
users must be notified. The plan of action defines the steps to be taken. These steps
should be defined ahead of time rather than created during the implementation of
the solution. It is useful to provide the impacted users with an expected duration of
the outage.

Implement the Solution or Escalate

In this phase, follow the plan of action established earlier. It is important not to
deviate from the plan. You may not have the knowledge to implement the plan and
need to escalate the problem to the vendor’s support team or other members of
your own team.
When following a plan of action, be sure to only make one change at a time, and
then test the result. If you make multiple changes simultaneously, it is difficult to
identify exactly which change corrected the problem. If a given change does not
solve the problem, reverse that change, and then try another option.

Verify, Prevent, Analyze, and Document

Verify Full System Functionality
Once the potential solution has been implemented, the next phase is to test for
functionality. Your goal is to ensure that the server has returned to the service
levels that are defined by the system parameters. The server performance baseline
that you performed during the deployment portion of the server lifecycle will be
very useful as a comparison.

Implement Preventive Measures

It may be possible to preemptively reconfigure other servers to avoid a repeat of
the same problem. It may also be possible to implement additional technologies
(such as a redundant array of independent/inexpensive disks [RAID]) or additional
practices (such as backups) to prevent future instances of failure. In some cases,
additional training or documentation may also be necessary.

Perform a Root Cause Analysis

Once service is restored to your users, it is time to evaluate why the problem
occurred. Identifying the root cause permits you to change processes or implement
different technologies to avoid the problem in the future.

Document Findings, Actions, and Outcomes Throughout

the Process
Documenting the symptoms of the problem, the results of research into potential
solutions, and the results of each step of the plan of action (whether the step
was successful or not) permits you to understand your environment better and
therefore helps to prevent possible future problems. Note that documentation
is not a separate step but rather a good practice used during each phase of the
troubleshooting process.

Some service desk management software requires the use of tickets. Such software may
require that troubleshooting documentation be entered before the ticket can be closed.

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Review Activity:
Troubleshoot in Linux
4

Answer the following questions:

1. A user contacts you to find out why they cannot access a directory. Using
the troubleshooting methodology, how would you narrow the scope of
the problem?

2. When should you escalate a problem?

3. True or False? Documentation should be created only at the end of the

troubleshooting process.

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Lesson 1
Summary
4

By understanding how open-source licensing allows many Linux distributions to

exist, it is easier to differentiate between Linux and other operating systems. Linux
is widely used with various hardware, but one of its most common roles is as a
server OS. Servers need to maximize the use of available hardware resources, so
Linux is often managed via the Bash shell rather than a graphical interface. Bash is
more hardware-efficient and allows tasks to be scripted and scheduled.
Command-line administration has its challenges, however, especially when
managing system configurations through text files. Applications such as the
Vim text editor are used to edit these files, resulting in updated settings. Text
editors and Bash commands may be difficult to remember and often rely on
one or more options to modify their behavior. Administrators use built-in man
pages to reference command functions and options. Often, such references are
made as part of a larger troubleshooting methodology that attempts to provide
comprehensive and effective problem-solving.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• FOSS: Recognize and describe free and open-source software, including
advantages and disadvantages.

• GPL: Understand how the GPL influences the development and availability of the
Linux OS.

• Distributions: Understand what a distribution is and how distributions differ

from each other.

• GUI vs CLI: Understand the advantages and disadvantages of each environment.

• Use Vim and Nano to open, edit, save, and close files.

• Recognize both command syntax structures:

• command -option argument

• command subcommand argument

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Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

ls ls [option] List the contents of the Lesson 1, Topic B
current directory.
cat cat Display the contents of Lesson 1, Topic B
[file-name] a text file on the screen.

cd cd /etc Change from one Lesson 1, Topic B

directory to another.
pwd pwd Displays the present Lesson 1, Topic B
working directory.
whoami whoami Displays the username Lesson 1, Topic B
of the current user.
touch touch Create a new empty file Lesson 1, Topic B
[file-name] or update the times-
tamp on an existing file.
man man Display manual, or help, Lesson 1, Topic C
[command] pages for a specific
command.
whatis whatis Provides a brief Lesson 1, Topic C
[command] description of the
specified command.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

Lesson 1: Introducing Linux

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 Lesson 2
Administering Users and Groups
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Modern operating systems require users to prove their identity. This identification
process, referred to as authentication, provides access to major functions. First, the
user’s identity can be used to control access to resources via permissions and other
rules. Second, the user’s environment can be customized to fit that individual’s work
style and habits.
The first task is to understand user account management, including its related
configuration files and commands. However, managing individual users can be
inefficient, so users are often placed into groups for simplicity. Group management
involves a different set of configuration files and commands. Next, administrators
should log on to the server with non-privileged accounts and then elevate privileges
only when necessary. The administration of privilege elevation and its related
commands is covered in the third Topic. Finally, this lesson will cover applying
configuration files and commands in troubleshooting and security auditing.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Manage user accounts.

• Manage group accounts.

• Configure privilege escalation.

• Troubleshoot user and group issues.

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Topic 2A
Manage User Accounts
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.2 Given a scenario, implement identity management.

Sysadmins are responsible for, among other things, managing user accounts. These
accounts customize the user environment and provide access to resources. It’s
difficult to administer user accounts effectively without a solid understanding of the
files and tools used to manage accounts. This Topic covers user configuration files
and management commands.

User Configuration Files

Like most Linux settings, user accounts are stored in text files. However,
administrators do not simply edit these text files directly to manage user accounts.
Instead, specific applications are used to create, modify, and remove user accounts
on the Linux system. It’s still important to know what files maintain user account
information.

User Account Storage

Two files store user account data: /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow. Note
that both of them are stored in the /etc directory, where most Linux configuration
files reside. The /etc/passwd file stores the actual user account and maintains
various settings related to accounts. The /etc/shadow file stores password
information for the accounts.

Field Content
User Name The name the user logs into the system with
Password User password represented as an x; the actual password is
stored elsewhere
User ID Unique number representing the user to the system
Group ID Unique number representing the user’s primary group
Comment Typically displays the user’s full name
Home directory Absolute path to the user’s home directory
Login shell Absolute path to the user’s default shell (usually /bin/bash)

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The /etc/shadow file. Note the long string representing the hashed password.

Field Content
User name The name the user logs into the system
with
Password Hash value of the user’s password
Days since last password change Number of days since the last password
change; counted from January 1, 1970
Days before password may be Minimum changeable period, typically
changed set at 1 day
Days before password must be Maximum number of days since the last
changed password change before the password
must be changed again; a value of
99999 means the password never
needs to be changed, but often set at
90 days
Days until the user is warned to Days before the date the password
change password must be changed that the warning is
issued, often set to 7 days
Days after password expires that Number of days after the password
the account is disabled expires until the account is disabled;
should be immediate
Days until account expires Number of days until the account
expires and cannot be used
Unused field Reserved for potential future use

It may seem odd that account information is distributed across two files and that
specifically password information is stored in a different file than user accounts.
Passwords were originally stored in the second field of the /etc/passwd file.
This file, however, is “world-readable,” meaning that all users have read permissions
to the file. The password itself, or the encrypted version of it, could be viewed by all
users. To increase security, the password was moved to the /etc/shadow file,
which only the root user (administrator) can access.
The default shell setting, defined in the last field of the /etc/passwd file,
specifies which shell will launch when the user logs in. There are many different
shells, and some users may prefer one over another. Bash is the default shell and
therefore the most common.
For example, User1 has experience with several Unix flavors and is already familiar
with the Korn shell (ksh). The sysadmin may install ksh and set it as the default shell
for this user. The last field of the User1 line in /etc/passwd will read /bin/
ksh. User2, however, might be more comfortable with the Bash shell. In that case,
the sysadmin leaves the default shell value as /bin/bash.

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System and User Profiles

Users are allowed to define preferred settings within a CLI environment. Each
user may have a custom profile tailored to their unique preferences. System
administrators may also define profiles to provide required settings to all users on
the system. Additionally, shell features such as command history are unique to each
user and stored in the individual user’s home directories.
As a sysadmin, you can use a few different files to set the system up the way your
institution prefers. Use /etc/profile to set system-wide environment variables
and startup programs for new user shells. Use /etc/bashrc to establish
system-wide functions and aliases for new user shells.
Users can customize their preferred settings as well. The ~/.bash_profile sets
user-specific environment variables for new Bash shells, and ~/.bashrc runs
when noninteractive shells are launched.

The tilde character (~) represents the current user's home directory. For example, the
~ character means the same as /home/user1 (assuming user1 is the currently
logged-in user).

The system-wide files process first, and then the user-specific files are executed.
The user-specific configuration files take precedence over system files, allowing
users to customize their environments to suit their needs.
Finally, a sysadmin can store files in the /etc/skel directory and have those files
copy automatically to the home directory of any new user. This feature is useful for
pre-populating configuration files such as .bashrc with suggested settings for users
or for distributing policy documents all users should have access to.

Account Management Commands

There are three primary commands for managing user accounts in Red Hat–based
distributions. The useradd command creates users, while usermod modifies
existing users and userdel removes existing users. Many Debian-based
distributions also recognize these commands, but they support the adduser
command as well.

The user management lifecycle, including adding, modifying, and deleting a user.

Options for useradd

By default, the user management commands rely on the /etc/login.defs
file to define default account settings, including home directory location, preferred
shell, and account expiration values.
The /etc/login.defs file contains the user mailbox location, password aging
values, the UID and GID ranges, home directory creation, the default umask, and
the password encryption hash.

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The default values found in the /etc/login.defs file can be overridden with
various options, providing administrators with flexibility. Common options include
the comment field or default shell settings.
Some common options for the useradd command include:

Option for the useradd Command Purpose

-c Set the comment value, usually the user’s
full name.
-e Set an expiration date for the user
account, format YYYY-MM-DD.
-m Create a user home directory in /home.

-s Set a default shell for the user.

-u Set a specific user ID value.

-D Display the default settings.

The syntax for using useradd is useradd -options argument

For example, if you are asked to create a new user account; define its full user
name; set it to expire on December 31, 2025; and configure the Korn shell as the
default, the command would look like this:
useradd -c "Kai Garcia" -e 2025-12-31 -s /bin/ksh
kgarcia
Confirm that the new user has been created by displaying the last line in the
/etc/passwd file.

Observe that the comment value is enclosed in double quotes. The quotes cause Bash to
recognize the enclosed information as a single object. If the quotes did not exist, the first
name would be seen as a separate item from the last name, resulting in an error.

Set a Password
The useradd command creates the user but does not set a password. Most
Linux systems will not allow a user to log in with a blank password, so while the
account exists, it is not yet usable. The passwd command sets passwords for user
accounts.
The syntax for using passwd is passwd [username]
Helpdesk Ticket #01982
Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-03-08

Subject Forgot Password

Ticket Detail Hi, can you please reset my password?
Thank you,
KG
Date last updated 2023-03-08

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For example, to reset Kai Garcia’s password, type passwd kgarcia

Resetting the password for the kgarcia account.

You are prompted to enter a new password twice. Use the passwd command to
configure a password for a new account as well as to reset a forgotten password for
an existing user.

The adduser Command

Some Linux distributions use the adduser command instead of useradd.
Some systems recognize both. The adduser command prompts administrators
for details, including home directory locations and full names. Perhaps most
importantly, adduser prompts sysadmins to set a user password. The adduser
command can be added to a Linux system.

The adduser command walks the admin through each field of the user account information.

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Modify and Delete User Accounts

Of course, the sysadmin doesn’t only make new accounts. A new policy might
require sysadmins to update some users’ accounts from time to time, or a user’s
preference might change. Just as you add new users when they onboard, you must
remove user accounts during the offboarding process to ensure the integrity of the
system.

The usermod Command

Helpdesk Ticket #01983

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Anna Tanaka HR you 2024-03-29

Subject Account changes

Ticket Detail A recent security audit shows that the account for temporary
employee Alex Lee should expire on December 31, 2025.
Another finding is that the comment field for Joseph Deng’s
account is blank but should be populated in the usual
manner, “firstname lastname.” Please update.
Date last updated 2024-03-30

Modify these existing user accounts by using the usermod command. In these
two cases, the commands will look like this:
# usermod -e 2025-12-31 alee
# usermod -c "Joseph Deng" jdeng
Helpdesk Ticket #01984
Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-04-01

Subject Change default shell

Ticket Detail Can you change my default shell to Ksh? I’m much more
comfortable with Unix and Ksh over Bash.
Thank you,
KG
Date last updated 2024-04-01

You’ll update Kai Garcia’s default shell like this:

# usermod -s /bin/ksh kgarcia

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The userdel Command

Helpdesk Ticket #01985

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Anna Tanaka HR you 2024-11-25

Subject Personnel update

Ticket Detail Effective today, Alex Lee is no longer with the company. Please
disable Alex’s account, but hold on to the data until we can
reassign it to other team members.
Date last updated 2024-11-25

The userdel command removes existing users from the system. By default, the
command does not remove the user’s home directory. This is important, as the user
data may need to be assigned to other users. However, the -r option can be added
to the command to remove the account and its associated home directory.
The syntax for using userdel is userdel {user-name}
For example, to delete the Alex Lee account, type userdel alee
Neither the usermod nor userdel commands will modify users if the accounts
have running processes.
The deluser command removes user accounts from the system on some
distributions.

Deleted user accounts cannot be recovered. They can be recreated, but they will be a
different identity (unless created with the same UID value). It is often better to disable a
user account rather than delete it.

Verification
When you use the useradd, usermod, or userdel commands to manage
users, the result of the command is recorded, even if nothing is displayed on
the screen. For example, when you create a user, there is no message displayed.
When something goes wrong, an error is displayed explaining the issue. While the
messages are self-explanatory, such as “Username already in use” informing you
that the username you tried to set exists already, the results are actually labeled
using an exit code number. Display the results of the most recent command by
typing the following:
# echo $?
0
A zero indicates success; any other value indicates an error of some sort.
Some examples of those exit codes are provided here.

Exit Code for the useradd Command Result

0 Success
1 Couldn’t update the passwd file
9 Username is already in use
12 Couldn’t create the home directory

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The error values differ slightly for the usermod and userdel commands.

Exit Code for the usermod and

Result
userdel Commands
0 Success
1 Couldn’t update the passwd file
2 Invalid command syntax
6 Specified user doesn’t exist
8 Cannot delete user because the
specified user is currently logged in
There are many other exit codes, with some shared among the three user
management commands and some unique. View the man page for the command to
see its specific exit values.

All Executables have exit codes. Use the echo $? command to display the exit status
of the most recent command.

Account Configuration Commands

Linux includes many additional account management and configuration commands.
Several commands display account information, while others configure password
settings and other default values. Finally, configuration files set default values for
new user accounts.

Display Account Information

The Bash command prompt can be configured to display the current user, but that
setting is optional. Typing the whoami command displays the current username
and is useful when the prompt does not display this information.
The w and who commands display all current logins on the system, including those
that might have remote terminal connections. Suppose you’ve decided to restart a
Linux server, but you wish to know whether any users are currently on the system.
Type the w command to display the users so you can warn them of the impending
restart.
You can also display account information with the id command. Typing id with no
argument displays information for the current user. An existing username is added
to id to display information about that account, including user ID, group ID, and
group memberships.
The syntax for using the id command is id {user-name}
For example, to gather account information for the Kai Garcia account, type id
kgarcia
General password settings are pulled from /etc/login.defs, and specific
passwords are managed with the passwd command. Password requirements are
also configured by using the chage command.

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Option for the passwd Command Purpose

-d Delete a password and disable the account.

-e Immediately expire a password, forcing a

password change by the user.
-l Lock the account (for example, during a
leave of absence).
-u Unlock a locked account.

To set a password for your own account, type:

$ passwd
As the root user, you can change a password for any account. The syntax is
passwd username
You will be prompted to type the password twice. Note that no characters will show
in the Terminal while entering the new password.
Values displayed by the chage -l command:
• Last password change date

• Password expiration date

• Account inactive date

• Account expiration date

• Minimum days between password changes

• Maximum days between password changes

• Number of days before password expiration a warning is displayed

The chage command options:

Option for the chage Command Purpose

-l Display the current values.
-M Specify the maximum number of days
between password changes.
-m Specify the minimum number of days
between password changes.
-W Specify the number of warning days before
a password expires.
-E Lock an account after a specified date.

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Helpdesk Ticket #01986

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Anna Tanaka HR you 2024-04-12

Subject Account settings updates

Ticket Detail Tuesday’s security audit showed that some accounts are out
of compliance.
Can you please adjust Ali Selassi’s account password settings
for a 5 day warning, change required within four months,
and change not allowed within 1 day of a new password?
Date last updated 2024-04-12

Your response will look like this:

# chage -l aselassi
# chage -m 1 -M 120 -W 5 aselassi
Pluggable Authentication Models
Standard Linux authentication relies solely on the /etc/passwd and /etc/
shadow files. Often, more flexible authentication standards are needed. Pluggable
Authentication Modules (PAM) supplement authentication methods. Modules
provide additional options and flexibility.
Two PAM modules help administrators manage authentication. The first is
pam_tally2, and the second is faillock.
The pam_faillock module tracks login attempts and can block authentication
if too many attempts fail. Sysadmins may configure the pam_faillock module
to lockout a user account after three failed login attempts. The root user can display
login attempt tally information by using the faillock command.
The pam_tally2 module is deprecated and should only be used if
pam_faillock is not available on the system.

Lesson 12 contains additional details on Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM).

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Review Activity:
User Account Management
3

Answer the following questions:

1. Why are user passwords stored in the /etc/shadow file and not the
/etc/passwd file?

2. What is the purpose of the /etc/skel directory?

3. Why might an administrator change a user’s default shell?

Lesson 2: Administering Users and Groups | Topic 2A

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Topic 2B
Manage Group Accounts
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.2 Given a scenario, implement identity management.

Like the management of user accounts in the previous section, managing groups
requires an understanding of the configuration files and commands used to govern
groups. Groups simplify the process of granting access to resources to multiple
users.

Group Configuration Files

Groups associate user accounts that have similar security requirements. For
example, it is easier to grant permissions to a resource to a single group with five
members than it is to individually grant access to each user account. Groups are a
standard administrative tool for controlling access to resources.
Like user accounts, groups are stored in a configuration file. The file is /etc/
group, and displaying its contents shows existing groups and any user accounts
that are a member of those groups.
One way of displaying the contents of /etc/group is to use the tail
command. For example, type tail /etc/group. The output displays the last
10 entries in the file, including the most recently added groups.

Output of the tail /etc/group command, showing the most recently added groups.

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Group Management Commands

The commands to manage groups are similar to user management commands.
Groups have a standard life cycle, including creation, modification, and deletion.

Group Management Command Purpose

groupadd Create a new group.

groupmod Modify an existing group.

groupdel Remove an existing group.

Helpdesk Ticket #01987

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Anna Tanaka HR you 2024-04-18

Subject group updates

Ticket Detail The group named Marketing is evolving to handle publicity
only. Please update the group name.
We’re also starting a new Sales group and need a group for
that.
Date last updated 2024-04-19

As the help desk tech, you run the following two commands to complete the service
request:
# groupmod -n publicity marketing
# groupadd sales
The -n option changes the group name.
Deleting a group does not delete the user accounts that are a member of that
group. A group is a separate object from the user.
Note that you cannot remove the primary group of an existing user. You must
remove the user account first by using the userdel command.
Some distributions rely on addgroup and delgroup to manage groups.
These commands are more interactive than groupadd and groupdel. If the
commands are not installed on the system, they can be added.

Be sure to search for files or other resources that may be associated with the group
before deleting it. Configure another group with access to those resources before
deleting the original group.

Verification
Group management commands are usually straightforward, but things can go
wrong. The messages printed on the screen should be plenty to guide you toward a
solution. However, you can also display the exit values by using echo $?

Exit codes were discussed in additional detail in Topic 2A.

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Exit Code for the groupadd

Command Result
0 Success
2 Invalid argument syntax
4 GID not unique
9 Group name not unique

Exit Code for the groupmod and

groupdel Commands Result
0 Success
2 Invalid command syntax
6 Specified group doesn’t exist
8 Can’t remove user’s primary group
(for groupdel only)
10 Can’t update group file
There are many other exit codes; some shared among the three user management
commands and some unique. View the man page for the command to see its
specific exit values.

Add Users to Groups

Adding a user to a group is a modification of the user, not the group. Use the
usermod command covered earlier to add a user to an existing group.
Two specific options are used with usermod to manage group membership:

Option for the usermod

Command Purpose
-a Append the user to the group, and
maintain any existing group
memberships.
-G Specify a group to which the user will be
added.
If the -a option is not selected, the user is removed from all other groups and
added only to the specified group. Users can be a member of multiple groups, so
such a mistake could have drastic consequences.
The syntax for using the usermod command is usermod -options
argument
For example, the command to add Joseph Deng to the sales group while retaining
membership in all other groups is:
usermod -aG sales jdeng.

The group management lifecycle.

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Review Activity:
Group Account Management
5

Answer the following questions:

1. Suggest at least two ways to display group membership information.

2. What command adds a user to a group?

3. What is the result if an administrator forgets to add the -a option when

adding a user to a group?

4. Why might a user be a member of multiple groups?

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Topic 2C
Configure Privilege Escalation
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.4 Given a scenario, configure and execute remote connectivity for system
management.
4.4 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot user access and file permissions.

One should avoid logging on to a system as the root user. The root user’s broad
privileges are unnecessary for most day-to-day user tasks, such as managing data
or browsing the Internet. If the standard practice is to log on with a non-privileged
standard account, then what about situations where administrative privileges are
required? Instead of logging off and then logging back on as root, Linux provides
ways of switching identities or running commands as a different user.
This section introduces privilege escalation and then covers tools such as su,
sudo, and pkexec. Proper use of privilege escalation helps to maintain the
security of the system and satisfy security policy requirements.

What is Privilege Escalation?

The root user is the system’s administration account. It has full privileges to do
anything on the system. This is both necessary for managing the system and
dangerous in the hands of malicious or inexperienced users. Logging in as root is
frowned upon.
Standard user accounts typically have privileges to manage their own data and
some basic system settings and preferences. Most standard accounts cannot run
commands that would damage or disable the system, which also means they
cannot usually make the configuration changes necessary to administer Linux.
Service accounts represent services running on the system that consume
resources. Because the services are represented by service accounts, their ability
to consume system resources can be controlled. This helps prevent a service from
overwhelming the system or blocking other services from accessing resources.

A common idiom for privilege escalation is "get root."

Understand a Disabled Root Account

Your organization’s security policy may require that you log on to server systems
with a non-privileged account. This is a very good practice to keep in mind; however,
it often isn’t possible to execute administrative tasks with nonadministrative
privileges. Logging on with a standard user account and then changing your identity
to one with administrative privileges is referred to as privilege escalation. There
are two ways of managing privilege escalation: su and sudo.
Many Linux distributions disable the root user account by default. During the OS
installation, an “admin” account is created that has privileges delegated via sudo.

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Those distributions that do not disable the root user still suggest that sysadmins log
in with non-privileged accounts and then elevate privileges by using su.

Avoiding signing in as the root user is an example of the principle of least privilege. This
principle states that the minimum level of access should be granted to accomplish a
given task.

Elevate Privileges with su

The su utility provides the ability to “switch user” to another account. The most
common example is a sysadmin that follows proper security practices by signing
in as a standard user and then switches to the root user to accomplish system
administration tasks.
The syntax for using su is su {user-name}.
For example, to switch to the root user, type su root.
The su command, without an option, enables a user to switch their identity to that
of another user, but it retains the original user’s profile and variables. The switched
user also remains in the home directory. Anyone using su except the root user will
be challenged for the password of the user account they are switching to.

Note that in this discussion, the string "su - {user-name}" has a space on each side of the
dash. This is a rare instance in Linux where this is true; the majority of other commands
are spaced as "command -option," which has a space only on the left side of the dash.

Using su with a hyphen following it enables a user to change users and launch a
new shell under the context of that new user. This is a much better practice. Anyone
using the su - except the root user will be challenged for the password of the
user they are switching to. It is most common to switch to the root user, but any
user can switch to any other user as long as they know that user’s password.

Without a user name argument, the su - command will assume you mean to sign in
as root.

Elevate Privileges with sudo

With the su command, any user who knows the root password can “get root” and
do anything the root user can do. An account using su - root essentially is the
server administrator. This is often much more power than should be delegated
to users. A better practice is to delegate specific functions to users, rather than
granting system-wide root privileges.
The sudo command enables the server administrator to delegate specific
commands to specific users, without granting them full privileges on the server.
Delegation is done in the /etc/sudoers file by using the visudo editor.
Users and groups may be given specific commands to run in order to fulfill their
responsibilities without having full administrator privileges.
The syntax for using the sudo command is sudo -options command.
For example, to run a command by using sudo, type sudo shutdown -h now.
Recall that you will be prompted for your password.

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You can check your sudo privileges by using the -l option. For example, type
sudo -l, and your privileges are displayed.

It may be difficult to get into the habit of using sudo before each command. Recall
that Bash keeps a history of recent commands and that !! repeats the most recent
command. If you forget to type sudo in front of a command, rerun the command by
typing sudo !!.

Understand visudo
While the /etc/sudoers file is a normal text file, it is essential not to directly
edit it with a standard text editor like Vim or nano. The /etc/sudoers file
controls access to all elevated privileges, and a mistake in this file can render it
impossible to gain root privileges on the server. Most distributions will set a default
editor (usually Vim or nano) for /etc/sudoers. When using the visudo
command, the system verifies the syntax of the /etc/sudoers file before
committing changes, enabling the administrator an opportunity to correct mistakes
before they become part of the running configuration.

A portion of the /etc/sudoers file displaying delegated privileges.

The following are some options you can use with the visudo command:

Option for the visudo Command Purpose

-c Check the existing sudoers file for errors.
-f Edit or check a sudoers file in a different
location than the default.
-s Check the sudoers file in strict mode—
any aliases that are used before being
defined will result in errors.
-x Output the sudoers file to the specified
file in JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
format.
Because the /etc/sudoers file is sensitive to misconfigurations that could
result in not being able to elevate privileges, it’s critical to check the file after edits.
The visudo editor does this automatically, but various types of checks can be run
with the -c, -f, or -s options.

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The syntax for /etc/sudoers entries is username hostname =

(user) command where username is the user to whom privileges are being
given, hostname is the terminal from which commands can be run, user is the
level of access, and command is the delegated executable.
For example, to grant full administrative privileges to Kai Garcia, type:
kaigarcia ALL=(ALL:ALL) ALL.
The user will be prompted for their password. Be very careful with this level
of delegation!
Additionally, assuming that SHUTDOWN_CMDS is aliased to all related options
for the shutdown command, to delegate the ability to execute these shutdown
commands without entering a password, type:
KAIGARCIA ALL=(ALL) NOPASSWD: SHUTDOWN_CMDS.

The /etc/sudoers file contains aliases, or combinations of commands. For

example, an alias of SHUTDOWN_CMDS is associated with several commands that
manage system reboot or shutdown.

The wheel Group

The root account is used for a great deal more than just administrative tasks.
Some parts of the actual Linux operating system run under root credentials.
Many distributions disable the root account for users, preventing sysadmins from
logging on as root. Instead, these distros allow administrative functions based on
membership in the wheel group.
Members of the wheel group exercise the administrative privileges of root with
less potential for damaging the system. For example, members of the wheel
group use the sudo command to avoid having to sign in as the root user. Add
users to the wheel group to give them the privileges necessary to complete
administrative tasks, but be very cautious about this membership.
Use the visudo command to edit the privileges of the wheel group, if necessary.

The sudoedit Command

Some Linux files require root user privileges to edit. This could be accomplished
with a sudo configuration, but a simpler and more secure option is to use the
sudoedit command. This command permits a user to edit a file with their own
credentials, even if the file is only available to the root user. In addition, the user can
use their preferred text editor.
To use sudoedit, you must make an entry in the sudoers file. For example,
the following line could be added to the sudoers file:
%editors ALL = sudoedit /path/to/file
Any member of the editors group could then enter the following command to edit a
file: sudoedit /path/to/file.
The sudo configuration is appropriate for commands that need to be executed
with elevated privileges, while the sudoedit option is appropriate for files that
need to be edited with elevated privileges.

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PolicyKit Rules
The polkit (PolicyKit) toolkit provides a different way of delegating privileges than
sudo does. The polkitd daemon works with systemd to permit administrators to
delegate more granular control to users than sudo allows. Unlike sudo, polkit
does not grant full root access to a process but instead grants specific access to
defined actions.
One example of polkit’s benefits is software management. Using polkit rules,
sysadmins can permit a user to update existing software but prevent the
installation of new software. Other delegated tasks include system shutdown or
hibernation, configuring network devices, controlling device access, and mounting
or unmounting filesystems on removable media.

Some topics in this section, such as systemd and software management, are covered in
more detail elsewhere.

Configure polkit Rules

Rules are written that define what actions can be performed by what users. The
actions, or specified processes, are written into text files. The rules are also text files
that reference the actions.
Actions are defined in XML files stored at /usr/share/polkit-1/actions.
These files have a .policy file extension. Rules files are stored in two different directories:
/etc/polkit-t/rules.d for local policies and /etc/share/polkit-1/
rules.d for third-party policies. Rules use a .rules file extension. Administrators write
rules in JavaScript notation to reference actions defined in the actions files. When a user
attempts an action, the rules are checked to determine success or failure.

pkexec and Other polkit Commands

Four commands are associated with polkit. These commands display details,
authorization information, or enable a user to execute a command with elevated
privileges.

polkit Command Purpose

pkexec Allows an authorized user to execute an
action.
pkaction Displays details about an action.

pkcheck Displays whether a process is authorized.

pkttyagent Provides a text-based authentication

agent.

Use of pkexec to create a user account with confirmation that the account has been created.

The syntax for using pkexec is pkexec program argument.

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For example, to launch nano with pkexec and edit the /etc/named.conf
configuration file, type:
pkexec nano /etc/named.conf.
Recall that the su - root command actually changes the user identity to root,
with all related privileges. This could be dangerous. The sudo and polkit utilities
allow administrators to delegate specific tasks to specific users without granting
complete administrative privileges to the system.

Troubleshoot Privilege Escalation Issues

You field the following four phone calls in the course of your week.

Phone Call 1: su
A user calls and says that the su command is not responding as expected. You ask
the user to type whoami and the user reports the result is root. You also ask the
user to type pwd and the user reports the result is their own home directory. When
the user switches identities, they remain in their own home directory with their own
profile settings. The user wants to know what is preventing them from switching to
root and gaining the root user’s profile.
In this case, it’s likely that they are using the incorrect syntax. The user failed to
include the space on both sides of the dash between the su command and the
username, su - root.

Phone Call 2: sudo

A user calls and says sudo is broken on their system after they edited the /etc/
sudoers file with Nano. The user wants you to fix it.
Open /etc/sudoers with visudo, and allow it to identify syntax errors that
Nano would not have caught. Let the user know to use visudo in the future.

Phone Call 3: Authorization

A user indicates they cannot accomplish administrative tasks that they are
authorized for.
The likely problem is that they are not a member of the wheel group or they have
not been delegated the tasks directly via /etc/sudoers. The easiest solution is
to add them to the wheel group.

Phone Call 4: New Command

A user calls after attempting to run a command that was referenced on an Internet
website. The user preceded the command with sudo and with pkexec, as
suggested on the site. The command failed to run, however.
The likely problem is that the privilege has not been delegated via either sudo or
polkit.

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Review Activity:
Privilege Escalation
6

Answer the following questions:

1. A developer at your organization needs the ability to reboot a test

server, but their account’s standard privileges do not permit this. The
developer requests the system's root user password in order to use su
to reboot the server. Is there a more secure option that aligns with the
principle of least privilege?

2. How are the su root and su - root commands different?

3. You must delegate the shutdown -h privilege to SOMEUSER. What tool is

used to modify the /etc/sudoers file, and what line must be added to that
file?

4. Whose password must be entered with sudo? Whose password must be

entered with su?

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Topic 2D
Troubleshoot User and Group Issues
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.4 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot user access and file permissions.

User and group management is a straightforward task, but troubleshooting

opportunities still arise. Sysadmins must review configuration files and individual
user account settings to help identify and resolve login or configuration issues. In
addition, security audits or troubleshooting may require a record of when users
attempted to log in and whether the attempts were successful.

Troubleshoot User Management Issues

User account management involves creating, modifying, and deleting user
accounts. Group account management is similar, though there are some additional
restrictions, such as deleting a user’s primary group. The following scenarios define
some common user management issues.

Account Management Issues

Only authorized users may create, modify, or remove user and group accounts. The
root user can do this, as can anyone else delegated such privileges via sudo. If you
cannot create or modify a user or group, ensure you’re using an account with the
proper authorization.
Account management problems often relate to whether the account or group
exists. Recall that each user account is assigned a unique user ID. New groups are
also given a unique group ID. One way to view these identifiers is to check
the /etc/passwd or /etc/group files. If a user account or group cannot
be created, check to see if the name or ID is already in use.
Halt any active processes associated with the user. If the delete attempt fails, check
for any running processes belonging to the user. The ps command can be helpful
for identifying processes. The command to halt or kill all processes for the user is:
sudo killall -u {username}
When you create a user account, an associated group may also be created. Whether
this occurs depends on the Linux distribution. This group, known as the user’s
primary group, cannot be deleted unless the user is also deleted.
Be sure to add the -r option to the userdel command if you want the user’s
home directory deleted when the account is created.

Troubleshoot User Login Issues

Like other troubleshooting opportunities, begin solving login issues by starting with
basic checks. Ensure accounts exist and have a valid password. Consider the login
procedure and the order in which profile files are processed. Linux has several
commands to help administrators gather information about login attempts and
current user sessions.

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Users may fail to authenticate to the system. These failures are often associated
with user account and password misconfigurations. Recall that account information
is stored in the /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow files.

User Login Attempt Failures

Confirm the user has an account on the system by displaying the contents of
/etc/passwd. If necessary, create an account for the user by using the
useradd command.
If the account exists, confirm that a password is set. Display the contents of /etc/
shadow, and verify a hashed password exists. Use the passwd command to set a
password if one did not exist.
If the account exists and a password is set, the user may have forgotten the correct
password. Reset the password with the passwd command.
If the account exists and a password is set, the password may be expired. Reset the
password by using the passwd command.
If the account exists and a password is set, the account may be locked. Unlock the
account by using the chage command.

Review the Login Process

Refer to the login process to help pinpoint specific issues. The system goes through
a logical order, and understanding where in that process a failure could occur is a
great place to begin troubleshooting.
1. The operating system boots and the kernel is loaded. Assume the system
boots to the CLI and displays an authentication prompt.

2. The user enters a name and password combination. These are checked
against the /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow files. Settings such as
expired passwords and locked accounts are checked for at this point.

3. System and user profile files are processed, and the user is presented with an
authenticated and customized environment.

The boot process is covered in a future Lesson.

Use User Login Commands

Administrators need to know who has tried to log in and succeeded as well as who
has tried to log in and failed. Linux tracks this information, and it can be displayed
by using several different commands.
The lastlog command displays the last login times for accounts. This
information allows administrators to know who was logged in at any given time.
Use this information in system audits and security reviews. The lastlog utility uses
its own log file (usually found at /var/log/lastlog).
The last command displays the contents of the wtmp file, which includes every
login and logoff event on the system. The output can be filtered by timestamp
and even displays information for remote users. The wtmp file is usually found at
/var/log/wtmp.

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The last command displays the most recent logins and logouts.

It is a good security practice to delete unused user accounts, and these tools help
identify such accounts.

While the historical data displayed by last and lastlog can be helpful, it’s
also useful to know what users are currently on the system. Both the w and who
commands display this information. The w command is particularly useful because
it shows the user idle time, which indicates the user may be logged on but no longer
interacting with the session.

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Review Activity:
User and Group Troubleshooting
6

Answer the following questions:

1. List at least three scenarios where you might need records of who logged
in to a Linux system.

2. Another administrator asks you to explain the value of editing the /etc/
sudoer’s file with visudo rather than a traditional text editor. What is
your response?

3. List at least three reasons a user account might be locked.

4. During a security audit it is discovered that a user does not have a

password set. When you check the /etc/passwd file, the password field is
properly populated with the x character. What file would actually display
whether a password has been set for the user?

5. A user places sudo before a command, but the command still fails to run.
What might be the cause?

6. An administrator asks you how to delegate Linux administrative

privileges to a specific user. What group is used for such delegation?

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Lesson 2
Summary
7

Observe how user authentication allows the system to uniquely identify the logged-
on user. The primary purpose of this identification is to enforce permissions on files
and directories. Permissions can be granted (or denied) to identities, allowing tasks
such as read-only file access, script execution, or application execution. Users are
placed into groups when more than one user must be restricted by permissions.
The use of user identities is further exemplified by considering privilege escalation.
What privilege escalation actually provides is the ability to move from one user
identity to another to exercise different levels of resource access.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

passwd passwd Manage user Lesson 2, Topic A
[user-name] passwords.

chage chage -options Manage password Lesson 2, Topic A

settings.
w w Display current Lesson 2, Topic A
users on the
system.
who who Display current Lesson 2, Topic A
users on the
system.
useradd useradd Add a user. Lesson 2, Topic A
-options
argument
usermod usermod Modify a user. Lesson 2, Topic A
-options
argument
userdel userdel Delete a user. Lesson 2, Topic A
[user-name]
id id [user-name] Gather and display Lesson 2, Topic A
account
information.
groupadd groupadd Create a new Lesson 2, Topic B
[group-name] group.

groupmod groupmod Modify an existing Lesson 2, Topic B

-options group.
argument
groupdel groupdel Remove an Lesson 2, Topic B
[group-name] existing group.

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

su su - [user- Switch user to the Lesson 2, Topic C
name] specified user or
account name.
sudo sudo -options Exercise delegated Lesson 2, Topic C
[command] privileges.

pkexec pkexec program Allows an Lesson 2, Topic C

argument authorized user
to execute an
action.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 3
Configuring Permissions
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
The identity of an authenticated user provides context for enforcing permissions.
Once the system knows which user is logged on, it can limit the actions that user
can take. Linux relies on a simple yet effective permissions structure that recognizes
three identities (users, groups, and all others) and provides three access levels
(read, write, and execute). More complex permissions options exist, including
special permissions and access control lists (ACLs).
Administrators manage group membership, file ownership, and group association
to control access to resources. As such, the permissions discussion in this Lesson is
a natural extension of the account management subject of the previous lesson.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Configure standard Linux permissions.

• Configure special Linux permissions.

• Configure access control lists.

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Topic 3A
Configure Standard Linux Permissions
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.5 Given a scenario, apply the appropriate access controls.
4.4 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot user access and file permissions.

The authentication process provides users with an identity on the system. Based on
this identity, the system can enforce levels of access to system resources, such as
processes and files. This type of access control allows users to share systems and
resources with the appropriate levels of confidentiality and privacy.
Sysadmins rely on default Linux settings, such as umask, to define some levels of
access. Administrators also define explicit controls by associating specific access
levels with particular identities. Linux has several permissions structures, including
standard, special, and access control list mechanisms. Users are organized into
groups to make access control more efficient. Proper permissions settings and
owner/group associations are critical to Linux security and administration.

Understand Permissions Concepts

Standard permissions provide a way for sysadmins to enforce levels of access on
users for files and directories. Standard permissions are relatively simple, with
three identities given up to three levels of access. Permissions and file ownership
are managed with the chmod and chown commands, and permissions are
displayed by using the ls -l command.

Principle of Least Privilege

The principle of least privilege enforces the idea that users should be given as
little access to resources as necessary for them to do their jobs, with no additional
unneeded access.
Two scenarios illustrating this concept are provided here.
Kai Garcia needs to be able to read file1.
• Proper: They are granted the read permission only.

• Improper: They are granted the read, write, and execute permissions and could
potentially change the file.

Joseph Deng needs to create files associated with their own job but doesn’t need to
perform system administrative tasks.
• Proper: Joseph logs on with a standard user account.

• Improper: Joseph logs on with the root user account.

Keep the principle of least privilege in mind in all access control configurations,
especially those involving file permissions.

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Access Levels
Standard Linux permissions define three levels of access: read, write, and execute
(rwx). These permissions perform differently depending on whether they are
applied to files or directories.

Files Directories
Read (r) The ability to access and The ability to list the
view the contents of a file. contents of a directory.
Write (w) The ability to save changes The ability to create,
to a file. rename, and delete files
in a directory. Requires
the execute attribute to
also be set.
Execute (x) The ability to run a script, The ability to access a
program, or other software directory, execute a file
file. from that directory, or
perform a task on that
directory (e.g., a search).

The three permissions levels are abbreviated with r, w, and x. These abbreviations
are used in conjunction with permissions management commands, so be able to
recognize them.

Access Identities
Standard Linux permissions define three identities to which permissions can be
applied: user (owner), group, and others.
The user (u) identity is a single resource owner. Only one user identity is associated
with the resource with standard permissions, and specific permissions are applied
to this identity. By default, the user is the identity of the account that created the
resource, but that can be changed. This user identity is referred to as the resource
“owner.”

The chown command allows administrators to change the associated user (and group).
The chown command is covered later in this Topic.

The group (g) identity is a single group of users associated with the resource. In
standard Linux permissions, only one group is assigned to the resource and a
specific set of permissions is assigned. By default, the creator’s group is set on the
resource, but that can be changed.
A group allows multiple users to access the resource at a given level. For example,
a sales group consisting of several user accounts can be granted read access to a
sales file, allowing all members of the group to view the contents of the file.
The others (o) identity represents all accounts that are not the user (u) identity or
a member of the one associated group (g). The others identity means “everyone
else” who is not the user and not a member of the group. These other accounts
are granted a level of access. Frequently, that permissions level is either read or
no access.

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Linux permissions are enhanced with special permissions and access control lists (ACLs),
which are both covered later in this Topic.

View Permissions
The ls command, introduced earlier, relies on the -l option to display
permissions. Think of the ls -l command as “list in long format,” where the
long format includes the display of permissions. Sysadmins use this command
frequently to confirm permissions settings.

The ls -l command displays details about permissions, owner, group, size, and more.

In the following example, note that the resource is a file (based on the leftmost
dash character), the owner (root) has rwx, the group (grp) has rwx, and all others
have r only.
-rwxrwxr-- root grp fileA
Interpreting Permissions Strings
The permissions string consists of 10 fields, with each field containing different
information.
The first field defines whether the resource is a file or a directory. A file is identified
by a dash character (-), while a directory is identified by a d character.

The first column of the permission string, listing one directory and three files.

The next three fields are related and identify the permissions assigned to the
resource for the user identity. If a permission is granted, it is identified with one of
three characters: r, w, or x. If the permission is not granted, the dash character is
used as a placeholder.
For example, if the user is granted read but not write or execute, the three fields
appear like this: r--. If the user is granted read and write, but not execute, the three
fields appear as rw-. Note that the permissions are always displayed in the rwx
order, and the - is a placeholder for any unassigned permission.

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The second three columns list the permissions assigned to the user identity. Here the user
has rwx access to the directory and the first file, rw access to the second file, and read
only access to the third file.

The same structure applies to permissions assigned to the group, in the fifth, sixth,
and seventh fields.

The group permissions are outlined here. The group has r-x access to the directory, rw access to
the first and second files, and no access at all to the third file.

And the final three fields use the same structure for others.

The final three columns show permissions for others not in the user or group identity.
Permissions are more stringent here, with others having r-x access to the directory
and read only access to the first file, with no access at all to the last two files.

Some other examples are provided here.

A file named fileA, with the user having read, write, and execute; the group having
read and write; and others having read-only would appear as:
-rwxrw-r-- fileA

Additional fields, such as owner, group, and file size, have been removed from these
examples to provide clarity.

A file named file A, with the user having read, the group having read, and others
having no access would appear as:
-r--r----- fileA
A directory named dir1, with the user having read, write, and execute; the group
having read and execute; and others having read and execute would appear as:
drwxr-xr-x dir1

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A directory named dir1, with the user having read and execute, the group having
read and execute, and others having no access would appear as:
dr-xr-x--- dir1

Recall that the execute (x) permission is required for the user to use cd to move into
the directory. If a user does not have execute to a directory, they cannot change into
that directory.

Default Permissions
The ls -l command displays the existing permissions, but what if permissions
need to be changed? Administrators can set file and directory permissions for all
resources, and resource owners (the account identified by the user (u) permissions)
can also configure permissions.
A value named umask defines default permissions on a per-user basis. The “change
mode” or chmod command changes permissions settings from the default values.

Configure Default Permissions

The umask command alters the default permissions on newly created files and
directories. Changing default permissions can be useful if you’d like to automatically
control how new objects can be used, rather than changing these permissions
manually on every new object.
With umask, you set default permissions using an octal numeric format. However,
instead of specifying which permissions to set, you specify which permissions to
mask, or clear, from the default. For example, the default permissions for non-
executable files in Linux are 666 (rw-rw-rw-). If you want the owner to retain
these permissions, but you want the group and others to only have read access,
you’ll need to set the umask to 022. Each number is explained as follows, in order
from left to right:
• 0 means that the current owner permissions should not be masked at all (i.e.,
left as read and write).

• 2 means that the group permissions should be masked by 2 (i.e., subtract 2 from
the default [6] and you get 4). Group members now only have read access.

• 2 does the same thing as the previous number, but it does so for other users.
You can use the umask command directly in the CLI to set the default permissions
for that session, or you can set the default permissions for each user in their
.bashrc or .profile file.
The syntax of the umask command is umask {number}.

Because it subtracts from the default (666), the umask command cannot force newly
created files to set the execute bit.

Absolute and Symbolic Modes

The chmod command enables you to modify the permissions of a file or directory.
Only the owner of the file or directory or the system administrator can change
the permissions of the object. This command has several options and may be
configured by using two different modes.

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The syntax of the chmod command is chmod [options] {mode} {file/

directory name}
The chmod command supports different options to modify permissions. One or
more of these options may be used at a time.

Option for the chmod Command Purpose

-c Report changes that are made in
permissions.
-f Hide most error messages.

-v Display a diagnostic entry for every

file processed.
-R Modify permissions of files and
directories recursively.

The chmod command has two different syntaxes for setting permissions: absolute
mode and symbolic mode. Both approaches provide the same results. Some
administrators find one approach more logical than the other, and it does not
really matter which is used. Sysadmins should understand and be able to use both
modes.

Absolute Mode
Absolute mode uses octal (base-8) numbers to specify permissions. Each
permission (r/w/x) has an associated number.
Absolute mode octal values:
• Read = 4

• Write = 2

• Execute = 1

By adding the octal numbers for the permissions you want to grant, you get
the overall permission number to assign to a directory or file. For example, full
permissions (read, write, and execute) are equivalent to 4 + 2 + 1, or 7. Read and
write permissions are equivalent to 4 + 2, or 6. Complete permissions are expressed
as a three-digit number, where each digit corresponds to the owner, the group, and
others, respectively.
In absolute mode, the syntax of the chmod command is chmod {number}
{file/directory name}
Three-digit and Four-digit Modes
When written in octal, numeric format, file permissions typically have three digits,
with each digit corresponding to the user, group, and others permissions. However,
file permissions may also be written with four digits, with the new, leading digit
signifying any advanced permissions to be defined (or 0, for none). For example,
the permissions for a non-executable file in Linux might be rw-rw-r--, or 664. This is
equivalent to the octal format of 0664.

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Symbolic Mode
Symbolic mode enables you to set permissions using three components, namely:
• Permission contexts: u/g/o/a (a applies the permissions to all three contexts)

• Permission operators: +/-/=

• Permission attributes: r/w/x

Permission operators determine whether a permission is to be granted or

removed.
The operator + (plus sign) grants permissions. The operator - (minus sign, or
hyphen) denies permissions. Operator = (equal sign) assigns permissions exactly as
provided, rather than being additive or subtractive.
In symbolic mode, the syntax of the chmod command is: chmod
{access
context}{operators}{permission attributes} {file/
directory names}
As an example, to add read and write permissions to myfile for the owner and the
group: chmod u+rw,g+rw myfile

Permission Absolute Mode Symbolic Mode

User has read-write-execute. 755 u=rwx,g=rx,o=rx
Group has read and execute.
Others have read and execute.
User has read-write-execute. 700 u=rwx,g=,o=
Group has no permissions.
Others have no permissions.
User has read and write. 644 u=rw,g=r,o=r
Group has write.
Others have write.
User has read and write. 600 u=rw,g=,o=
Group has no permissions.
Others have no permissions.
User has read and write. 640 u=rw,g=r,o=
Group has read.
Others have no permissions.
Some common permissions and their representations in absolute and symbolic modes.

While sysadmins tend to prefer one mode or the other, it is worthwhile to understand
both modes. Documentation, online resources, and other administrators may provide
permissions settings using either mode, so you must be able to interpret whichever
mode is presented.

Set Permissions in a GUI

In most GUI desktop environments, right-click a file or directory, select Properties,
and select the Security tab. Check the appropriate permissions boxes for the
identity and access level you wish to set.

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GUI environment permissions output.

Configure Ownership
Although you’ve restricted access to your data by assigning permissions, you may
need to allow users to modify those permissions for certain files and directories.
This is where the concept of ownership comes into play.
As you’ve seen, the first permission context is the owner or user. In Linux,
ownership refers to the property by which a user can apply and modify the
permissions of a file or directory. By default, the owner of a file or directory is the
user who created that file or directory. Other than the superuser, no other user
can change the permissions of an object that is owned by someone else. While the
most common application of ownership is the changing of read, write, and execute
permission attributes, owners can also alter advanced and special permissions of
the objects they own.

Use the chown Command

Helpdesk Ticket #01988

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-04-22

Subject Ownership change

Ticket Detail Hello, can you please update the Projects directory and set
Joseph Deng as the owner? Joseph will be taking over that
duty now that Alex has left.
Date last updated 2024-14-22

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The chown command is used to change the owner, the group, or both for a
file or directory. At times, you may wish for someone else to manage an object’s
permissions other than the user who created that object.

Changing the owner with chown. The file named “project1.txt” was owned by root, but is now
owned by student5 in this example.

The chown command syntax varies based on the desired outcome:

• Change the owner but not the group: chown {newowner} {filename}
• Change both the owner and the group: chown
{newowner}:{newgroup} {filename}
• Change the group but not the owner: chown :{newgroup} {filename}
You can also combine the chown command with the -R option to recursively
change ownership through a directory structure.

Use the chgrp Command

The chgrp command is used to change the group ownership of a file or directory.
Changing the group ownership of an object ensures that the group permissions are
applied to the specific group.
The syntax of the chgrp command is chgrp {group name}
{file/directory name}

Configure Attributes
Files can have one or more attributes set on them that define how the system
interacts with those files. These attributes go beyond typical permissions and
enable you to more granularly customize what the system is and is not allowed to
do with a file.
There are many such attributes. Some examples include:
• Only allow the file to be open for writing in append mode (i.e., don’t allow the file
to be overwritten).

• Set the file to be automatically compressed.

• Save the file if it is deleted, providing an opportunity for it to be recovered.

• Make the file immutable.

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The Immutable Flag

The immutable flag is an attribute of a file or directory that prevents it from being
modified, even by the root user. In other words, no one can delete, rename, or write
to an immutable file. Setting the immutable flag is useful for files with a high degree
of sensitivity and importance (and with the unlikelihood of changing any time soon).
A careless user or an errant process will be unable to delete the immutable file.
The immutable flag is not set on all files. A single directory can have a mix of
mutable and immutable files and subdirectories. Also, an immutable subdirectory
can have mutable files.
When viewing file attributes, the lowercase i character indicates that the
immutable flag is set.

Attribute Management with lsattr

Administrators use the lsattr command to list the attributes of a file or
directory.

The lsattr command displays current attribute settings, such as this immutable flag.

Some of the options for the lsattr command are:

Option for the lsattr Command Purpose

-R Recursively list the attributes of
directories and their contents.
-a List all files in directories.

-d List directories like files, instead of listing

their contents.
-v List the version number of the file.

The syntax of the lsattr command is lsattr [options]

{file/directory names}
Attribute Management with chattr
The chattr command is used to change the attributes of a file or directory.

The chattr command modifies attribute settings.

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The chattr command includes these options:

Option for the chattr Command Purpose

-R Recursively change the attributes of
directories and their contents.
-v {version} Set the version number of a file.

+i Mark the file as read-only, or immutable.

Requires superuser privileges.
-i Remove the read-only, or immutable,
attribute of the file. Requires superuser
privileges.
The syntax of the chattr command is chattr [-R] [-v {version}]
[+-{attributes}] {file/directory names}

Troubleshoot Access Issues

Permission-based access problems usually consist of misapplied permissions or
misunderstood identities.

Helpdesk Ticket #01989

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Ali Selassi Marketing you 2024-04-25

Subject Access issues

Ticket Detail Hi, can you help me with access to File1? I’m in the Sales
group, which manages DirectoryA, and should be able to
get into File1, but I can’t get in.

Thanks,
Ali
Date last updated 2024-04-25

Is the user actually a member of the sales group?

Confirm the user’s membership in sales with the group or id commands, and
confirm the permissions applied to sales for the file by using ls -l
Are the permissions set correctly?
Display permissions with ls -l, and check permissions of the file.
Are permissions set recursively from the parent directory?
Use su to test access, then reapply permissions, being careful of your absolute or
symbolic mode syntax.

Attribute Issues
Attribute problems are typically related to whether or not the attribute is set. Often
the solution is to either set or unset the value.
If the file can be deleted and should not be, set the immutable attribute with
chattr +i {filename}
If the file cannot be deleted and should be, unset the immutable attribute with
chattr -i {filename}

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Review Activity:
Standard Linux Permissions
3

Answer the following questions:

1. How does the principle of least privilege help mitigate threats and
mistakes?

2. What octal value is used in absolute mode to set permissions at all

access for all identities?

3. Write the command by using symbolic mode that removes the read
permission from others for fileA without impacting other permissions.

4. Interpret the results of the following command: chown -R USERA:sales

dirA

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Topic 3B
Configure Special Linux Permissions
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.5 Given a scenario, apply the appropriate access controls.
4.4 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot user access and file permissions.

The standard read, write, and execute permissions are good enough in most
circumstances. However, there are additional permissions and attributes that you
can use to restrict access in a more specialized way. These permissions permit
users to run software as someone else or allow directory contents to inherit group
associations, providing default access control settings.

Understand User and Group ID

Special permissions are used when normal permissions become inadequate. With
special permissions, less-privileged users are allowed to execute a file by assuming
the privileges of the file’s owner or group. This enables the user to temporarily take
on these higher-level privileges in a limited context.
In Linux, two main special permissions are set user ID (SUID) and set group
ID (SGID). SUID, or setuid, is the permission that allows a user to have similar
permissions as the owner of the file. Certain executable files and commands,
such as passwd, require access to additional resources that the user may not
have explicit permissions to. Instead of granting those permissions individually,
the passwd command is configured so that any user will execute it as root (the
owner), giving them permission to the additional resources.
SGID, or setgid, is the permission that allows a user to have permissions that are
similar to those of the file’s group owner . In addition to files, SGID can also be
set on directories. Any subdirectories created in this directory will automatically
inherit the SGID permission. Likewise, all new files and subdirectories created in
this directory will inherit the directory’s group ID, rather than the group ID of the
user who created the object. This inheritance is useful because users in a shared
environment don’t need to change their group when they create objects in the
directory. Note that the SGID permission is not applied to existing objects in the
directory, nor is it applied to objects that are moved from other locations into
the directory.
SUID and SGID are both set using the chmod command, and you can do so using
either symbolic mode or absolute mode. When using ls -l to see permissions,
the execute permission for the owner will appear as s for the SUID, and the execute
permission for the group will appear as s for the SGID.

Set Special Permissions with Absolute and Symbolic Modes

Symbolic mode uses this syntax:
• To set the SUID: chmod u+s {file-names}
• To set the SGID: chmod g+s {directory-names}

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Absolute mode uses this syntax:

• To set the SUID: chmod 4--- {file-names}
• To set the SGID: chmod 2--- {directory-names}
Note the last three bits in absolute mode are whatever standard permissions you
choose.
Removing the SUID and SGID is as simple as using the - (minus) operator in
symbolic mode or setting the first permission bit to 0 in absolute mode.

Understand the Sticky Bit

A sticky bit is a special permission bit that protects files in a directory. It ensures
that only the owner of a file or directory (or root) can delete the file or directory.
Without the sticky bit, any user with write and execute permissions on an object
can delete that object. The sticky bit ensures that these users do not have delete
privileges but still have the rest of the privileges that come with writing and
executing files and directories.
Like SUID and SGID, you set a sticky bit using the chmod command. Using ls -l
you can see the sticky bit in the execute position for other users (the last position)
as the lowercase letter t or the capitalized letter T if the execute permission is not
set for others.
In older versions of the kernel, a sticky bit could force a program or file to remain
in memory so that it wouldn’t need to be reloaded when it was invoked again. A
sticky bit on a file indicated to the operating system that the file would be executed
frequently. Modern versions of the Linux kernel ignore the sticky bit on files; if you
want to protect specific files, you need to apply the sticky bit on the directory that
contains them.
Setting the sticky bit uses this syntax in symbolic mode:
# chmod +t {directory names}
Setting the sticky bit uses this syntax in absolute mode:
# chmod 1--- {directory names}
As with SUID and SGID, use - or 0 to clear the sticky bit.

Troubleshoot Special Permissions Access

Troubleshooting special permissions is more difficult than finding issues with
standard permissions, but the steps are much the same. First, confirm any identities
and group memberships. Next, ensure permissions are set correctly by using ls -l,
and make any updates with chmod.
• Confirm the SUID permission is set correctly for executable files.

• Confirm the SGID permission is set correctly for directories to permit files
created in the directory to inherit the group association.

• Confirm the sticky bit permission is set correctly.

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Review Activity:
Special Linux Permissions
6

Answer the following questions:

1. How would SGID benefit users when set on the /projects directory where
multiple users are members of the associated group and need access to
each other’s files in the directory?

2. Why might a sysadmin set the sticky bit on a configuration file?

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Topic 3C
Configure Access Control Lists
3

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.5 Given a scenario, apply the appropriate access controls.
4.4 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot user access and file permissions.

One weakness of standard Linux permissions is that only a single user, a single
group, and all others who are not that user or a member of that group can be
granted access. With standard permissions, a sysadmin cannot provide UserA with
rw- and UserB with r--. Nor can GroupA be given rwx to a directory while GroupB is
given r-x.
Access control lists, a feature of the filesystem, do permit the system to recognize
multiple identities and enforce different levels of access on those identities. In other
words, with ACLs the scenarios above are possible.
ACLs do not replace standard permissions, but rather they enhance them.
Everything you know about standard permissions still applies and is then
supplemented with additional ACL features.

Access Control List Concepts

An access control list (ACL) is a list of permissions attached to an object. ACLs
can be used for situations where the traditional file permission concept does not
suffice. ACLs enable you to assign permissions to individual users or groups even if
these do not correspond to the object’s owner or group.
For example, members of two department groups may need different levels of
access to the same resource. Group 1 might need rwx to a directory, whereas
Group 2 only needs r-x access. By using ACLs, you can grant different levels of
access to different users, groups, and even processes. ACLs enable a more granular
level of control.

Configure Access Control Lists on Files

Two commands are the basis for ACL configuration. The first is getfacl, which
is used to display existing ACL settings. The setfacl command configures ACL
permissions.

Display ACL Entries

The getfacl command is used to retrieve the ACLs of files and directories.
The basic output format of the getfacl command shows metadata about
the object, including its owner, its group, any SUID/SGID/sticky bit flags set, the
standard permissions associated with the object, and the individual permission
entries for users and groups. Directories can also have default ACL entries that
pertain to any new files or subdirectories created within them.

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The syntax of the getfacl command is getfacl {filename}

The getfacl command output shows the file owner, group, and standard permissions.

Configure ACL Entries

The setfacl command is used to change the permissions associated with the
ACL of a file or directory. This command has several options. Some of the most
common options are:

Option for the setfacl Command Purpose

-R Recursively set ACL options for
directories and their contents.
-s Set the ACL of an object, replacing any
existing ACL.
-m Modify the existing ACL of an object.

-x Remove entries from an existing ACL.

-b Remove all ACL entries (not including the

standard permissions).
The syntax of the setfacl command is setfacl [-bR] [-mx
{acl_spec}] {file/directory names}
The ACL specification can be formatted in one of several ways:
• When working with users, the format is u:{user name}:{permissions}
• When working with groups, the format is g:{group name}:{permissions}

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The setfacl command uses the -m option to modify the access control list already in place.

ACL Entry Examples

Consider the following examples. Note the ability to manage users, groups, or both.
To set an ACL entry for usera with rwx access:
# setfacl -m u:usera:rwx fileA
To set an ACL entry for groupa with rwx access:
# setfacl -m g:groupa:rwx fileA
To set an ACL entry usera with rwx access and group sales with rw access:
# setfacl -m u:userA:rwx,g:sales:rw fileA
To remove an ACL entry for usera for fileA:
# setfacl -x u:usera fileA

ACL settings do not replace standard permissions. Standard permissions are still
enforced as described earlier in this Lesson, but they are further enhanced by ACL
capability.

Troubleshoot ACL Issues

Like troubleshooting standard permissions issues, ACL troubleshooting involves
displaying the existing ACL entries by using the getfacl command and ensuring
they are set as expected. If they are not, use setfacl to configure the correct
entries in the ACL.
It is also common to see access control issues based on identities and group
memberships, so be sure to confirm the user is signed in with an identity that
should have access. Adjust group memberships as needed with the usermod
command.

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Review Activity:
ACL Configuration
4

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the benefit offered by ACLs compared to standard Linux

permissions.

2. What commands are used to set ACL entries for USERA with rwx and
USERB with r-- for fileA?

3. Does the ACL structure replace standard permissions?

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Lesson 3
Summary
4

The identity of a user or a user’s membership in a particular group governs access to files and
directories. This access control, provided mainly by permissions, allows the possible viewing,
editing, or running of files. Additional controls, such as attributes, default permissions, and
access control lists, permit administrators to exercise more granular control over resources.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as quick
references in your job role.
• Understand the principle of least privilege, which enforces the idea that users should be
given as little access to resources as necessary for them to do their jobs, with no additional
unneeded access.

• Recognize access levels and identities.

• Absolute mode and symbolic mode provide the same information in different ways.
Absolute mode displays in octal numerals, while symbolic mode displays information using
operators.

• The immutable flag is an attribute of a file or directory that prevents it from being modified,
even by the root user.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

umask umask {number} Alter the default Lesson 3,
permissions on Topic A
newly created files
and directories.
chmod chmod [options] Modify the Lesson 3,
{mode} {file/directory permissions of a Topic A
name} file or directory.

chown Varies based on desired outcome: Change the owner, Lesson 3,

the group, or both Topic A
• Change the owner but not the
for a file or
group: chown {newowner}
directory.
{filename}
• Change both the owner
and the group: chown
{newowner}:{newgroup}
{filename}
• Change the group but
not the owner: chown
:{newgroup} {filename}

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

chgrp chgrp {group name} Change the group Lesson 3,
{file/directory name} ownership of a file Topic A
or directory.
lsattr lsattr [options] List attributes Lesson 3,
{file/directory names} of a file or a Topic A
directory.
chattr chattr [-R] Change attributes Lesson 3,
[-v {version}] of a file or a Topic A
[+- {attributes}] directory.
{file/directory
names}
getfacl getfacl {filename} Retrieve the ACLs Lesson 3,
of files and Topic C
directories.
setfacl setfacl [-bR] Change the Lesson 3,
[-mx {acl_spec}] permissions Topic C
{file/directory associated with
names} the ACL of a file
or directory.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 4
Implementing File Management
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
This Lesson covers the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) that defines consistent
locations for data across the various Linux distributions and makes it easier for
users to navigate among directories to find and manage files and directories. Users
rely on an understanding of the FHS to perform file management tasks such as
creating and deleting resources. This Lesson covers the necessary commands to
perform these file operations. In addition, commands such as find and locate are
used to search for resources using many different parameters.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand the Linux file system.

• Use file management commands.

• Locate files.

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Topic 4A
Understand the Linux File System
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals.
1.2 Given a scenario, manage files and directories.
3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to automate common tasks.

Linux relies on a standardized series of directories to organize data into a

filesystem. The benefit of such standardization is that both administrators and
applications know where to find specific types of data. Configuration files are held
in one consistent location, and log files are held in a different consistent location.
This filesystem is named the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS). Sysadmins
must understand what types of files are held where. Navigate to these locations
utilizing paths, which may be defined from the root of the filesystem (represented
by the forward slash character) or from the user’s present location. Files may also
be linked, making their contents accessible from multiple locations within the
filesystem. This is usually done for convenience.

Linux File Organization

While there are a great many Linux distributions—thousands of them with varied
utilities for varied uses—there are a few things the distros have in common. These
common features allow compatibility between Linux offers and permit a certain
amount of comfort and standardization with regard to where to find specific types
of files. For example, Linux distributions store most configurations in the /etc
directory, most users have a private directory in the /home directory, and log files
are found in /var/log. Such standardization allows software installers to expect
resources in certain locations and sysadmins to anticipate where particular settings
can be found.
This standardization is achieved via the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS).

The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard

The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) is a collaborative document that specifies
a set of guidelines for the names of files and directories and their locations on
Linux systems. Most Linux distributions are FHS-compliant and therefore support
compatibility with other systems. The FHS also creates a naming convention that
helps administrators, users, and applications consistently find the files they are
looking for as well as store files where other entities can easily find them.
As defined in the FHS, the top-most directory in a Linux file system is the root
directory, indicated by a single forward slash (/). Below the root directory are
various subdirectories that are standardized as part of the FHS.

Standard Subdirectories
/bin - Stores essential command-line utilities and binaries. For example, the
/bin/ls is the binary for the ls command.
/boot - Stores the files necessary to boot the Linux operating system.

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/dev - Stores hardware and software device drivers. This directory maintains file
system entries that represent the devices connected to the system (for example,
the /dev/sda1 partition).
/etc - Stores basic configuration files. For example, the /etc/ samba/smb.
conf file stores Samba configuration data.
/home - Stores users’ home directories, including personal files.
/lib - Stores shared program libraries required by the kernel, command-line
utilities, and binaries.
/media - Stores mount points for removable media such as CD-ROMs and floppy
disks.
/mnt - This is the mount point for temporarily mounting file systems.
/opt - Stores optional files of large software packages. These packages normally
create a subdirectory bearing their name under the /opt directory and then place
their files in the subdirectory. For example, the /opt/nessus subdirectory
contains files for the Nessus vulnerability scanning program.
/proc - This is a virtual file system (VFS) that represents continually updated kernel
information to the user in a typical file format (for example, the /proc/mounts file).
/root - The home directory of the root user.
/sbin - Stores binaries that are used for completing the booting process and also
the ones that are used by the root user. For example, the /sbin/ifconfig file is
the binary for the ifconfig command that is used to manage network interfaces
on the system.
/sys - This is another VFS, and it primarily stores information about devices.
For example, /sys/block includes links to devices that are stored in various
subdirectories under the /sys/ devices/ location, which presents a hierarchy
of devices in the kernel.
/tmp - Stores temporary files that may be lost on system shutdown.
/usr - A read-only directory that stores small programs and files accessible to all
users.
The /usr directory contains some important subdirectories.
• /usr/bin - Includes executable programs that can be executed by all
users.
• /usr/local - Includes custom build applications that are stored here
by default.
• /usr/lib - Includes object libraries and internal binaries that are
needed by the executable programs.
• /usr/lib64 - Serves the same purpose as /usr/lib, except it is
meant only for 64-bit systems.
• /usr/share - Includes read-only architecture independent files. These
files can be shared among different architectures of an operating system.

/var - Stores variable files, or files that are expected to constantly change as
the system runs. Examples include log files, printer spools, and some networking
services’ configuration files.

The FHS is displayed by running the following command: ls / (recall that the
forward slash represents the root of the filesystem).

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Key Directories
The critical directories to know from the FHS are /etc, /home, /root, and
/var/log.
/etc
The /etc directory contains files and subdirectories that hold configuration
information for the system and its services. It’s reasonable to assume that if you
need to adjust firewall rules, manage Secure Shell (SSH) access, or configure
software-management settings, you will need to work with files stored in /etc.

/home
The home directory contains a user’s personal files or files that are otherwise
specific to that user. The home directory is where you are placed when you log
in to the system. In Linux, by default, every user except the root user is assigned
a subdirectory in /home that corresponds to their user name. A user can create
subdirectories and files within this directory.
The home directory path is set to a variable named $HOME. When the string
$HOME is used, it references the path to the current user’s home directory, such as
/home/student-user. This text will often reference the home directory using
the $HOME variable. In many shells, including KornShell, C shell, and Bash, the tilde
character (~) represents your home directory.

Output of the ls-a command.

/root
The home directory of the root user is /root. This is not to be confused with the
root directory (/), which is the top-most part of the file system hierarchy.

/var/log
Linux and installed services typically write to log files stored in the /var/log
directory. As a sysadmin investigating a system issue or auditing system access, you
will likely find the information required in log files stored at /var/log.
Familiarity with all of the directories is important, but the directories listed above
are more commonly used and accessed.

Display File Metadata

When examining files it can be useful to display information such as permissions,
size, storage location, modification times, etc. The ls command has options that
provide much of this data, but the output may not be very clear. The stat and
file commands provide good information about file properties.

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Use the stat and file Commands

The stat command displays file metadata in a relatively user-friendly structure.
File size, access information, storage data, and more are displayed. Use the man
page to display various options that supplement stat.
The syntax for the stat command is stat {filename}
The file command displays different metadata. Specifically, it examines the file
type and provides information based on that. It may show PDF version information
for .pdf files or image information for .jpg files. Such information is used to ensure
compatible applications are available to work with the files.
The syntax for the file command is file {filename}

Output of the file and stat commands.

File Naming Conventions

A file name is a string of characters that identify a file. By using the right
combination of characters in file names, you can ensure that the files are unique
and easy to recognize. On an ext4 file system, a file name may be up to 255 bytes
long and contain any byte except NULL (\0) and the forward slash (/). File names
of user files may not be a single dot . or two dots .. because these are special,
reserved file names. Various file systems may enforce different requirements for
file names. Although file names may contain a space, convention on Linux systems
dictates that words in a file name are more frequently demarcated by a hyphen or
an underscore, as these are easier to manage on the command-line. For example,
auditfile.txt or audit_file.txt are acceptable

Absolute and Relative Paths

A path defines the series of directories to be traversed to find a specific file (or
subdirectory). For example, if a text file is stored in the resources directory of your
home directory, the path defines what directories to travel through to arrive at the
file. There are two types of paths: absolute and relative.

Absolute Path
The absolute path defines the directories to traverse, starting from the root of
the filesystem. Recall that the filesystem root is depicted using a forward slash
character (/). The absolute path is the complete path from the top of the directory
structure.

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Suppose a user named student-user wants to find the widgets.txt file, which
is stored in the inventory subdirectory of the resources directory of their home
folder. The absolute path is:
/home/student-user/resources/inventory/widgets.txt
Relative Path
A relative path is dependent upon the user’s current location in the filesystem.
Using the above scenario, if the user is already in their home directory, then the
entire path is unneeded, and all that needs to be specified is the remainder of the
path from the current location. Assuming the user is in their home directory, the
relative path is:
resources/inventory/widgets.txt
In other words, relative to your current location, what’s the rest of the path?

It is a good practice to use absolute paths in resources such as scripts and

configuration files. Relative paths may be different depending on where the file
resource executes from.

Configure File Links

The ln command creates a link to a file. Linking enables a file name in one
directory (the link) to point to a file in another directory (the target). A link does not
contain data of its own. It only contains a reference to the target file. Any changes
to the link will reflect in the target file. If you don’t specify the link name, the ln
command will create the link in your current working directory (CWD).

Helpdesk Ticket #01990

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Ali Selassi Marketing you 2024-05-02

Subject Shorter path option?

Ticket Detail Hello, I’m regularly using a file that is buried in a bunch of
subfolders (the path is: /projects/2022/finance/YTDsales/
Final/salesdata.txt ). Can you help me with an easier way
to access this file rather than drilling down the directory
branches over and over?
Response Sure, I’ve set up a soft link in your home directory.
Look for the file at /home/aselassi and let me know if you
need anything else.
Date last updated 2024-05-03

Understand Inodes
An index node (inode) is an object that stores metadata about a file or directory
on a file system. This metadata can include time-based values such as when a file
was created and last modified, permission and ownership information, the block
locations of a file’s data on a storage device, and other miscellaneous information.

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Each inode on a file system is identified by a unique integer called an inode

number. Whenever the system or an application tries to access a file, it searches for
the appropriate inode number in a data structure called an inode table. The inode
table maps an inode number to its corresponding file or directory name.
Some file systems set a maximum number of inodes when that file system is
created, usually by considering the overall size of the file system. The total number
of files and directories cannot exceed this inode maximum. However, some file
system types, such as XFS, use a dynamic inode allocation system that scales as a
percentage of the file system’s capacity. In other words, these file systems do not
set a strict inode limit.

Use the ls -i command to list the inode numbers for files and directories.

Link Types
Using the ln command, you can create two types of links: hard and symbolic
(soft). Hard and symbolic links are a feature of the file system and are common in
most file systems supported by Linux. The ext2, ext3, ext4, and XFS file systems all
support hard and symbolic links.
The syntax of the ln command is ln [options] {target name}
{link name}
The ln command has various options. Some of these options include:

Option for the ln Command Purpose

--backup Back up existing destination files.

-f Remove existing destination files.

-s Make symbolic links instead of hard

links.

-i Prompt to remove destination files.

-v Print the name of a file before linking.

Configure Hard Links

A hard link is a reference to another file; it enables the file’s data to have more
than one name in different locations in the same file system. Applications treat a
hard link as a real file. If the original file is deleted after a hard link is created, all its
contents will still be available in the linked file. This is because the inode of a hard
link is the same as its target; in other words, it points to the same object on the
file system. Hard links cannot be created between two directories, nor can they be
created between two files in different file systems.
The syntax for hard links is ln /business-docs/current-projects.
txt ~/projects.txt
Configure Symbolic Links
A symbolic link is a reference to a file or directory that can span multiple file
systems. If the original file or directory is deleted after a symbolic link is created,
then the original content is lost. This is because the inode of a symbolic link is
different from its target; in other words, it points to a different object on the file
system. A symbolic link is also known as a soft link.

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The syntax for symbolic links is ls -s /business-docs/current-

projects.txt ~/projects.txt
Use the long format display of the list command to view link information: ls -l

Symbolic links are often referred to as "sym links" for short.

Symbolic link output, showing the "sym-file1" string.

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Review Activity:
The Linux File System
3

Answer the following questions:

1. You are installing a new application on your Linux system. The

documentation states that configuration files and log files will be added
to your system. Where will these files likely be stored, and how does the
FHS make such installations easier?

2. You are in the new-projects directory, which is stored in the projects

directory within your home directory. What is the absolute path to the
new-projects directory?

3. A user submits a ticket regarding a file access issue. The first file,
projectA.txt, had a second hard link named my-project.txt. The same
data was available via either link. The user deleted the my-project.txt
file, and the data was still available via projectA.txt. The second file,
projectB.txt, had a sym link that pointed to the projectB.txt link. When
the projectB.txt link was deleted, the data was no longer available via
the sym link. The user wants to know why the first file is still available
after a link deletion but the second is not.

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Topic 4B
Use File Management Commands
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Given a scenario, manage files and directories.
3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to automate common tasks.

Once the FHS is familiar, navigation among directories is much easier. Commands
such as pwd and cd allow users to understand where in the filesystem they are
and how to move to another location. Over the years, shortcuts have been added
to reduce the amount of typing at the command prompt. Users must manage
file operations—tasks such as moving, copying, creating, and deleting files and
directories—to manage their data correctly. Users must also be able to redirect
information into or out of files.

Navigate Directories
Directories store system configuration files, user data, log files, and other
resources. Linux users move from directory to directory by using various navigation
commands. Shortcuts make the navigation process quicker and simpler.
Knowing how to navigate through the directories allows Linux users to understand
specific directory navigation information such as:
• Where in the file system you are.

• How to change where in the filesystem you are.

• How to use shortcuts to get where you want to go.

Navigation Shortcuts
Absolute and relative paths clearly delineate how to travel from one directory to
another, but over the decades, shortcuts have been established to make common
tasks easier.
The single dot character (represented by “.“) means “here“ or this directory. If your
present working directory is /home/USERNAME/resources, then that path
can be abbreviated as a dot: .
The term parent directory refers to whatever directory is above the current directory.
If your current location is /home/USERNAME/resources/inventory, then
the parent directory of inventory is resources. The parent directory of resources is
USERNAME. The parent directory is often referenced in commands (particularly with
cd), and it has been abbreviated as two dots (represented by “..“). In the above
scenario, the result of typing cd .. is to move to the resources directory. This is far
less typing than the absolute path of /Home/USERNAME/resources.
One of the most useful shortcuts is the tilde symbol (~). This abbreviation means
the home directory of the currently logged-in user. This is incredibly handy. A user
could type cd ~ instead of cd /home/USERNAME to jump to their home
directory. The ~ can be combined with many other commands covered below,
including copy and paste functions.

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Using the cd command to return to your home directory is so common that even the ~
is strictly necessary. If you type cd with no argument (path), Bash assumes you wish to
return to your home directory.

A command-line output showing all three ways (/home/student/, ~, and cd)

of getting "home."

Change Directories
The cd command moves your present working directory to another directory. For
example, if you type pwd and discover you are currently in your home directory,
then you could type cd /etc to move to the /etc directory, where many
configuration files are stored.
The cd command is the primary filesystem navigation command in Bash.
The syntax for the cd command is cd {path}
Note that either an absolute or relative path can be specified, depending on your
current location in the filesystem and the desired destination. To traverse the
filesystem to the inventory subdirectory in the resources directory of your home
directory, type the following:
cd /home/USERNAME/resources/inventory
Know Your Location
The critical piece of knowledge for navigation is to know your current location. In
Linux, this is referred to as the “present working directory,“ and the pwd command
displays that. The output is an absolute path from the root of the filesystem to the
directory the shell is currently focused on. The output from pwd may be used to
confirm your location before a backup job, a file transfer, or the deletion of files.

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The syntax for the pwd command is pwd

Output of the pwd command, showing that the user is in the /home/student directory.

Some Linux distributions are configured to display the name of the current directory
as part of the command prompt. Note that this is not the absolute path but merely the
name of the current directory. The prompt configuration can be changed.

It may be difficult to visualize a location in the filesystem with a text-based path.

This is especially true for users who are more familiar with graphical user interfaces.
The tree command displays the filesystem in a more familiar structure, perhaps
making it easier to understand a directory’s location relative to other directories.

Output of the tree command, showing a hierarchical representation of the directories'

relationship to each other.

The syntax for the tree command is tree {dirname}

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Some options commonly used with tree are:

Option for the tree Command Purpose

-a Display all files, including hidden files.

-d Display directories only.

-s Display file size.

-D Display last modification date.

File Management Scenario: Starting the Project

In order to illustrate how these commands can be used, you’ll walk through a
common workplace scenario. In this scenario, you are responsible for managing
a project through file management tasks and use of commands. You, the project
manager, decide to create the appropriate directories and files to store the project.
In some cases, those files will need to be copied, moved, or renamed. Once the
project concludes, the files will be removed from the system. Throughout this
section, observe how file management commands are used to facilitate the project
management requirements.

What Directories Currently Exist?

You will store project files in your home directory. Before creating a directory
structure to store the files, you want to see what directories currently exist. The
command for displaying directory contents is ls (list).
You move to your home directory and then type ls. If no argument is included with
ls, it displays the contents of the current directory. However, you can display the
contents of the /etc directory by specifying the path to it.
For example, to display the contents of /etc, type:
# ls /etc
Options commonly used with ls include:

Option for the ls Command Purpose

-a Lists all contents, including hidden
resources.

-l Lists contents in long format, most

useful for displaying permissions.

-d Limits the output to directories but not

files.

-R Lists the contents of subdirectories.

-s Displays the file sizes.

Two of the most useful options are -a and -l. The two can be combined, such that
ls -al ~ displays all contents of the home directory in long format (showing
permissions for all files, including hidden ones).

Files where the first character is a dot (".") are hidden by Bash. This isn't a security
feature, but rather a way of keeping some files out of the user's way. Profile files are
often hidden. Use ls -a to display all files, including hidden files.

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Create a Directory Structure

Now that you, the project manager, understand what directories currently exist, it’s
time to create a directory structure to hold the files and subdirectories associated
with the project. The mkdir command creates directories along the specified path.
The syntax for mkdir is mkdir {new-directory-name}
You decide to create a single project directory, and inside that project directory you
create three subdirectories:
• $ mkdir project
• $ mkdir project/drafts
• $ mkdir project/final
• $ mkdir project/resources
You’ll use the ls or tree commands to display these directories.

Commands used to create a project directory with three subdirectories, and use of the ls
command to display the directories.

Create Project Files

Files can be created using multiple methods, including text editors and copy
commands. To create a simple empty file, use the touch command. The original
purpose of touch is to update a file’s timestamp (useful for backup programs), but
one effect of the command is if the specified file doesn’t already exist, it then gets
created.
The syntax for touch is touch {filename}
You’re now ready to create project files. First, the user types the cd project
command to move into the project directory. Next, project files are created with
touch by typing:
  
# touch newprojects.txt completedprojects.txt
timeline.txt

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File Management Scenario: Working the Project

As project manager in our scenario, you now work through the tasks and
deliverables involved in the project, having established your directories and
project files.

Copy and Move Project Files

The files created in the previous section now exist in the project’s directory, but they
aren’t well organized. The cp (copy) and mv (move) commands allow users to place
files in the directory structure.
Duplicating files allows multiple copies of the same file. A common use for copying
a file is as a backup. For example, before making a configuration change to a service
such as SSH, it is prudent to copy the original configuration file. Doing so provides
the opportunity to return the service to its original configuration if necessary.
The syntax for cp is cp {sourcefile} {newfile}

It is a common practice to copy or back up a configuration file before making

significant changes to it. Doing so allows the sysadmin to return the system to an
earlier configuration. For example, before making major configuration changes to the
SSH service, the sysadmin might use the cp command to copy the /etc/ssh/
sshd_config file to /root/sshd_config.old. The .old file extension is
a common way of identifying such files.

While copying a file creates a new file (a duplicate of the original), moving a file
typically places the file elsewhere in the filesystem. While the file itself may not
move from its location on the hard drive, pointers to the file will be updated with a
new location.
The mv command moves one or more files from one location to another. Like cp,
the mv syntax is to specify the source location first and the destination location
second.
The syntax for the mv command when moving a file is mv {source-
location} {destination-location}
For example, to move a fileA from your home directory to the Projects directory in
your home folder type:
$ mv fileA Projects
However, the mv command has a second function. It also serves as the rename
command in Bash. The syntax is the same, but the terms shift to original-filename
and new-filename. The syntax for the mv command when renaming a file is mv
{original-name} {new-name}
For example, to rename an existing file named “sales-project.txt“ to “marketing-
project.txt“, type:
$ mv sales-project.txt marketing-project.txt
In the project management scenario, the cp and mv commands are very useful for
organizing files.
First, you’ll copy the timeline.txt file to the resources directory:
$ cp timeline.txt resources/
Next, you move the newprojects.txt file to the drafts subdirectory:
$ mv newprojects.txt drafts/

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Finally, the completedprojects.txt file is renamed to oldprojects.txt:

$ mv completedprojects.txt oldprojects.txt
Display Project File Contents
The cat command (short for concatenate) is used to combine file contents from
multiple sources into one. It’s much more common, however, to use the command
to display file contents. This is especially useful for content that consumes less than
one screen’s worth of space.
The syntax for the cat command is cat {filename}
You’ll use the echo command and a redirector to add some text to a file:
$ echo "Q1 goals" > drafts/newprojects.txt
Confirm the text exists in the newprojects.txt file by using the cat command:
$ cat drafts/newprojects.txt

Using the cat command to confirm the newly created text exists in the newprojects text file.

Redirectors such as > are covered later in this Topic.

There are many ways to display file contents besides using cat. A text or
configuration file may be opened with a text editor such as Vim or Nano, or
database resources may be accessed via database programs such as MariaDB.

File Management Scenario: Closing the Project

The final step in the life cycle of data is to dispose of the files and directories. Once
a project is completed it may no longer be necessary to retain the files. The rm and
rmdir commands delete files and directories.
Remove Directories and Files
At this point you wish to delete one of the directories. The directory delete
command is rmdir with the directory name as the argument: rmdir
{dir-name}.
If the final directory is empty, you type:
$ rmdir final
The rm command deletes files. Many Linux distributions are preconfigured to ask
for confirmation before deleting a file (there is no undo for the rm command!).

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You may be prompted to enter Y or N to complete the deletion process. Common

options for the rm command include:

Option for the rm Command Purpose

-f Never prompt for confirmation (this is
a dangerous course of action).

-i Interactive mode, prompt for

confirmation before deleting (this is
usually set by default with an alias).

-R Recursively removes a non-empty

directory and its contents.
To delete the file, you type rm timeline.txt, and a ls of the project
directory shows the file is now gone.
The rmdir command works on empty directories but fails with directories that
contain files. The rm command, however, may be used to remove non-empty
directories. To remove the newprojects directory and the files in it, type:
$ rm -fR newprojects

Observe that to delete an empty directory, the command is rmdir, but to remove a
non-empty directory, the rm command is combined with the -R (recursive) option.

If the user is in their home directory, the entire project directory structure can be
deleted by using the rm command and the -R option. Again, be very certain about
what’s being deleted before running this command:
$ rm -fR project
Use the ls command to confirm the project directory and its contents are gone.

Files are not recovered from the CLI. There is no concept of a trash can from which to
recover deleted files. Be careful before using the rm and rmdir commands!

Summarizing the File Management Scenario

In this scenario, the project manager creates a hierarchical directory structure to
store project data. The mkdir command creates the directories. The touch
command creates sample text files to simulate project data. Commands such as
mv and cp allow for file management, while cat provides a look at file contents.
Finally, the rm and rmdir commands delete the resources once the project is
complete.

Display Files with Additional Commands

The cat command is just one of the ways to display file contents. Many other
commands both display the contents and permit more focus on exactly which
data you wish to see. Commands such as less and more allow paging through
text, while head and tail show just the beginning or end of files. The grep
command allows for keyword searching within files or other output.

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Display File Contents with less and more

Helpdesk Ticket #01991

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-05-04

Subject can’t view reports

Ticket Detail I’m pulling up a report that covers 3 years of projects, and
it’s impossible to read. How can I shorten the display?

Date last updated 2024-05-06

Not all file contents fit on the display. When using cat to display a long file, only
the contents at the bottom of the file may fit on the monitor. The remainder scrolls
upward, off the screen. The less command breaks the output into pages that fit
on the screen and can be cycled through.
There are two ways of using less. The first is directly, as a primary command to
display file contents. An example is less long-file.txt. The second way to
use less is to better organize the output of other commands. For example, the
/etc directory has many subdirectories and files—too many to display on the screen
simultaneously. The output of a ls command can be redirected into less, which
allows pagination through the output of ls.
The syntax for this example is ls /etc | less

The pipe character | is discussed later in this Topic in the redirectors section.

The more command is similar to less. The primary difference between the two
commands is that with less, you can paginate up and down, while with more you
can only paginate downward.

Display File Contents with head and tail

Sometimes it’s useful to see only the beginning or the end of a particular file. As a
general rule, configuration files have comments and instructions at the beginning
or top of a file. These comments may provide guidance, version information, and
examples for the file. The head command displays the first 10 lines of a file, giving
administrators valuable information about the file.
The syntax for the head command is head {filename}
Few options exist to modify the head command. The most common option is to
change the number of lines displayed from the default of 10. For example, typing
head -n 15 {filename} will display the first 15 lines of the file.
Log files, however, have the newest information appended at the end of the file.
Hence, if an administrator wishes to see the most recent log file entries, the bottom
of the file must be displayed. The tail command, by default, shows the last 10
lines of a file. This is incredibly helpful for troubleshooting.

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The tail command also has some very practical options. Like head, the tail
command accepts the -n option to modify the number of displayed lines. In
addition, the -f (or follow) option updates the output whenever the bottom of the
file changes. This is useful for following log files, as the display will update whenever
the log file changes.
The basic syntax for the tail command is tail {filename}
To display the last 15 lines of the file, type tail -n 15 {filename}. However,
to follow a log file and see updated output whenever the log file changes, type
tail -f {filename}.

Display Strings with grep

You’ve received a helpdesk ticket from a user who requests a keyword search of a
report. Your solution in this case is to teach them grep.

Helpdesk Ticket #01992

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Joseph Deng Engineering you 2024-05-05

Subject Engineering project report - search?

Ticket Detail I need some help in searching this report by a few key
terms, can you help?
Date last updated 2024-05-06

Commands such as less and tail display the specified file contents, regardless
of whether it contains the data administrators or users need. These commands
don’t search for particular information within the file, they simply display its existing
content.
The grep command is a pattern matcher, which is a complex way of saying it
searches for strings of characters within a data stream. For text files, grep is a find
utility that displays the specified string or search term in the output.

The grep Command

The grep command can be used directly on a file. For example, the command
grep error /var/log/messages searches the messages log file for the
combination of characters that spell “error.“ Any lines of the file containing that
combination of characters in that order are displayed.
Note that grep is case-sensitive, so in the above example, it would match the
string “error,“ but it would fail to display the string with a capital E “Error.“ The -i
option makes grep case insensitive. Modifying the above example to grep -i
error /var/log/messages would display both “error“ and “Error“ if those
strings exist in the file. It would also match any other combination of uppercase and
lowercase characters in that string.
The grep command provides even more functionality when combined with other
commands. Many commands produce a significant amount of output, which users
then have to browse through to find what they need.
The pipe character | takes the output of one command and makes it the input of
another. One of the most common uses of pipe is in combination with grep.

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The syntax for these combinations can take on several different forms.
To list all files in the /etc directory that contain the string “net“ in either uppercase
or lowercase:

To list all files in the /home/student directory that contain the string “.txt“:

To check for the string “jdeng“ in the /etc/passwd file:

To check for the string “localhost“ in the /etc/hosts file:

The pipe (|) character is covered in more detail in the next section of this lesson. The
ps command is also covered later in the course.

The egrep command is a modified version of grep and functions similarly from
the user perspective, but this utility is deprecated in favor of grep -E.

Redirectors
All of this management and manipulation of files is useful for more than just
looking at the results in a terminal. When you use the terminal, or log out entirely,
you’ll want to ensure that crucial information is stored in a file for later retrieval
and analysis. In addition, you’ll benefit from combining multiple commands in
conjunction, making your administrative duties more efficient and powerful.

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Understand Text Streams

A text stream is a sequence of one or more lines of text that applications can
leverage to read from or write to a particular device or system component. This
enables the application to interface with components such as the CLI, files, network
sockets, and more while hiding those components’ details from the application. In
most Linux shells, there are three stream types: standard input, standard output,
and standard error.
Standard input, or stdin, is a text stream that acts as the source for command
input. Standard input for the Linux command-line is usually generated from the
keyboard. In the case of the GUI, the standard input can also come from the mouse.
Standard output, or stdout, is a text stream that acts as the destination for
command output. By default, standard output from a Linux command is directed to
the CLI.
Standard error, or stderr, is a text stream that is used as the destination for error
messages. By default, the standard error stream prints error messages at the CLI.
Redirection is the process of accepting input data from a source other than the
keyboard and sending output data to a destination other than the display device.
In other words, you can use redirection to bypass the default devices when working
with input/output (I/O). Redirection is commonly used to accept input from files or
send output to files using the stdin, stdout, and stderr streams.

Use Redirection Operators

Sysadmins use several operators to redirect input or output.

Redirection
Operator Action Example Results
> Redirect the standard ls > file1.txt The output of the
output to a file. ls command is
redirected to a file
named file1.txt
>> Append the standard ls >> file1.txt The output of the
output to the end of ls command is
the destination file. appended to a file
named file1.txt
2> Redirect the standard ls file3.txt 2> The output will not
error message to a errorfile.txt be displayed on
file. the screen but is
redirected to a file
named errorfile.txt
2>> Append the standard ls file3.txt 2>> The output will not
error message to errorfile.txt be displayed on
the end of the the screen but is
destination file. appended to a file
named errorfile.txt
&> Redirect both the ls file1.txt file3.txt The output will not
standard output and &> errorfile.txt be displayed on
the standard error the screen but is
message to a file. redirected to a file
named errorfile.txt

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Redirection
Operator Action Example Results
< Read the input from mail user@ The myletter.txt
a file rather than address < file is taken as the
from the keyboard or myletter.txt input and attached
mouse. to the email
message.
<<{string} Provide input data cat <<EOF The cat command
from the current This is a here will use the rest
source, stopping document. of the lines in this
when a line EOF file as input. It will
containing the stop accepting
provided string that input when it
occurs. When placed reaches the string
in a script, this is EOF. This string
called a here can be named
document. anything you want.
The output of the
cat command
would therefore
be: This is a here
document.
Redirection operators, their syntax, and results.

Command Modifiers
Several command modifiers exist that allow users to run combinations of
commands. These commands differ from redirectors in that they manipulate the
command, not the output. Learning to use these effectively makes command-line
administration more efficient.

Background a Command
The single ampersand & causes the command to execute in the background.
Normally, when a command is executed, it consumes the shell until it completes.
Some commands, such as backup scripts, may take a very long time to finish, and
until the script is done, the user cannot type in additional commands or accomplish
additional tasks in that shell instance. If the command runs in the background,
however, it executes while the user continues to work within the shell. Such
commands are referred to as jobs.

Process and job management is covered in a later section.

The syntax is the command, followed by a space, followed by an ampersand:

$ sudo backupscript.sh &
Chain Commands
Many Linux users will simply enter one command at a time. In some cases,
however, it is useful to enter multiple commands at a single command prompt. This
approach is known as “chaining,“ and there are several tools in Bash to help you
with this process.

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Standard interaction with the Bash shell involves typing a command, executing the
command, and then typing another command for execution. Commands can be
written sequentially at a single command prompt to be processed in order. There
are multiple ways of doing this.
Piping is the process of combining the standard I/O streams of commands. It uses
the standard output of one command as the standard input for another command.
The output format of the first command should be compatible with the format that
the second command works with. The pipe operator (|) can be used with most
commands in Linux.
$ ls -l | grep audit
This command, which searches for files named “audit,“ is an example of using a
pipe. The standard output of the ls -l command is fed as standard input into the
grep audit command so that grep searches for the term within the directory
listing.

Chain Operator
Character Common Name Results
; semicolon If the semi-colon character is
placed between commands,
they are run one after another,
regardless of whether the
previous command completed
successfully.
&& logical AND If the logical AND is placed
between commands, the
following command is only run
after the previous command
completed successfully. Useful
for commands that rely on
each other’s success.
|| logical OR If the logical OR is placed
between commands, the
following command is only run
if the previous command fails.
! bang If the bang is placed in a
command expression, it
negates the expression. Used
as a way of stating “except
this.“

Many of these command chains and redirectors are used in scripts. Scripts are covered
in a later section.

These command modifiers do not use a typical or regular syntax. Instead, they are
used between commands to modify certain portions of the command expressions.
To run a series of commands one after another:
$ backupscript.sh;rmdir /projects;mkdir holidays.txt
To run a series of commands that rely on the success of the previous command:
$ backupscript.sh && rmdir /projects

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To run a second command only if the first command fails:

$ backupscript.sh || cp projects /tmp
The tee Command
The tee command reads the standard input, sends the output to the default
output device (the CLI), and also copies the output to each specified file. This
command enables you to verify the output of a command immediately as well
as store that output in a file for later reference. It accepts input from another
command using the pipe operator. When used with the -a option, tee appends the
output to each output file instead of overwriting it.
The general syntax of the tee command is command
[options]
[arguments] | tee [options] {file names}
Let’s say you want to check the contents of a directory and also output those contents
to a file to process later. You could issue separate commands to do this, or you can
use the tee command in the following manner: ls -l | tee listing.txt

The xargs Command

The xargs command reads from standard input and executes a command for
each argument provided. Each argument must be separated by spaces. The pipe
operator is used to make the output of the first command the input for the second
command. The xargs command is commonly used with the find command to
operate on each result that is found within the file or directory search.
The general syntax of the xargs command is command [options]
[arguments] | xargs [options] {command}
Let’s say you want to delete all of the files in the /projects directory that have a
.pdf extension. You can use xargs to automate the process: find /projects
-type f -name "*.pdf" | xargs rm. The find command searches
for all files in /projects that have a .pdf extension, then pipes the result to
the xargs command. Because the results are delimited by a space, the xargs
command will execute the rm command for each file in the results— removing all
PDF files in the directory.
The xargs command has several common options.

Option for the xargs Command Purpose

-I {replacement string} Consider each line in the standard input
as a single argument.

-L {number of lines} Read a specified number of lines from

the standard input, and concatenate
them into one long string.

-p Prompt the user before each command.

-n {number of arguments} Read the maximum number of arguments

from the standard input, and insert them
at the end of the command template.

-E {end of string} Represent the end of the standard input.

-t Write each command to the standard error

output before executing the command.

-s {max size} Set the maximum allowable size of an

argument list to a specified number of
characters.

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Review Activity:
File Management Commands
5

Answer the following questions:

1. You have been assigned a helpdesk ticket to answer a user question. The
user is attempting to rename files but cannot find the rename command.
What command do you teach the user?

2. A user asks how to delete a directory named /projects containing 100

directories. The user does not want to delete the files individually and
does not want to be prompted to confirm the deletion of each file. What
is the appropriate command expression, and why?

3. A user complains that they redirected the output from several

commands into a text file, but the only content that appears in the file
is the output from the most recent command. How would you explain to
the user what happened and how to correct the problem?

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Topic 4C
Find File Locations
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to automate common tasks.

Users and sysadmins may struggle to find older files managed by the system and
applications. The find command permits users to search for files based on specific
parameters such as name, ownership, permissions, and more. Users can use
commands such as which to discover where files were executed. Finally, many
file manipulation commands, such as sed, awk, wc, echo, and others, help
sysadmins find data available within files.

Search Commands
Even though the Linux filesystem is fairly well organized by the Filesystem Hierarchy
Standard, and users have file management options with mkdir, mv, and grep
commands, sometimes files are lost or their location is unknown. The primary
command for searching for files using parameters is the find command. The
locate command is an alternative that may make searching easier in a very large
filesystem. Finally, the which command displays where a command executable file
is stored.

The find Command

Helpdesk Ticket #01993

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Joseph Deng Engineering you 2024-05-10

Subject lost file - help!

Ticket Detail I cannot find my file NICspecs.txt, it’s just gone. How can I
get it back?

Response Hi Joseph, you can search by the file name or by the file
owner using the find command.
Date last updated 2024-05-10

The find command searches the filesystem for files that match the given parame-
ters. These parameters might be file size, modification date, owner, or even permissions.
The find command is a powerful tool for managing files.
The syntax for find is more complicated than some other commands. The general
syntax is:
# find {where to search} {search criteria}

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For example, to search for a file named “business-plan.txt“ in the projects directory
within your home directory, type:
# find -name business-plan.txt /home/USERNAME/
projects
The -name option specifies to search by name.

Option for the find Command Purpose

-name Search by name.

-type f Search by resource type file.

-type d Search by resource type directory.

-perm Search by permissions level.

For example, to search for any files in the /etc directory with the rwx permissions
for ugo, type:
# find /etc -perm 777
Though this example uses absolute mode, find is capable of interpreting symbolic
mode as well.

A search by permissions of the /home/student directory returns only those files with the
664 access level.

The locate and updatedb Commands

The find command is not the only search option for the filesystem. The locate
command can also search for files and directories along a specified path. Locate
relies on an index database for its search. While locate may be quicker due to this
index, it’s only accurate when the index is current.
The syntax for the locate command is locate [options] {string}
Sometimes the search you’re doing should ignore uppercase and lowercase
characters. The -i option disables case sensitivity.
For example, to search for a file named “reports.txt“ in the current directory, type:
# locate reports.txt.

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The updatedb command is used to both build and update a database of files
based on the /etc/updatedb.conf file. The database itself is located at
/var/lib/mlocate/mlocate.db. The configuration file can be set to
exclude particular directories that should not be indexed by the utility.

Comparing find and locate Commands

The locate command searches a database and retrieves information on files
present on the system. However, failure to keep this database updated may
produce outdated results. The find command, on the other hand, performs
a live search of the filesystem and may concentrate on a specific location.
The find command may take more time to complete a search than the locate
command.

The which Command

The which command displays the complete path of a specified command by
searching the directories assigned to the PATH variable. For example, upon entering
which cat, the following output is displayed: /bin/cat.
The which command can help you locate where a program has been installed.
It can also help identify which version of a command you’re using if there are
multiple binaries of the command stored in different locations. By identifying
where a command is running, you can troubleshoot unexpected behavior more
easily.
The syntax for the which command is which {command}

Using the which command to display the complete path of a command.

File Manipulation Commands

Various commands are available to manipulate existing files or to display file
information. These commands might append text to files, conduct find-and-replace
operations, count words or characters in a file, sort file contents, or compare the
contents of two files.

The echo Command

The echo command is used to display a line of text on the terminal. You can also
use the echo command to write text to a file by providing the string after the
echo command and redirecting to the file.
The syntax of the echo command is echo {string}

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The printf Command

The printf command is similar to echo but provides the user with much more
control over how the output is formatted. You can supply various format characters
within the text you want to output, using a backslash (\) to indicate when they are
being used. For example,
$ printf "Hello.\nWhat's your name?"
will print:
Hello.
What's your name?
This is because \n is the newline format character, and it automatically adds a new
line wherever it is placed.
The printf command also supports conversion characters, which use a percent
sign (%) to indicate when they are being used. Conversion characters are typically
used in scripts to change the output of a variable, like dictating the number of
decimal places to print after a precise calculation.

The tr Command
The tr command is used to translate a string of characters. It is predominantly
used to change the case of letters in a file. This command acts only on a stream of
characters and does not accept file names as arguments. You must use redirection
to actually change a file.
The syntax of the tr command is tr {character 1} {character 2}
where {character 1} is the character to be replaced.

The wc Command
The word count (wc) command is used to count the number of lines, words, and
characters in a text file. If multiple files are specified, then the command displays
the counts for each file and the total count for all files.
The syntax of the wc command is wc [options] {file-names}
The wc command provides various options that enable you to specify the nature of
the output.

Option for the wc Command Purpose

-c Display the byte count.

-m Display the character count.

-l Display the newline count.

-w Display the word count.

Here is an example of combining the find command with wc to display how

many files in the /sales directory match the search parameters of 775
permissions:
$ find /sales -perm 775 | wc -l

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The sort Command

The sort command arranges the lines within a file. Some of the most common
sort command options are in this table.
Option for the sort Command Purpose
-k{column numbers] Specify field values. For example, -k2
indicates the second field.
-n Compare and sort lines based on the
string numerical value.
-r Sort fields in descending order. By
default, the fields are sorted in
ascending order.
-t{delimiter} Separate one field from another.

The syntax of the sort command is sort [options] {file-names}

The cut Command

The cut command extracts the specified lines of text from a file using any of the
common options found in this table.

Option for the cut Command Purpose

-c Specify the number of the character
to cut from each line.
-d{delimiter} Separate one field from another.

-f{field numbers} Specify the field numbers to cut, as

separated by the delimiter. For example,
-f2 indicates the field between the first
and second instances of the delimiter.
-s Suppress a line if the delimiter is not
found.

The syntax of the cut command is cut [options] {file-names}

The paste Command
The paste command is used to merge lines from text files horizontally. Each line
of an initial file is a row in the first column; using paste, you specify a second file,
and every line of the second file becomes a row in a newly created second column.
By default, the paste command uses a tab space delimiter to separate each
column. You can use the -d option to specify a different delimiter.
For example, you have a file named cities that contains the city names New
York, Tokyo, London, and Lima. You have a second file named countries that
lists the four corresponding countries United States, Japan, United Kingdom, and
Peru. The output of paste -d , cities countries merges the two:
• New York,United States

• Tokyo,Japan

• London,United Kingdom

• Lima,Peru

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The diff Command

The diff command is used to compare text files. The command displays the two
files and the differences between them. Using various symbols, the output suggests
how you can change one file to make it identical to the other. Each symbol has a
special meaning. The less-than symbol (<) with a line after it means that line should
be removed from the first file because it doesn’t appear in the second. The greater-
than symbol (>) with a line after it means that line should be added from the second
file. In addition, the diff command also denotes the line numbers for each file
that would be affected by deletion, addition, and change operations.
The syntax of the diff command is diff {file-name 1} {file-name 2}
You can specify the nature of the output with these options:

Option for the diff Command Purpose

-b Ignore spacing differences.

-i Ignore case differences.

-t Expand tab characters in output lines.

-w Ignore spacing differences and tabs.

-c Display a list of differences with three

lines of context.

-u Output results in unified mode, which

presents a more streamlined format.

The awk Command

The awk command performs pattern matching on files. It is based on the AWK
programming language. The awk keyword is followed by the pattern, the action to
be performed, and the file name. The action to be performed is given within curly
braces. The pattern and the action to be performed should be specified within
single quotes. If the pattern is not specified, the action is performed on all input
data. Similarly, if the action is not specified, the entire line is printed.
The awk command can be executed from the command-line or from within an AWK
script file. The awk command can be used to process text files in a variety of ways,
such as extracting text matching a certain pattern, deleting text matching a certain
pattern, adding text matching a certain pattern, and many more.
The syntax of the awk command is awk [options] ['patterns
{actions}'] {file-names}
In awk scripts, you can provide patterns along with blocks of code. If a pattern
matches any line in the input file, the code block in the script will be executed.
For example, the following awk query retrieves all records in the example.txt
file beginning with “a“, “b“, or “c“:
$ awk '/[abc]/' example.txt
To retrieve all records whose first field contains the value “abc“ from the
example.txt file, type awk awk "abc" example.txt

The sed Command

The sed or stream editor command is a program that you can use to modify text
files according to various parameters. The sed command can also be used for
global search and replace actions.

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Some of the more common options for sed are:

Options for the sed Command Purpose

d Delete the lines that match a specific
pattern or line number.

-n,p Print only the lines that contain the

pattern.

s Substitute the first occurrence of the

string in the file.

s,g Globally substitute the original string

with the replacement string for each
occurrence in the file.

The general syntax of the sed command is sed {'option/address/

action'} {file-names}
Addresses tell sed to act only on certain lines or to act only on text that matches
a given regular expression pattern. They are optional. Addresses are followed by
the action to be performed when a match is found. The last argument is the name
of the input file. The option, address, and action parameters are typically enclosed
within single quotation marks.

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Review Activity:
File Location
5

Answer the following questions:

1. You are conducting a security audit and need to document user access
to log files—specifically whether any files are world-readable or whether
any allow rwx access to all users. How can the find command be used in
such a project, and what specific command might you use?

2. A coworker on the helpdesk team is troubleshooting an issue where a

user is attempting to run a command, but the command is not executing.
Your coworker needs to discover where the command executes from as
part of the troubleshooting process. What command(s) can you suggest?

3. A senior sysadmin suggests that commands such as sed, awk, and sort
are just as useful in automation as at the command-line. How might
commands such as these be used in automation?

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Lesson 4
Summary
4

Data stored on a Linux system is organized using directories. Because there

are many different Linux distributions, directories are standardized into
the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard to allow compatibility for both users
and applications. Linux users must understand their current location in the
filesystem and how to interpret paths to other locations. These skills are directly
related to file operations and management, which involves the creation and
deletion of files and directories. Often, users will search the filesystem for
resources needed.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• Recognize file management commands

• Display all file contents by using cat

• Display the end of file contents by using tail

• Display file contents in a paginated format by using less

• Use redirectors to place command output into files.

• Use redirectors to send command output as the input for additional

commands

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in
Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

stat stat {file-name} Display file metadata in Lesson 4,
a relatively user-friendly Topic A
structure.
file file {file-name} Display file information Lesson 4,
based on the file type. Topic A
ln ln [options] Create links, either hard Lesson 4,
{target-name} or symbolic. Topic A
{link-name}
cd cd {path} Move your present Lesson 4,
working directory to Topic B
another directory.

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

tree tree {directory- Display the filesystem in Lesson 4,
name} a hierarchical structure, Topic B
perhaps making it
easier to understand
a directory’s location
relative to other
directories.
mkdir mkdir {new- Create directories along Lesson 4,
directory-name} the specified path. Topic B

cp cp {source-file} Copy a file into a new Lesson 4,

{new-file} location while retaining Topic B
the source file in its
original location.
mv mv {source- Place the file elsewhere Lesson 4,
location} in the filesystem. Topic B
{destination-
location}
mv mv {original- The rename command Lesson 4,
filename} in Bash. Topic B
{new-filename}
rmdir rmdir Remove (delete) a Lesson 4,
{directory- directory with no files Topic B
name} in it.

rm rm [options] Remove (delete) a file or Lesson 4,

{file-name} a non-empty directory. Topic B

head head {file-name} Display the first 10 lines Lesson 4,

of a file. Topic B
tail tail {file-name} Display the last 10 lines Lesson 4,
of a file. Topic B
grep grep {character- Search for strings of Lesson 4,
string] characters within a data Topic B
stream. Grep is case-
sensitive unless the -i
option is used.
xargs command Read from standard Lesson 4,
[options] input and executes a Topic B
[arguments] | command for each
xargs [options] argument provided.
{command}
tee command Read the standard input, Lesson 4,
[options] sends the output to the Topic B
[arguments] | default output device
tee [options] (the CLI), and also copies
{file names} the output to each
specified file.

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

find find {where to Search the filesystem for Lesson 4,
search} {search files that match the given Topic C
criteria} parameters.

locate locate [options] Search for files and Lesson 4,

{string} directories along a Topic C
specified path.
updatedb updatedb Build and update a Lesson 4,
database of files based Topic C
on the /etc/updatedb.
conf file.
which which {command} Display complete path of Lesson 4,
a specified command. Topic C

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 5
Authoring Text Files
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Linux users edit text files in day-to-day activities and when making system
configuration changes. Because a graphical user interface (GUI) is not always
available, visual menus are not always possible; text editing in Linux is very different
from text editing in other platforms. Text editors rely on various modes and
metakeys to enable functions such as save and copy/paste. It’s also essential to
ensure that files are backed up, protected, and that their integrity is guaranteed.
This Lesson focuses on Linux text editors such as Vim and archiving tools such
as tar.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Edit text files.

• Manage text files.

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Topic 5A
Edit Text Files
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Given a scenario, manage files and directories.

Text file editing is a basic but essential skill for Linux users. In Linux the graphical
user interface is optional, making text editing unique in Linux compared to other
operating systems. If the Linux system does not have a GUI, editors that rely on
mouse-driven menu options cannot be used. Sysadmins must use the keyboard
only to access all text editor program functions in this case. This Topic covers the
common Linux text editors that all users should be familiar with. It is critical to be
able to open, edit, save, and close files with any Linux editor.

Configuration File Concepts

Most Linux configurations are held in text files. Settings such as network addresses,
video and display options, device initialization, and even user profiles are stored in
text files. The role of sysadmins is to manage the Linux server’s configuration. To
change system settings, one must often edit these configuration files.
Recall that most Linux servers do not use a graphical user interface (GUI), and
therefore word processing programs with mouse-clickable interfaces are not
commonly available. Instead, text editors controlled entirely from a command-
line interface are used to manipulate these configuration files. There are many text
editors available for Linux, but two of the most common are Vim and Nano.
For example, the SSH (Secure shell) program is frequently used for remote
administration with Linux systems. A text file at /etc/ssh/sshd_config must
be edited to configure who is allowed to remotely connect to the server, what level
of remote access they will have, and to present a warning or instructional message
to the connecting user. The sysadmin must be proficient with text editors to ensure
the server is properly configured for remote administration.

Common Text Editors

GUI-based text editors like gedit are usually self-explanatory and offer familiar
functions. Tasks such as opening files and saving changes are handled via menus.
Text editors that operate at the command-line, such as Vim and Nano, do not have
mouse-driven menu options. Instead, these editors rely on keyboard keystrokes to
manage the file. Nano accomplishes this by using the Ctrl metakey. Vim switches
among different modes. Depending on the mode, the keyboard interacts differently
with the program.

Text Editor Name Description

vi A visual text editor that was originally created for
Unix® and was later cloned into FOSS versions.
Vim The default text editor in most Linux distributions.

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Text Editor Name Description

Emacs A flexible, powerful, and popular text editor used in
Linux and Unix.
gVim The graphical version of the Vim editor.
gedit A simple yet powerful GUI-based text editor used in
the GNOME desktop environment.
GNU nano A small, user-friendly text editor.

Vim
The “Vi Improved,” or Vim editor, is installed on most distributions. It is extremely
powerful and a little complex, but the general functionality is straightforward. Vim
has three modes. When switching modes, the keyboard will react differently. For
example, pressing the w key in one mode inserts the “w” character in the text of the
file. In a different mode, however, the w key writes or saves changes to the file.

The older version of Vim is named vi (pronounced “vee-eye”), and it is not often used
on modern Linux systems. Frequently, when a user types vi to invoke the editor, the
Vim editor is automatically invoked instead. The vi editor is more limited, but its basic
functionality is the same as that of Vim.

The opening page of Vim.

To make working with Vim easier, begin by memorizing what the three primary
modes do and how to switch among them.
Both Command Mode and Execute Mode manipulate the file by doing an action
such as creating or saving a file, while Insert Mode actually manages the text in a
file (writing or deleting words). The default mode you see upon opening Vim is the
Command mode.

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There is a fourth Vim mode named Visual, which allows the user to select or highlight
text for copying, deleting, and other tasks. Visual mode is not covered in this course.

Users switch between modes by using the following keystrokes:

• ESC -- Enter Command mode.
• : -- Enter Execute mode.
• i -- Enter Insert mode (I, o, and O are also used).

Command Mode Keystrokes

Command mode provides several features for working with files. Options include
jumping to the top or bottom of a file, jumping to a specific line number, and using
keystrokes to make editing the files more efficient.
To move to the top, bottom, or specified line of the file:
• gg -- Move to the top of the file.
• G -- Move to the bottom of the file.
• 42G -- Move to line 42 of the file.
To move the cursor around the text:
• h -- Move the cursor left.
• j -- Move the cursor down.
• k -- Move the cursor up.
• l -- Move the cursor right.
To delete a word, a line, or a specified number of lines of text:
• d -- Delete word at cursor’s position.
• dd -- Delete line at cursor’s position.
• 3dd -- Delete three lines.
To copy and paste lines of text:
• yy -- Cut the line at the cursor’s position (yank).
• p -- Put the yanked line at the cursor’s new position (put).
To save and close the file:
• ZZ -- Write the file to disk and exit Vim.

There are many additional commands in Command mode, but for the purpose of
learning the editor, only some commands have been documented here.

Execute Mode Commands

Execute mode provides a command prompt. Several commands are available, but
the most common are commands that save the file and exit the program.

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Execute Mode Command Purpose

:w Write the file to disk (save).

:w newfilename Write the file to disk with a new name.

:q Quit Vim.

:wq Write the file, then quit Vim.

:q! Quit Vim without writing changes.

Observe that ZZ in Command mode and :wq in Execute mode do the same thing.

Insert Mode Commands

Insert mode is the common interface most users envision when thinking of a text
editor. This is the mode where text is edited by adding or removing characters.
Using the keyboard in this mode enables the traditional functionality of typing
information into the file.
There are several ways of leaving Command mode and entering Insert mode.
The primary difference in these methods is where the cursor appears for adding
new text. The simplest way of entering Insert mode is by typing the lowercase i
and then using arrow keys to position the cursor. However, other Insert mode
commands may make editing more efficient.
Other ways of entering Insert mode:
• i -- Insert text before the cursor (standard entry method).
• I -- Insert text at the beginning of the selected line.
• a -- Insert text after the cursor.
• A -- Insert text at the end of the selected line.
• o -- Insert text on a new line below the selected line.
• O -- Insert text on a new line above the selected line.
Using these Command mode keystrokes switches Vim to Insert mode and adds text
at the specified position.

Multiple Windows in Vim

Another powerful Vim feature is split-screen. Vim’s interface can be split into
windows vertically, horizontally, or both. Each window may focus on the same
file, or different files can be open side by side. All split windows contain the full
functionality of Vim.
Sysadmins might choose a horizontal split for a configuration file. Configuration
files often contain examples and explanations at the top of the file, yet the actual
lines to be configured may be much closer to the bottom of the file. One window
may be open displaying the top of the file while another window displays a lower
section of the file. The sysadmin can reference the top of the file while editing the
bottom.
The key combination Ctrl+w provides the most split-screen functionality. To split
Vim into two or more horizontal windows, type Ctrl+w and then type s.

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Vim screens split horizontally.

Users may find it useful to compare two files or may need to transfer content
between the files. In this case, it’s useful to have the files open side-by-side (vertical
split). The user can glance back and forth between the two file versions, making
whatever edits are desired.
Split Vim into two or more vertical windows by typing Ctrl+w and then v.

Vim screens split vertically.

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To cycle from one window to the next, type Ctrl+w and then w. You can also use
Ctrl+w with the four normal directional keys mapped in Vim.

nano
Nano is a simpler (but less powerful) text editor than Vim. As such, many users
and administrators prefer nano for basic editing functions. Nano does not use the
concept of modes. Instead, pressing the Ctrl key on the keyboard along with
various character keys issues commands to the program.
The nano command invokes the editor. If an existing file is specified, the editor
opens it. If no file is specified, nano creates a new file for editing.

Note that the name of the text editor is “nano," with no capitalization.

Shortcuts in nano
When nano opens a new or existing file, no further action is needed to begin editing.
Simply pressing keys on the keyboard begins the process of entering text. You can
move the cursor through the file using the arrow keys. Most commands are issued
to nano by using the Ctrl key; however, other keys, such as Alt and Tab, may
be used for some functions.

The Ctrl key is represented by the ^ (“caret") character in some documentation.

Hence, ^X represents Ctrl+X.

Common nano Shortcut Purpose

Ctrl + A Move to the start of the line.

Ctrl + E Move to the end of the line.

Ctrl + N Move down one line.

Ctrl + P Move up one line.

Alt + \ Move to the top of the file.

Alt + / Move to the bottom of the file.

Ctrl + S Save the file.

Ctrl + O Write out the file (save as).

Ctrl + X Exit Nano.

Menu showing the nano commands.

Nano is quite powerful and contains many keystroke shortcuts in addition to those
mentioned here. Use the arrow keys, Page Up, Page Down, and Home keys to
navigate within a document.

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Copying parts of text on a line requires you to “mark” the text you want to copy with
the Ctrl+^ shortcut. You then navigate your cursor to highlight the text you want
to copy. Pressing Alt+^ copies the marked/highlighted text, and Ctrl+U pastes
it. You can cut the current line by using Ctrl+K.

Gedit
The gedit text editor is the default text editor used in GNOME desktop
environments and is a member of the GNU Project. Unlike Vim and nano, gedit
has a GUI with a typical menu-based design that makes it easy to work with. It also
has features such as syntax highlighting and spell checking and can be customized
through plugins. While not as powerful as Vim, gedit may still be useful in systems
that have a desktop environment installed.
Although you can launch gedit from the desktop, you can also use the CLI with the
gedit command. The syntax is similar to vim and nano—typing the editor name
with no argument opens a new file, whereas providing a file name as an argument
either opens an existing file or creates a new one with that name.

The gedit file menu.

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Review Activity:
Text Files
3

Answer the following questions:

1. A user contacts you and wants an easier text editor to use than Vim.
There is no GUI installed on the system in question. What text editor do
you suggest and why?

2. Explain how the keyboard responds depending on which mode Vim is

currently in. How do modes add to Vim’s functionality?

3. Why are text editors more important on Linux systems than on other
systems?

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Topic 5B
Manage Text Files
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.2 Given a scenario, manage files and directories.

Both user and system files must be protected. It is common to back up user files
in case of hard disk failure. It is also common to back up system configuration files
before making major changes. Doing so offers the ability to restore the original
configuration file if something goes wrong with new changes. The tar utility is
often used to back up or compress files. In addition, applications or other data
files available on the web are commonly bundled with tar for ease of access. After
downloading such files, verify their integrity to ensure the files are legitimate,
complete, and uncorrupted.

Archive and Extract with tar

Users and sysadmins alike need to backup, bundle, and compress files and
directories. Bundling and compressing files makes them easier to download, copy,
or work with. While the primary tool for this work is tar, both cpio and dd may
be used in some cases.
Downloading or copying many files simultaneously may be both inconvenient and
inefficient. If the files are assembled into a single bundle, then only the bundle
needs to be managed with download or copy functions. Many files can be handled
as one, and they can be unbundled after the transfer is complete. In this way, tape
archiver, or “tar,” offers quite a lot of flexibility.

Helpdesk Ticket #01994

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Ali Selassi Marketing you 2024-05-14

Subject Archiving contact files

Ticket Detail I’m having a hard time archiving a whole bunch of files, can
you assist?

Thanks,
Ali S
Date last updated 2024-05-14

When using tar to work with a group of files, the primary phases are:
1. Create a tarball (bundle).

2. Add files to the tarball.

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3. Transfer the tarball to a different location (usually with the cp or

mv commands).

4. Extract the files from the tarball.

The syntax for the tar command is tar [options] {file1, file2,
file3...}
Some common options for tar are:

Option for the tar Command Purpose

-c Create a tarball.
-x Extract files from a tarball.
-t Test (or list) files in a tarball.
-v Specify a verbose output.
-r Append files to an existing archive.
-f Specify the tarball filename.

Helpdesk Ticket #01994-r

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Ali Selassi Marketing you 2024-05-14

Subject Archiving contact files

Ticket Detail I’m having a hard time archiving a whole bunch of files, can
you assist?

Thanks,
Ali S
Response Sure thing, Ali. Please take a look at the attached walkthrough
using the -c and -x options with tar

Date last updated 2024-05-15

Using the example in the helpdesk ticket, the following list is a demonstration of the
tar utility. This series of commands will manage user Ali Selassi’s proposed archive
consisting of file1, file2, file3, and file4.
1. Create a new tarball:
tar -cvf filearchive.tar file1 file2 file3
2. Display the files in the archive:
tar -tf filearchive.tar
3. Add a file to the archive:
tar -rf filearchive.tar file4
4. Extract the files from the archive (this is equivalent to a restore process in a
backup/restore scenario).
tar -xf filearchive.tar

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The full CLI output of the different steps of the tar utility.

Keep in mind that as a user, you will frequently interact with tar archives as part
of a download process. Experience with tar makes both file management and
download processes easier.

Copy In and Copy Out with cpio

The cpio tool is found on most Linux distros and is similar to tar. The name
describes its function: it will copy data in and out of an archive, hence cpio (copy
in out).
When using cpio to back up files, the function is “copy out” of the filesystem into
an archive by using the -o option. The related restore process is to “copy in” to the
filesystem from the archive by using the -i option. The cpio tool typically relies on
redirectors as part of these processes.

Option for the cpio Command Purpose

-o Copy out of the filesystem (backup).
-i Copy in to the filesystem (restore).
-v Specify the verbose mode.
To copy files out of the current directory and into an archive as part of a backup
procedure, type:
ls | cpio -ov > /tmp/archive.cpio
To copy files in to the filesystem, thereby restoring the files, type:
cpio -iv /tmp/archive.cpio

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There is quite a bit of cross-functionality possible, as cpio is capable of creating

tar files.

Copy and Convert with dd

The dd command copies and converts files to enable them to be transferred from
one type of media to another. The dd command has various operands, or actions,
to perform.
The syntax of the dd command is dd [options] [operands]
You can use dd to perform a full backup of a storage partition. The following
example copies data from /dev/sda1 to /dev/sdb2:
dd if=/dev/sda of=/dev/sdb
Using dd, you can also create an image of a drive and then clone a second drive
with it:
dd if=/dev/sda of=drive_image.iso
dd if=drive_image.iso of=/dev/sdb
Operand for the dd Command Purpose
if={file name} Specify the file from which data will
be read.

of={file name} Specify the file to which data will be

written.

bs={bytes} Specify the total block size to read and

write, in bytes. Bytes can also be formatted
in a more human-friendly way, such as 50M
to specify 50 megabytes and 10G to specify
10 gigabytes.

count={count} Specify the number of blocks to be written

to the output file from the input file.

status={level} Specify the level of information to print to

standard error:
• none to suppress everything except
error messages.

• noxfer to suppress total transfer

statistics.

• progress to display transfer statistics

periodically.

Compress Files
Compression is a procedure in which data is encoded to reduce the amount of
bits that are used to represent that data. The compression process can significantly
reduce the size of a file or collection of files in order to make the storage and
transfer of data more efficient. Although the file takes up less space, it still contains
the requisite information so that only redundant data is removed (lossless
compression) or so that only noncritical data is lost (lossy compression).

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Compression is commonly used to reduce the storage and transmission burden

involved with creating, maintaining, and recovering from backups. Rather than
backing up data one-to-one, you can compress that data and then store it.

Compressing with gzip

GNU zip (gzip) is a compression utility that reduces the size of selected files. Files
compressed with gzip frequently have the .gz file extension. The gzip command
has several options.

Option for the gzip Command Purpose

-d Reverse file compression (decompression).

-f Force compression or decompression of a

file even if it has multiple links or if the file
exists.
-n Omit saving the original file name and
timestamp.
-N Save the original file name and timestamp.

-q Suppress all warnings.

-r Enable directory recursion during

compression or decompression.
-v Display the name and percentage reduction
of the compressed or decompressed file.
-t Perform an integrity check on the
compressed file.
The syntax of the gzip command is gzip [options] [file names]
The gunzip command is equivalent to issuing gzip -d at the command-line.

Compressing with xz
The xz command is a data compression utility, similar to gzip, that reduces the
size of selected files and manages files in the .xz file format. The xz command has
several options.

Option for the xz Command Purpose

-d Decompress a file.

-f Force compression or decompression of a

file even if it has multiple links or if the file
exists.

-q Suppress all warnings.

-v Display the name and percentage reduction

of the compressed or decompressed file.

-t Perform an integrity check on the

compressed file.
The syntax of the xz command is xz [options] [file names]

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Compressing with bzip2

The bzip2 command and its related commands manage file compression. Files
compressed with bzip2 frequently have the .bz2 file extension. The bzip2-related
commands are described in the following table.

bzip2 Related Command Purpose

bzip2 Compress a file.

bunzip2 Decompress a file.

bzcat Decompress a file to standard output.

bzip2recover Run the diff command on compressed

files. Recover data from damaged .bz2 files.

bzless Run the less command on compressed

files.

bzmore Run the more command on compressed

files.
The syntax of the bzip2 command is bzip2 [options] {file names}
For example, to compress files file1 and file2, type:
bzip2 file1 file2
Compressing with zip
The zip command is another compression utility that (unlike gzip, xz, and
bzip2) also features file archiving functionality. In fact, zip is a combination of
an older compression utility, called compress, and the tar archive command. Files
compressed with zip frequently have the .zip file extension. The zip command
has several options.

Option for the zip Command Purpose

-d Delete entries in a .zip archive.
-e Encrypt the contents of an archive.
-F Fix a corrupted .zip archive.
-r Enable recursion.
-T Perform an integrity check on the
archive file.
The syntax of the zip command is zip [options] [file names]
Which Compression Method Should You Choose?
Which compression tool to use will often depend on your own particular needs,
but some generalities can be made about each. The most important factors are the
speed/time of compression and decompression, and the compression ratio, which
is the size of the uncompressed file divided by the size of the compressed file (e.g.,
a 5 MB uncompressed file that becomes 1 MB when compressed has a ratio of 5:1).

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For compression speed, tests tend to show that gzip is slightly faster than bzip2,
and both are significantly faster than xz when the applied compression level
increases. For decompression speed, gzip tends to be the fastest again, with xz and
bzip2 as second and third fastest, respectively. When it comes to compression ratio,
xz tends to perform the best, followed by bzip2, with gzip having the worst ratio.
Ultimately, consider using:
• gzip—if you just care about compressing and decompressing files as fast as
possible and are less concerned with storage space.

• xz—if storage space is at a premium, and time is not as much of a factor.

• bzip2—to strike a balance and for data that rarely needs to be decompressed.

Use Compression with tar

Frequently it’s useful to bundle files with tar and compress them with a tool such as
gzip. While this can be accomplished in two separate steps, it’s easier to integrate
the compression process into the tar process. The tar command recognizes
compression utilities such as gzip and bzip2. Simply add -z to compress with
gzip, or -j to compress with bzip2, to the regular tar command. Add the .gz
or .bz2 file extension name to the bundle.

Helpdesk Ticket #01995-r

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Ali Selassi Marketing you 2024-05-26

Subject Archiving contact files - follow up

Ticket Detail Thanks for your help before, the tar command is really help-
ful. I’m trying to download files now and I need a way to make
that process easier. Can you help?

Thanks,
Ali S
Response Yes, you can combine the tar utility with a compression tool
like gzip or bzip2. I’ve sent over a tutorial on how to use it.

Date last updated 2024-05-27

To combine tar and gzip, type:

tar -czvf myfiles.tar.gz *.txt
To combine tar and bzip2, type:
tar -cjvf myfiles..tar.bz2 *.txt
The same options are used with tar’s file extraction option, -x. Place a z or j
option in the command with -x to decompress and extract the files.

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Confirm File Integrity

Integrity checking is the process of verifying that data has not been modified,
whether intentionally or unintentionally, in any way. In other words, an integrity
check can validate the security goal of integrity. It is good practice to perform
integrity checking after you finish compressing and archiving a backup file to
confirm that the data has not changed. This will help you avoid storing corrupted
and inaccurate archives for future recovery, only to find out too late that the data
was not properly backed up.
Several methods enable you to check data integrity, each of which may vary
based on its security requirements or goals. One of the most common and secure
methods of checking data integrity is hashing. By calculating the hash of a file like a
backup archive, you can compare that hash to past values. If both are the same, you
can be reasonably sure that the data has not changed in the meantime.

You'll use the md5sum command to check file integrity in Lesson 12.

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Review Activity:
Text File Management
5

Answer the following questions:

1. Why is it a good practice to back up a configuration file before making

changes?

2. Why should the integrity of a file downloaded from the Internet be

checked by tools such as SHA or MD5?

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Lesson 5
Summary
3

Linux users must be able to open, edit, save, and close text files using various text
editors, especially Vim and Nano. Not only is user data held in text files, but system
settings are also stored in these files and must be edited to make configuration
changes. Furthermore, user data should be backed up or may need to be available
for transfer to other systems. Archiving tools like tar play an important role in file
management. The text editing skills covered in this Lesson are critical to all facets of
Linux system use.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• Make a copy of configuration files before making changes.

• Understand the text editors.

• Know how to move between the three Vim modes.

• Be able to use Vim to open, edit, save, and exit files.

• Be able to use nano to open, edit, save, and exit files.

• Be aware that various distributions may offer one or the other (or both)
editors.

• Use tar to bundle files.

• Use compression to make files easier to manage.

• Combine tar and compression into a single command for efficiency.

• Recognize that tar is used with backup/restore processes and file downloads.

• Use hashing to verify file integrity.

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Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

tar tar Bundle files for Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] easier transfer.
{file1,
file2 ...}
gzip gzip Reduce size of Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] files.
[file-names]
xz xz [options] Reduce size of Lesson 5, Topic B
[file-names] files.
bzip2 bzip2 Manage file Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] compression.
{file-names}
zip zip Reduce size of Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] files with archiving
[file-names] functionality.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 6
Managing Software
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Maintaining software on Linux systems is usually accomplished with package
managers. Package managers deploy, update, remove, and report on applications.
However, due to the open-source nature of the Linux environment, software
applications are often compiled from source code—something that is not common
with other operating systems.
Because there are many different Linux distributions available, there are many
package managers. As a general rule, most distributions either originated with Red
Hat Linux (and therefore use the Red Hat package managers) or Debian Linux (and
therefore use the Debian package managers).
This Lesson covers several common package managers, the process of acquiring
and compiling software, and running software in a sandbox for security.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand software management.

• Manage Red Hat–derived software packages and repositories.

• Manage Debian-derived software packages and repositories.

• Compile from source code.

• Acquire software.

• Run software in a sandbox.

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Topic 6A
Understand Software Management
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.6 Given a scenario, build and install software.

Linux software is usually distributed either as source code to be compiled or

pre-compiled software packages. The packages are maintained using package
managers, which are applications designed to manage packages throughout the
software’s lifecycle (install, update, remove). Several different package managers
exist. Applications delivered as source code must first be compiled before installing.
Compiling the software offers the opportunity to customize it.
This Topic covers the concepts of packages, package managers, and software
compiling.

Red Hat, Debian, and Compiling Source Code

There are thousands of Linux distributions. With the open-source nature of Linux,
anyone can create their own distribution, and many individuals and organizations
do. Within the family of Linux distributions, however, there is a general split in how
software applications are managed.
Broadly speaking, there are two common ways to manage software: Red Hat–based
processes and Debian Linux-based processes. Most Linux distributions are derived
from one or the other of these two major distributions, though there are also
several other methods that are less widespread.
When downloading and using a particular Linux distribution, it is very likely it
uses one of these two package-management suites. Red Hat and Debian package
managers are both covered in this section, with a few references to other package
managers.

Distinguish Package Management from Compiling Software

Software packages are precompiled. Compiling software converts the code from
a human-readable programming language to a machine language. With closed-
source software—such as proprietary, paid applications—the source code is
not available to consumers or outside developers to view or alter. Open-source
software, however, is available for both viewing and altering. If a developer alters
an open-source application’s source code, the updated code must be recompiled to
run on a Linux system.
It is much more common for Linux users, especially developers and administrators,
to compile software than it is for Windows or macOS users.

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Compiling software offers several advantages:

• Software is optimized for your system’s hardware, including special features.

• Software is optimized for your Linux distribution and kernel.

• You may be able to enable experimental or beta features.

• You can select specific options.

• You can learn how the software is constructed, discover bugs, and contribute
improvements.

To effectively use Linux systems, users must be capable of both managing software
packages and compiling software from source code.

Software Packages
Linux software is often distributed in packages that contain everything needed
to run the software—executables, configuration files, supporting resources, and
documentation. Therefore, the process of installing, maintaining, and removing
software is referred to as package management, and the tools required to maintain
software are package managers.
One critical component of package managers is the ability to report software
information. Package managers track software installation information in a
database that can be queried. Such queries might include a list of all installed
software, a list of software versions, or specific information on a single software
package. The ability to query the package manager’s installation database provides
sysadmins with essential information on the system and its applications.

Querying a package manager. In step 1, a user at a terminal uses the # apt show nmap
command to find out more information about nmap. The package manager calls out to the nmap
package (step 2), which provides information back (step 3). Finally, the package manager displays
the nmap details at the terminal (step 4). (Images © 123RF.com.)

A second critical part of package management is the source from which package
managers pull the software. A storage location for software packages is referred
to as a repository. Sysadmins control what repositories are available to package
managers.
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Repositories can be located in a few key areas:

• An internal server containing only authorized packages

• A distribution vendor, such as Red Hat or Ubuntu

• A public package repository

Sysadmins carefully control available repositories to ensure only authorized

software and software versions are available for installation. Doing so helps ensure
the security and stability of the system by allowing only legitimate software to be
available.

Compare Red Hat and Debian Package Managers

The Red Hat and Debian package managers handle the software lifecycle in much
the same way. Each approach has a method for installing, updating, removing, and
reporting software on the system. Package managers track versions, the location of
installed files, and place documentation files in standard locations.

In an earlier lesson, the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) was noted as being a
consistent way of organizing Linux directories. Such organization allows package
managers to exist. Package managers place configuration files in /etc, log files in
/var/log, documentation in /usr/share, and so on because those locations
are standardized across distributions.

Each package manager has its own related commands, and those commands cover
the three major parts of the software lifecycle (installation, maintenance,
and removal). Some basic examples are:
• $ rpm -i {software-package}
• $ rpm -U {software-package}
• $ rpm -e {software-package}
• $ apt install {software-package}
• $ apt upgrade {software-package}
• $ apt remove {software-package}

The -U option for rpm upgrades the specified software package.

Red Hat Package Managers Debian Package Managers

Red Hat Package Manager (RPM) dpkg package manager
Yellow Dog Update Manager (YUM) Advanced Packaging Tool (APT)
Dandified YUM (DNF) package manager

When discussing package managers, note that the name of the package manager is
usually shown in uppercase letters as an acronym. The associated commands are
displayed in lowercase letters because they would be typed at the command prompt.
So the RPM package manager includes the rpm command (to install .rpm files).

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The commands for these specific package managers are covered in detail later in
this Lesson.

The SUSE ZYpp Package Manager

SUSE Linux uses its own package manager for software maintenance: ZYpp. The
ZYpp package manager is the basis for the GUI tool YaST (Yet another Setup Tool)
and the command-line zypper utility. The general concept for package management
with zypper is the same as with the rpm and apt commands. Options exist for
installing, updating, reporting, and removing software packages on the system.
Some examples of those options are:
• $ zypper install {software-package}
• $ zypper update {software-package}
• $ zypper remove {software-package}

Software Dependencies
Package managers make software maintenance much more straightforward. One
challenging part of handling Linux software, however, is dependencies. Some
software packages rely on other packages to function. If the software an application
depends on is not installed, it will either fail entirely or not work as intended.
Early package managers required administrators to manually provide the
dependent applications before installing the primary package. Modern package
managers such as YUM, DNF, and APT install supporting applications automatically,
ensuring that a single installation command provides the user with everything
needed to run the program.
Periodically, package dependency issues still arise, so recognize the problem
(failed dependency) and the solution (install the packages required for the primary
application to run).

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Review Activity:
Software Management
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the software-management phases?

2. Why should administrators control software repository locations?

3. Why is compiling software more common with Linux systems than with
other operating systems?

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Topic 6B
Manage RPM Software Packages and
Repositories
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.6 Given a scenario, build and install software.
1.7 Given a scenario, manage software configurations.

Many common Linux distributions are derived from Red Hat Linux. Common
components of most of these distributions are package management and software
package format. Packages for Red Hat–derived distributions use the .rpm file
extension. There are three common package managers: RPM, YUM, and DNF.
Common examples of Red Hat–derived distributions include Red Hat Enterprise
Linux and Fedora.

Red Hat Package Managers

The Red Hat Package Manager (RPM) is the oldest of the package managers
discussed here. It provides good basic functionality with a simple syntax and a lot
of flexibility. It maintains a software database for package queries. One of its main
drawbacks is package management, which is not as robust as the following package
managers: YUM and DNF.
Yellow Dog Update Manager (YUM) relies on .rpm packages and also
tracks software in an RPM database. Like RPM, YUM alerts users to software
dependencies. However, it also offers the ability to automatically install
dependencies so that a single YUM command installs the specified software and all
required software for it to function.
Both RPM and YUM are superseded by Dandified Yum (DNF), which includes all
the same functionality as both with additional plugins and features. Typically, any
Linux system that uses .rpm software packages recognizes RPM, YUM, and DNF
commands.

RPM Commands
The use of Red Hat package managers is primarily focused on installing, updating,
upgrading, and uninstalling software packages. These packages have a .rpm
file extension. RPM files are pre-compiled and usually include all supporting
documentation and configuration files. The idea is that a single package contains
the entire application.

Observe that in this Lesson, “Red Hat” usually refers to that Linux distribution in the
context of a parent distro from which many other Linux distros are derived. RPM-
oriented package managers are not necessarily developed or maintained by Red Hat
itself.

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Using RPM Commands

The syntax for the rpm command is rpm [options] {package-name}
Like many other Linux commands, the -v option provides verbose or detailed
output, and it is common to include -v when manually running the command.
Options for the rpm command include:

Option for the rpm Command Purpose

-i Install a software package.
-U Upgrade a package to a newer version and
install it if it is not already present.
-F Freshen a package to a newer version but do
not install it if it is not already present.
-e Erase or uninstall a software package.
-h Display hash marks or progress bar.
-v Specify a verbose or detailed output.

Querying the vim package with the rpm command.

Querying software is covered later in this section.

Here is an example of using RPM to manage a software package that installs the Z
shell (assume the zsh.rpm package has been downloaded to the system, and the
present working directory is the download location).
This command installs the software in verbose mode and provides a progress bar
to track the installation process:
$ rpm -ivh zsh.rpm

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This command does two things. It will update the package on a system that already
has the package installed. It will also install the package on a system that does not
currently have it. To accomplish either of these, type:
$ rpm -Uvh zsh.rpm
This command will update an existing package, if installed, but it will not install the
package if it is not already present:
$ rpm -Fvh zsh.rpm
The importance of upgrade (-U) versus freshen (-F) may be difficult to visualize
when thinking of a single system. On a single computer, you’re likely to know
whether the specific software package is present. However, the real importance of
these two options is clear when the rpm command is used in scripts that maintain
software on many systems. A single script may be used to manage software on
20 systems, some of which are supposed to have the software and some of which
are not.
Removing the zsh.rpm package is just as simple. The progress bar and verbose
options may be used to track the removal process as well:
$ rpm -evh zsh.rpm

Removing the tree utility with the rpm command.

The actual zsh.rpm package name will, in reality, be much longer and include
information about the version and architecture for which the package is designed. The
package name used here has been shortened for these examples.

RPM stores package information in a database. An important use of the RPM

database is software verification. The database not only tracks what packages
are installed, but it also tracks where all their components reside (configuration
files, documentation, and so on). If a piece of software is not functioning correctly,
package managers can check to confirm whether all the components exist in the
proper places.
The syntax to verify software with the rpm command is:
$ rpm -V {package-name}

YUM Commands
The yum command works with .rpm packages and is the next evolution of the
RPM package manager. It features a more intuitive syntax and the ability to handle
software dependencies more elegantly.
The syntax for the yum command is yum [options] [subcommand]
{package-name}
There are many common subcommands for the yum command, but the key
examples are presented in the table below.

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Subcommand for the yum Command Purpose

install Install the software package.
remove Uninstall the software package.
update Update the software package.
For example, to install the zsh.rpm package, type:
$ yum install zsh
Recall that some packages require other packages to be installed to function
correctly. These dependencies are difficult to manage manually. However, the yum
command can automatically install a package and any other software it depends
on. The software simply has to be available in the repository along with the primary
package.
By adding the -y option to yum, you automatically answer “yes” to any YUM
questions about whether to also install required dependencies for the package. The
addition of the -y option turns the command into “install the zsh.rpm package and
any necessary packages for it to run.”
The following command installs the zsh package and automatically installs any
packages it depends on:
$ yum -y install zsh
Use the deplist option to display any dependencies for a given package without
installing. This allows sysadmins to ensure any required packages are included in
the software repository.
The YUM package manager allows sysadmins to discover what package contains
a particular file, script, or command. The provides subcommand displays the
contents of a given package. Here’s an example:
$ yum provides {software-package}

Output from the yum provides command for Bash.

Update Packages with YUM

Both YUM and DNF can update installed packages. The process is much the same as
for the rpm command.
An example with a YUM package:
$ yum update zsh.rpm
The YUM package manager can also display or report available updates without
installing them. This is useful for seeing what is available without making any
changes.

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The command to check for updates for all installed packages is:
$ yum check-update
This may generate a lot of output. If there is a specific package that you want to
check for updates, add the package name as an argument:
$ yum check-update {package-name}
To remove software by using YUM, type:
$ yum remove {package-name}

The yum update command, with no arguments, updates all software packages on
the system.

DNF Commands
The DNF package manager is the most advanced of the three software-
management solutions and includes many practical features and updates. It is the
assumed package manager on modern Red Hat–derived distributions, though YUM
and RPM may also be available on those systems.

Subcommand for the dnf Command Purpose

install Install the software package.

remove Uninstall the software package.

upgrade Upgrade the software package.

To install the zsh package by using the dnf command, type:

$ dnf install zsh
Like yum, the dnf command recognizes the -y option as an “assume yes” for
dependency queries, making the installation process far more streamlined. It also
means that any script used to automate software installations can also install any
necessary packages.
The dnf list installed command displays installed software on the
system.
The upgrade subcommand checks the configured repositories for updated
software and installs the newer versions. For example, to upgrade all software on
the system, type:
$ dnf upgrade
Use the remove subcommand to uninstall a software package:
$ dnf remove zsh
The autoremove subcommand removes the software package but also
uninstalls any dependencies that were installed with the package and are no longer
necessary. By using autoremove, sysadmins can help keep systems from being
cluttered with software that is no longer necessary.
The autoremove feature can also be configured with the YUM package manager.

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The DNF package manager recognizes package groups. Package groups are logical
collections of related packages. If an administrator wanted to install all software
for managing virtual machines, each individual package could be identified,
downloaded, and installed. However, virtualization software is collected into a single
package group to be installed as a unit:
$ dnf group install virtualization

It is also possible to identify the group by using the @ symbol in the following command:
dnf install @virtualization. Note that this example uses the
standard dnf install syntax.

Which to Use?
When working with Red Hat–derived distributions, assume the use of the dnf
command to manage packages. Sometimes the rpm command is useful for a single
quick installation when no dependencies are involved. While DNF is the standard,
YUM is still very common.

It’s a good idea to be able to administer basic package management by using all three
commands.

To see a history of DNF package management, type:

$ dnf history

The dnf history command displays recent package-management tasks.

Query Packages on Red Hat Systems

Because RPM-based package managers track software in a database, sysadmins
can query the database and discover important information about the packages.
This information includes the installation date, release date, version, and a brief
discussion of the package’s function. Such information allows administrators to
make informed choices about whether software should be installed, maintained,
or even removed from the system.
The rpm command has two useful query options. The first provides information
on all software on the system, and the second shows details about the specified
package.
The syntax to display all installed software is:
$ rpm -qa > softwarelist.txt

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The output from the rpm -qa command is likely to be immense, so it may be a
good idea to redirect the results into a text file.
The syntax to display information about a specified package is:
$ rpm - qi {package-name}

Results of the rpm -qi command showing information about the nano package.

The YUM and DNF package managers provide the same functionality.
There may be instances when a user, administrator, security auditor, or other
individual needs to know exactly what software is installed on a specified Linux server.

Helpdesk Ticket #01996

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-04-11

Subject Security audit in progress

Ticket Detail Hi, can you please provide a list of all the software installed
on Server 02A. I appreciate your help, we need this as soon
as possible.

Thanks,
KG
Date last updated 2024-04-11

The yum command to display installed software is:

$ yum list installed
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The command to display information on a specified package using YUM is:

$ yum info {package-name}

It’s likely that the output of these commands will be redirected into a text file to be
provided to the requesting user.

The related DNF commands to satisfy such a query are:

$ dnf list installed
$ dnf info {package-name}

Output from the dnf info command.

Observe that the syntax for YUM and DNF is very similar.

Why Repositories?
Repositories, often called “repos,” are software storage locations that package
managers can check when installing or updating software. Many repositories exist,
and not all are trusted. In some cases, malware might be present, but there are
other reasons that repositories may not be trusted.
Possible reasons for sysadmins to control available repositories include:
• Software version control: Some repositories may release beta or unapproved
software that production servers should not use.

• Application installation control: Some repositories may contain unapproved

software, such as games, that production systems should not have access to.

• Vendor control: Some repositories are oriented on specific vendors.

• Bandwidth control: Local repositories may be favored over Internet

repositories for maintaining bandwidth efficiency.

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Administrators use configuration files to inform package managers about what

repositories are allowed and where they can be found on the local network or the
Internet.

Manage Configuration Files for RPM repositories

When the rpm, yum, or dnf commands are issued to install a package, the
commands must know where to look for the software. If a package has been
downloaded to a specific file, the package manager can be directed to that file
with the absolute path. However, locally downloaded and stored software is not
recommended. Version control is difficult, as is enforcing standard applications.
Therefore, administrators should define centralized repositories of packages and
configure the YUM and DNF package managers to use those repositories when
installing or updating software.
Sysadmins often prefer to maintain an internal repository on a local server that is
referenced by all other Linux systems. This provides complete control over software
availability and versions. Package manager configuration files define where these
repositories can be found.
The three types of software repositories are categorized by their locations, and
some are more commonly used than others.
• Local repositories: These repositories are stored on the system’s local
storage drive. Installation is easy, but version control is difficult because of the
decentralized nature of local repositories. If you manage 20 Linux servers, each
would have its own repository to be maintained.

• Centralized internal repositories: These repositories are stored on one or

more systems within the internal LAN and managed by the Linux administrator.
This centralized approach makes version control much simpler. If you manage
20 Linux servers, one could host the repository and the other 19 could download
their packages from it.

• Vendor repositories: These repositories are maintained on the Internet, often

by the distribution vendor. Version control is very difficult because the vendor
decides what package versions are made available.

Use YUM and DNF to Configure Repositories

Administrators can designate a specific location as a YUM repository by using the
createrepo command. The command updates the XML files that are used to
reference the repository location. The repository might be on the local storage drive
(a local repository), or available from an Apache webserver (centralized internal
repository).
After running the createrepo command, the administrator must create a
.repo configuration file that provides additional information about the repository.
The .repo files are stored in the /etc/yum.repos.d/ directory. Some of the
components of the .repo file include:
• [repo-name] —The repository name.
• name=Repository Name —The human-friendly name of the repo.
• baseurl= —The path to the repo. May be a file (file:///) or http:// path.
• enabled=1 —Enables the repo.
• gpgcheck=0 —Disables GPG checking.

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The fedora-repo configuration.

The yum command includes some additional subcommands for viewing and using
repositories:
• repolist —Used to see all available repositories.
• makecache —Used to locally cache information about available repositories.
• clean all —Used to clear out-of-date cache information.

yum lists the configured repositories.

Global settings, such as where to find repository configuration files, log file
locations, and cache information, are stored in the /etc/yum.conf file. The
difference between this file and the repository configuration files is that this file
defines how the YUM package manager works, while the repository files define
where the package manager searches for packages.
The DNF package manager uses a configuration file stored at /etc/dnf/dnf.
conf to define its global settings. These are the same types of global settings
as defined for YUM. DNF also looks to the /etc/yum.repos.d directory for
repository reference files.

Updating Configuration Files

One serious concern for sysadmins is managing configuration files when updating
software via package managers. Many service configuration files are highly
modified by administrators to ensure the software meets the organization’s needs,
and sysadmins need to ensure these files are not overwritten.

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Two options help manage this situation: RPMNEW and RPMSAVE.

The RPMNEW file is created when an .rpm file is installed and a customized
configuration file is found. The .rpmnew file contains the new configuration
settings suggested by the vendor. The administrator can then compare the new
configuration file to the modified file and adjust the settings as desired.
The RPMSAVE file takes the opposite approach. It saves a copy of the
administrator’s modified configuration file with a .rpmsave file extension and
implements the new configuration file with the vendor-suggested settings. The
administrator still has the opportunity to compare the two files and define any
settings needed.
Typically, sysadmins use the RPMNEW file because it maintains the customized
settings and therefore does not change the configuration of production services.
The two files can be compared using the diff command.

Services are covered later, but recall that for configuration file changes to be
implemented, the sysadmin must restart services.

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Review Activity:
RPM Software Packages and
Repositories
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What information might sysadmins query the RPM database to retrieve?

2. Why might sysadmins restrict certain software repositories?

3. Why are .rpmnew files important during an upgrade?

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Topic 6C
Manage Debian-based Software
Packages and Repositories
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.6 Given a scenario, build and install software.
1.7 Given a scenario, manage software configurations.

While the previous section covered the Red Hat approach to package management
and this section covers the Debian package-management system, it’s worth noting
that package management concepts remain constant. Both approaches manage the
software through its entire lifecycle, from installation, to update, to removal.
Many Linux distributions trace their lineage back to Debian, one of the oldest
distros. The most widely used distros include Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint, and Kali
Linux, though there are many other examples. Debian’s common dpkg package-
management system has been replaced by the apt command.

Debian Package Managers

Debian package managers store software inventory information in a database. The
database can be queried to display information on software version, installation
date, source, description, and more. The apt command is the more robust, and
preferred, of the two package managers.

Using apt Commands

Although dpkg is the original installer for Debian-derived distributions, today .deb
packages are more commonly managed using Advanced Package Tool (APT). APT
is a front-end manager to the dpkg system, much like YUM is a front-end manager
to the RPM system.
Until recently, the common software-management tools were implemented as a
mix of the apt-get and the apt-cache commands, along with several other
variations on the apt-* format. Many Debian-derived distributions now use the
more streamlined package manager simply named APT.
The syntax for the apt command is apt [subcommands] {package-
name}
Common apt options include:

Option for the apt Command Purpose

install Install the package.
remove Uninstall the package.
purge Uninstall the package, and remove its
configuration files.

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Option for the apt Command Purpose

show Display package information.
version Display package version.
upgrade Upgrade the specified package
(or all packages).
The apt commands for installing and removing software are:
$ apt install {software-package}
$ apt remove {software-package}
Subcommands such as show and version display specific information about
the package, allowing administrators to see version, installation information, and
source for the package.
$ apt show {software-package}
$ apt version {software package}
Sometimes security auditors or sysadmins need to create a comprehensive list of
installed software. The apt list command displays such results. For example,
to see all installed software on a system, type:
$ apt list --installed
One interesting package for Debian-based distributions is build-essential.
This package contains the packages required for building deb packages. It’s
particularly important to those developers distributing software in the .deb file
format.
$ apt install build-essential
Manage Dependencies with APT
Like the RPM package managers, APT can automatically install all necessary
dependencies for a given package. This option is -f (force), and the syntax is:
$ apt -f install {software-package}

Update Packages
As part of software life-cycle management, APT can update installed software.
Software updates are usually a two-step process with APT. The first step is for APT
to discover updated packages in the configured repositories. The second step is to
actually install the updates.

APT repositories are discussed more in the next section.

First, update APT with information about newer versions of available software
as compared to the packages already installed. This does not update the actual
software. The command is:
$ apt update
Once APT is aware of available software, it checks that software against the current
installations. By using the upgrade subcommand, administrators can upgrade
any or all packages to current versions. The apt command for upgrading is:
$ apt upgrade {package-name}
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If no argument is specified with apt upgrade, then all packages are upgraded
to the latest version.

Use dpkg Commands

The dpkg command is sometimes used to manage software, especially on older
systems. The command includes the options to install and remove software, as well
as update the application query for software information.
Some common dpkg options include:

Option for the dpkg Command Purpose

-i Install the package.

-r Remove the package.

-l List package information.

-s Report the package’s installation

status.
The syntax of the dpkg command is dpkg [options] {package-name}
Installing software with dpkg uses a syntax similar to other package manager
commands:
$ dpkg -i {package-name}
Removing the software likewise has a similar look:
$ dpkg -r {package-name}

The dpkg package manager has mostly been replaced by APT in much the same way
that the RPM manager has been replaced by YUM and DNF.

Query Packages on Debian Systems

Users and sysadmins alike need to understand what versions of certain software
are installed on the system. Unauthorized software should not be installed.
The apt command provides a mechanism for displaying and understanding
information about the software, including version numbers. The show
subcommand is particularly useful:
$ sudo apt show {package-name}

Output of the sudo apt show command displaying details of the nmap package.

Sometimes a piece of software is unfamiliar to the user, and the ability to see
the vendor, the install date, and the description of the software makes it easier
to understand why the software is installed (and potentially whether it can be
removed).

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Manage APT Repository Configuration Files

Like other package managers, APT recognizes software storage repositories from
which it can install or upgrade software. Sysadmins customize which repositories
APT accesses. Repositories are exposed to APT in the /etc/apt/sources.
list file and in the /etc/apt/sources.list.d/ directory. Like YUM
repositories, APT repositories may also be on the local system, on the local network,
or hosted on the Internet.
Entries in the /etc/apt/sources.list include the following fields,
separated by a space:
deb URL distro-name components
Be sure to let APT know about new repositories after editing the /etc/apt/
sources.list file by running the apt update command.
Understanding /etc/apt.conf
The apt.conf configuration file is a method for managing the configuration of
the APT suite of tools. The file contains settings that are loaded when APT starts
and controls installation priorities, proxies, and other settings. Depending on the
distribution, the configuration file may be found at /etc/apt.conf, /etc/
apt/apt.conf, or along other paths.

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Review Activity:
Debian Software Packages and
Repositories
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the two steps for upgrading software with apt?

2. Explain the difference between the two steps in upgrading software

with apt.

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Topic 6D
Compile from Source Code
3

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals.

Package managers are efficient and convenient forms of acquiring and installing
software. However, there may be times when you want to build software from
source code—after all, most Linux software is open source.

Why Compile Software?

Software that is packaged as an .rpm or a .deb is pre-compiled by the vendor.
Usually, this packaged software is configured with generic settings and options. A
Linux user may want to modify the software, for example, to optimize it for their
specific hardware. This may result in maximum performance. Packaged software
is most common in Linux, but compiling your own software is a normal Linux task.
The same is not true for Windows and macOS, where nearly all software is pre-
compiled (because you don’t typically have access to the open-source code).

What Is the GCC?

Compiling software manually does not use a management tool as packaged
software does. To compile software, there must be a compiler installed. Compilers
translate source code written in a human-friendly programming language, such as C
or C++, into machine-readable binaries.
A common compiler for Linux is the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), implemented
as the gcc utility. There are often other supporting libraries that must also be in
place.
The required libraries vary by the software being compiled. Typically, software
developers will provide a list of these necessary libraries with the application source
code. These may be header files (.h file extension) or library files (.a file extension).

The Compile Software Commands

Compiling software is a three-step process. First, the system must be checked, and
compile instructions must be created. Second, the source code is compiled into
machine language. Finally, the new software is installed.
The first step uses a configure script to ensure the necessary dependencies and
compilers are available. The configure script creates a makefile containing the
instructions for compiling the software.
The command is:
$ ./configure

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The Bash shell only checks for executable files such as programs and scripts in specific
locations. Usually, a user’s home directory is not one of these locations (nor should it
be, for security reasons). However, it’s as if the software the user is compiling has been
downloaded to the home directory. The ./ instruction tells Bash to “check here” at the
present location for the specified executable file.

The second step is the actual compile process. In most cases, once the makefile is
created, simply issuing the make command without arguments will compile the
application. The make command automatically looks for the makefile in the current
directory. You can, however, issue make with various options.
A makefile is a file that contains instructions used by a compiler to build a
program from source code. These instructions typically define the resources that
the program depends on in order to function properly, as well as any additional
directives as defined by the developer.
Once the compile process completes, it’s time to install the software. This is the final
step in the process. The make install command installs the program, placing
the appropriate files in the appropriate locations (configuration files, log files, and
so on). The software is now available and ready to run.

Compile Software
When an administrator downloads software, there is a common process to build
the executable file called software compilation.
1. Unpack the download, typically using tar and/or gzip commands.

2. Change into the directory that gets created as part of the unpacking process.

3. Run the ./configure command to gather system information needed by

the application. This information is stored in the makefile, which is referenced
during the next step.

4. Use the make command to compile the application using the information
stored in the makefile. Note that this usually requires root privileges.

5. Use the make install command to install the resulting binaries (the
application).

Many developers will provide instructions and options that may modify this process
somewhat. Specifically, there may be options or modifications that can be made
to the makefile before the make command is run to optimize the software for
the system or the user’s needs. It is important to review any README or other
instruction files that are downloaded as part of the software.

Remove Compiled Software

If you need to remove the software you compiled, the process can be a bit tricky.
The makefile includes all directories and files created during the installation
process. Examine this file, and remove each file and directory specified in the
makefile. While this may be time-consuming, it ensures all traces of the application
are gone.
To be able to remove the software components, you must save the makefile so that
you can use it as a reference.

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Review Activity:
Source Code
4

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the effect of using ./ before an executable file?

2. Why is it more common to compile software with Linux than with other
operating systems?

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Topic 6E
Acquire Software
3

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate networking tools or configuration files.

Repositories are not the only way to download and install software. Several other
tools are used in this topic to enable you to acquire the files necessary to use
software. These tools provide alternate ways of downloading files from web servers
and managing compression.

Review Download Sites

Because of the open-source nature of Linux software, it is very common to be able
to freely download applications directly from the application vendor. There are
also many websites that centralize information about available software and about
Linux distributions.
You can search the Internet for Linux software. Here are a few examples of Linux
applications that are available for download:
• Audacity®, a music production application

• Atom, a powerful text editor

• GIMP, a powerful image editorNmap, a very useful network mapping utility

You can also search open-source hosting sites, such as GitHub®, for software.

wget And curl Commands

Most of us are familiar with accessing websites using a web browser such as
Firefox. It is also possible to access websites from the command line. This is
especially useful when downloading a file for which you already know the URL. The
wget and curl commands can be written into scripts, automating the process of
downloading package files.
The following is an example of using wget to download a file from the Samba
website:
$ wget http://download.samba.org/pub/samba/samba-
latest.tar.gz
Here is an example of using curl to download a file from the Nmap website:
$ curl -o nmap-7.70.tar.bz2 https://nmap.org/dist/
nmap-7.70.tar.bz2
The syntax of the wget command is wget [options] {URL}
The curl command uses the same syntax.

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The common options for wget include:

Option for the wget Command Purpose

-P Download to a different directory from

the current one.

-b Download in the background.

While there are many options for the curl command, common examples include:

Option for the curl Command Purpose

--progress-bar Display a progress bar during the

download.

--verbose Display additional download information.

For example, to download a file to the ~/projects directory instead of the

current directory, type:
wget -P /home/USER/projects {URL}
Comparing wget and curl
While wget and curl perform the same basic function, there are some key
differences:
• wget is a command line utility only, whereas curl is implemented using the
cross-platform libcurl library and is therefore more easily ported to other
systems.

• wget can download files recursively, whereas curl cannot.

• curl supports many more network protocols than does wget, which only
supports HTTP/S and FTP.

• wget is better suited for straightforward downloading of files from a web

server, whereas curl is better suited to building and managing more complex
requests and responses from webservers.

Use tar to Manage Source Code

Linux often uses two particular utilities to help manage files. The first utility is tape
archiver or tar. The second is a compression utility, such as gzip. The purpose of
tar is to bundle together multiple files into a single tarball with a .tar extension.
This makes downloads much easier since there is only one download necessary
to acquire multiple files. The server administrator creates the bundle of files, and
whoever downloads the bundle extracts the files from it.
To extract the files bundled with tar, use the -x option with tar:
$ tar -xf archive.tar
If the tarball archive is compressed, use the -z option along with the -x extract
option to uncompress the file.

Recall that tar was covered in an earlier lesson. It is covered here only in the context
of downloading software or source code from the Internet.

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Review Activity:
Software Acquisition
4

Answer the following questions:

1. How can wget or curl be used to download files from the Internet in a
way that a web browser can not be used?

2. How might tar be used to distribute an application?

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Topic 6F
Run Software in a Sandbox
3

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.6 Given a scenario, build and install software.

Typically, software and the operating system share resources and can affect each
other. This design creates potential security threats where one piece of software
can impact the entire system. Isolating software with sandboxing helps mitigate this
potential vulnerability.

Why Sandbox?
One of today’s greatest cybersecurity threats is ransomware. Malware may enter
a network environment via poorly tested or poorly written software, which then
gains access to user data. One way of mitigating this threat is for end-users to run
software in a sandbox environment.

Sandboxing is also known as “jailing” an application.

A sandbox is a virtual machine or container that isolates the application from the
rest of the system and mediates communication between hardware resources and
the program. Such a design is often more secure than an operating system and
many applications sharing unmediated access to system resources. Developers
testing new software and cybersecurity professionals examining malware code are
among those who benefit from sandbox solutions.
Sandboxing differs from an older practice known as chroot. By using chroot,
administrators told the application that a given directory was the “root” or highest
point in the filesystem. Since the application was unaware of any directories above
this root, it couldn’t access the rest of the system. In some cases, this practice is still
appropriate today.
Sandboxing relies on applications to enforce boundaries, while chroot uses the
filesystem.

Sandbox Software
The following three package managers distribute and run software in a sandboxed
environment: Snaps, Flatpak, and AppImage.

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Snaps
Canonical, the group responsible for Ubuntu Linux, uses the Snap package
manager to deploy and maintain software. The software is distributed as “Snaps”
and managed by the snapd daemon and the snap command. Each Snap is self-
contained with everything necessary to run included in the package. The packages
run in an isolated sandbox environment.
Once Snap is installed, packages can be downloaded from the Snap Store. After
that, application management is similar to that of other package managers:
$ snap install {software-package}
$ snap info {software-package}
$ snap list
$ snap remove {software-package}
Flatpak
Another package manager that runs applications in a sandbox is Flatpak. Using
the flatpak command, users can manage software on a system-wide or per-user
basis. Repositories—called “remotes”—store software distributed as flatpaks.
To install {software-package} from a remote named org.demo.sample,
type:
$ flatpak install {software-package} org.demo.
sample
AppImage
AppImage offers self-contained applications that run consistently on Linux systems
in a sandboxed environment. AppImage applications are distributed and managed
as a single file containing everything needed to run the application. Application
developers decide what distributions to support and then ensure that all needed
dependencies and libraries are included with the AppImage file.
AppImage applications are standalone components, and while they can be installed
in the traditional manner, they do not have to be. They can be accessed and run as
mounted drives.

Drive mounting and access is covered in a later section.

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Review Activity:
Software in Sandbox
4

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the advantage of sandboxing?

2. True or False? The original practice, known as chroot, that predates the
current method of sandboxing, is deprecated and no longer used.

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Lesson 6
Summary
3

Red Hat and Debian package managers handle software maintenance for most
Linux distributions. There are also package managers that run applications in
isolated sandbox environments for ease of maintenance and security. Some
software is acquired in the form of source code, which allows users to customize
the application for specific features or hardware before compiling it. This process is
uncommon on platforms that use proprietary software but is more prevalent with
open-source code.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• Recognize which package managers are used by which distributions:

• rpm, yum, and dnf commands are usually used by Red Hat–derived
distributions.

• apt command is usually used by Debian-derived distributions.

• ZYpper is used by SUSE Linux.

• Be able to conduct basic package management with any package manager,

including installing, updating, removing, and inventorying software packages.

• Be prepared to recognize and manage dependencies.

• Be able to install, update, and remove software by using the rpm, yum, dnf,
and apt commands.

• Be able to query packages by using the rpm, yum, dnf, and apt commands.

• Be able to configure software repositories for the RPM, YUM, DNF, and APT
package managers.

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Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

rpm rpm [options] Package management Lesson 6, Topic B
{package-name} in Red Hat distros.

yum yum [options] Software package Lesson 6, Topic B

[subcommand] management in Red
{package-name} Hat distros.

apt apt Package management Lesson 6, Topic C

[subcommands] in Debian-based
{package-name} distros.

dpkg dpkg [options] Manage software Lesson 6, Topic C

{package-name} packages in older
Debian-based
distros.

wget wget [options] Download package Lesson 6, Topic E

{URL} files housed on web-
sites from the com-
mand line.

curl curl [options] Download package Lesson 6, Topic E

{URL} files housed on web-
sites from the com-
mand line.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 7
Administering Storage
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Storage management involves planning, understanding hardware, and using many
tools to accomplish storage goals. Sysadmins must know what types of hardware
are available and what type will work with the Linux system in question. They must
also know the performance requirements for data stored on any drives. Direct-
attached storage disks are managed as single entities with traditional partitions or
can be combined into logical volumes for more flexible storage space. Network-
based storage, such as NAS, SAN, and cloud technologies, may also be used. Finally,
sysadmins must understand the available Linux tools for troubleshooting and
performance monitoring.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand storage.

• Deploy storage.

• Manage storage options.

• Troubleshoot storage.

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Topic 7A
Understand Storage
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals.

Managing a Linux server that stores a significant amount of data requires an

understanding of storage technologies. Various storage formats are better
suited to storing specific types of data. In addition, the balance between cost
and performance must be maintained, leading administrators to make particular
choices when it comes to interfaces such as SATA, SCSI, and SAS.

Storage Concepts
Storage capacity for user data, databases, logs, configuration files, operating
system and application executables, and other resources are of major concern to
sysadmins. Capacity is only one part of the issue, however. Related is the ability
to maintain cost-effective, reliable, and secure storage media that is accessible to
users and services.
The storage concepts in this section compare various storage technologies and
configuration options that inform the choices that Linux administrators make for
storage.

Cloud-based storage is a growing online service and has become a critical part of much
storage management. General cloud concepts are covered in a later Lesson.

Some examples of storage media types include:

• Hard disk drive (HDD): Spinning magnetic disks, usually inexpensive, large, and
relatively slow

• Solid-state disk (SSD): Flash memory storage, usually expensive, fast, small, and
shorter -lived

• Universal Serial Bus (USB): Connection protocol for various external devices,
including storage drives

• Thumb drive: Removable storage media, usually connects via USB

• External: Removable storage disk, usually connects via USB

Types of Storage Design

Stored data is usually managed via one of three different designs: file, block, and
object storage. While these don’t tend to impact Linux on a day-to-day basis, it is
important to recognize some basic differences.

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File storage is the common approach to storing data on local drives, with data
organized into discrete files stored in directories. These directories are organized
in a hierarchical structure. Data is easy to retrieve and change, but file storage does
not scale well: it must be scaled out rather than scaled up.
Block storage is a good choice for large quantities of unstructured data
stored across multiple platforms and storage types. Commonly used with SAN
technologies, it is quick, reliable, and efficient.
Object storage is cost-effective and very scalable but best for static data because
it’s difficult to modify data once written. This makes it particularly unsuited for
databases.
A typical Linux server will rely on file storage by using one or more internal drives
that use a standard filesystem to organize and retrieve data.

Traditional Hard Disk Partitioning versus LVM Deployment

The basic process for adding storage to a system is to install the drive, partition
it, add a filesystem, and then mount it. In addition to traditional partitioning,
technologies such as a Logical Volume Manager (LVM) permit the aggregation of
storage space from multiple disks, providing flexibility and scalability options.
Both traditional partitions and LVM are covered in Topic 7B.

Storage Interfaces
Internal storage devices use different protocols and interfaces to communicate
with the rest of the system. These designs vary by speed, communication type, and
scalability. Various solid-state drives, hard disk drives, and flash storage use these
interfaces.
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) is a common inexpensive
storage media that uses a serial connection to communicate with the motherboard.
This is the slowest of the three options discussed here but the least expensive. It is
a good all-around solution for most systems.
Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) tends to be expensive with less capacity
than most SATA drives but makes up for this by being very fast. For servers, RPMs
of 10,000 and 15,000 are common, while desktop and laptop drives might spin
at 7,200 or 5,400 RPMs. Multiple SCSI drives can be attached to the same chain,
making their scalability far more flexible than SATA.
Serial Attached SCSI (SAS) is an upgraded SCSI design with larger capacities, faster
transfer speeds, and greater flexibility. However, these benefits come with a higher
cost. The cost may be well worth it for mission-critical servers.
Linux administrators must balance speed, capacity, and cost when deciding which
of the standards is appropriate for a new Linux workstation or server.

Types of Partitions
Storage drives are divided into partitions for more efficient and organized use.
On a Linux server, these partitions may store different types of operating systems,
applications, or data files. There are two ways of tracking these divisions of the
drive: a Master Boot Record (MBR) or a GUID Partition Table (GPT). These two
entries identify where on the physical drive the partition divisions are located.
The MBR is the traditional choice, but it is limited. Many server administrators use
the GPT because it recognizes more partitions (divisions) of the drive, which is
important for larger-capacity storage devices.

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Creating partitions is covered in a later section.

The master boot record (MBR) is the first physical sector on a storage drive and a
type of partition structure. The MBR boot sector contains the boot loader that loads
the operating system into memory. It also contains the partition table of the storage
drive. MBR determines what sectors are available to each partition, as well as which
partitions are bootable and which are not.
For many years, MBR was the dominant partition structure used in Linux and other
operating systems. However, it has three major disadvantages:
• The maximum storage space of an MBR-partitioned drive is two terabytes.

• MBR-partitioned drives can have a maximum of four primary partitions.

• The boot data is stored all in one sector, which increases the risk of corruption.

The GUID Partition Table (GPT) is a successor to MBR that makes up for the latter’s
shortcomings. Like MBR, it is a partition structure, but it employs a more modern
design and is part of the UEFI standard. Every partition on a drive is assigned a
globally unique identifier—a GUID—to distinguish it from every other partition on
(theoretically) every drive.
The storage space and partition number maximums are so large that they are not
currently achievable, and any limitations are going to be imposed by the file system
type or operating system kernel, rather than GPT itself. GPT also has the advantage
of storing its boot data in multiple locations on a drive to enhance redundancy.
If the primary location is corrupted, GPT can leverage one of the other copies to
restore the boot data.
Whenever possible, partitioning a drive with GPT is preferable to MBR.

Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE)

Linux is one of several common operating systems that supports the Filesystem in
Userspace (FUSE) kernel module. This feature provides support for many virtual
filesystems. Filesystems are created in userspace by non-privileged users, without
kernel modifications, and FUSE provides a kernel connection.

The use of FUSE is not inherent in Linux administration. The key factor here is that Linux
is capable of this feature, which provides a great deal of flexibility.

RAID Arrays
A standalone storage disk is a single point of failure. When the disk fails, the data on
it is likely to become inaccessible. In addition, individual disks have limited transfer
speeds and storage capacity.
Storage disks may be organized into RAID arrays to mitigate the limitations of
standalone drives. A Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) combines
storage disks together. Depending on the configuration, the result may be greater
capacity, greater fault tolerance, and increased speed.
Two different designs manage RAID arrays: hardware and software. Hardware RAID
uses a dedicated controller attached to the motherboard. This is usually faster,
more flexible, and more expensive. Software RAID relies on the operating system

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to manage the storage, which is usually slower, less flexible, and less expensive
(because no special hardware is required).
In a server, hardware RAID is almost always preferred.
Various RAID standards exist and are primarily identified by number, but three
of the most common are RAID 0, RAID 1, and RAID 5. Each has advantages and
disadvantages to consider.

RAID details are covered in Topic 7C.

Set Disk Quotas

A storage quota is the storage space allotted to a user for file storage on a
computer. Storage quotas are configured on a per-user basis. File systems that
implement storage quotas can have a soft limit, a grace period, and a hard limit.
Once a user exceeds the soft limit, they will be placed in the grace period, the
default setting for which is seven days. The user is allowed to exceed this soft limit
within this grace period but cannot exceed the hard limit maximum. If the user
returns below the soft limit, the timer resets. If the user still exceeds the soft limit
when the timer expires, the soft limit becomes a hard limit, and the user will be
unable to use any additional storage.
Storage quotas are a good measure to prevent or respond to issues that arise due
to excessive storage use. You can use these quotas to ensure that users are not
consuming all of a drive’s space and leaving none for other users or the system.
Quota management is the effective allotment and monitoring of quotas for all
users. Linux has various commands that help ease the job of quota management
for the system administrator.
Before you can use these commands, you must activate user and/or group quotas
on the file system. You can do this by editing the /etc/fstab file to add the
options usrquota and grpquota to the relevant file system.
Quota reports are created by the system so you can view storage space usage by
each user. These reports enable you to check which user is taking up maximum
disk space. They can also help you troubleshoot issues with quotas themselves—for
example, quotas that are either too restrictive or too permissive.
A quota report contains the following details:
• The name of the user/group.

• The total number of blocks (in kilobytes) that are being used by the user/group
on a file system.

• The user’s/group’s storage soft limit.

• The user’s/group’s storage hard limit.

• The grace period.

• The total number of inodes that have been used on a file system by the
user/group.

• The soft limit on inodes.

• The hard limit on inodes.

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Review Activity:
3

Storage Concepts
Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the key differences between MBR and GPT partition tables.

2. How might quotas help sysadmins manage storage capacity on a server?

3. Do all RAID array designs provide fault tolerance?

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Topic 7B
Deploy Storage
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.3 Given a scenario, manage files and directories.

Consider a scenario requiring an administrator to deploy additional storage on an

existing Linux server. The drive must be installed, detected, partitioned, formatted,
and mounted to be available to users. There are many tools and commands to
display drive information and manipulate storage space. This section steps through
such a scenario and explains the utilities needed to manage server storage.

Deploy a Traditional Hard Disk Drive

As a Linux administrator you’ll commonly be asked to manage storage, which
almost always translates into making more storage capacity available. Assume that
you’ve selected the appropriate drive based on interface requirements (SATA, SCSI,
or SAS) and that performance requirements such as speed and capacity have been
satisfied.
Once the drive is physically installed, confirm that Linux is aware of the new device.
Depending on the type of drive and the information needed, several commands
are available that display device information. Use these commands to view device
information.

The hwinfo Command

The hwinfo command displays details about system components. The command
can provide information on any or all components. In the case of storage, the
--storage flag is added to display storage controllers, while the --block flag
displays information on storage disks and partitions. Because at this point in the
installation no partitions have been created yet, confirm controllers by typing:
hwinfo --short --storage

Note that these flags are preceded by two dash characters: ( -- ).

To confirm the proper disk type is installed and compatibility with the storage
controllers, type:
# hwinfo --short --storage

Add the --short option to focus on general information about the specified device.

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The hwinfo tool is also used to gather CPU, memory, Bluetooth, and network device
data. It is covered in more detail in the next Lesson.

The lsblk Command

The lsblk command displays information on storage devices the system is
aware of. This information includes the device name, capacity, and mount point (if
configured). Mount points are covered in a later section.
The lsblk command displays more information than most sysadmins require for
this scenario. The specific data to look for is /dev/sd* content, which shows the
recognized drives and partitions (if any).
Confirm that the new hard disk drive has been recognized. The syntax for the
lsblk command is lsblk {drive-path}
For example, to see all devices recognized, type lsblk with no arguments. To
see information on a specific storage device (such as storage device a), type the
command with the device path:
# lsblk /dev/sda

Output from the lsblk /dev/sda command displaying capacity and partition
information.

The lsscsi Command

If the system uses SCSI devices, the lsscsi command displays information about
each device. Data for each device is displayed on a separate line and includes
the device name, manufacturer, model, etc. If you add the -s option, device size
information is shown.
For example, if the new device is an SCSI disk, type lsscsi -s to see device
details and size output.

The lsscsi command also displays NVMe storage device information.

Disk and Partition References

Storage disk information such as manufacturer, model, and capacity may be
reported by some tools. Most references to the storage media include a path. All
hardware devices are mapped to the /dev directory. Storage disks are displayed
there using the sd string.

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The sd string (which used to stand for “SCSI disk” but now means “storage disk”) is
followed by a letter defining the drive’s location. Any numbers that follow reference
a partition, if any have been created.
So, the first storage disk in the system is displayed as /dev/sda. In this example,
a second disk is added to the system, so it is labeled as /dev/sdb.

Partition information for the first disk (sda).

Partition the Drive

Once you’ve installed the drive and it’s been recognized by Linux, you must divide
the storage capacity into usable space. Creating partitions is the first step in
organizing the storage space. Considerations such as MBR vs. GPT must be taken
into account, and then you’ll partition the space using fdisk or parted. After
creating the partitions, update the system with partprobe and confirm the
partitions in the /proc/partitions directory.
Recall that the Master Boot Record (MBR) or GUID Partition Table (GPT) is used to
define the location of partitions on the disk. The MBR is limited by drive size (2 TB
maximum) and the number of partitions (four). These limitations must be taken into
account when deciding on a partition method.

Partition Design
It is common to dedicate specific partitions to certain FHS directories. For example,
it may be useful to place the /boot directory on its own partition. In addition, the
/home and /var directories may also be mounted to dedicated partitions. The
reason these two directories are often attached to dedicated partitions is that they
are particularly at risk for filling up. Users may create or download a great many
files to their home directories, or log files stored at /var/log may suddenly
increase in size due to failing applications or services. If the partition where the root
of the filesystem (/) resides fills, the system will crash. To prevent this, directories
such as /home and /var, which are at risk for filling, are placed on separate
partitions from /.
Linux also commonly dedicates a partition to virtual memory. Using a process called
“swapping,” Linux moves data between memory and the hard drive if the memory is
in danger of being fully consumed. A dedicated swap partition is often set aside that
is 1.5 times the quantity of the total RAM.

Memory management and swapping are discussed in detail in Topic 8D.

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The fdisk Utility

The fdisk utility is a menu-driven program that is used to create, modify, or delete
partitions on a storage drive. Using fdisk, you can create a new partition table or
modify existing entries on the partition table. The fdisk tool understands the DOS
and Linux type partition tables. The fdisk utility also enables you to specify the size
of partitions.

The fdisk command menu.

The syntax of the fdisk utility is fdisk [options] {device name}

Option for fdisk Purpose

n Create a new partition. The sub-options enable you
to specify the partition type and partition size.
d Remove a partition.

p Print (list) the existing partitions.

w Write the changes to the drive, and exit the utility.

q Quit the changes to the drive, and exit the utility.

To create partitions on the newly installed storage disk by using fdisk, use the
following steps:

1. Type fdisk /dev/sdb to edit the partition table for the second (new)
disk.

2. Type m to display the menu of fdisk features.

3. Type n to create a new partition.

4. Type p to create a new primary partition, or type l to create a logical partition.

5. Select Enter to start the partition at the first available sector.

6. Type a value such as +10G to create a 10 GB partition.

7. Type p to display the new partition information (note that no changes have
been made at this point).

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8. Type w to write (save) the changes to the partition table and exit fdisk.

9. Type fdisk -l /dev/sdb to confirm the partition information.

Once one or more partitions are created, use fdisk -l /dev/sdb2 to display
the partition information.

Output from the fdisk -l /dev/sda command displaying partition information.

The Parted Utility

The GNU Parted utility is also used to manage partitions. It is particularly useful
when creating partitions on new storage drives. It can be used to create, destroy,
and resize partitions. The parted command runs the GNU Parted utility. Like
fdisk, Parted includes a menu-driven interactive mode where you can input various
options.
The syntax of the parted command is parted [options] {device
name}

Option for parted Purpose

select Choose which device or partition to modify.

mkpart Create a partition with a specified file system type.

print List the partition table.

resizepart Modify the end position of a partition.

rm Delete a partition.

quit Write changes and exit the GNU Parted utility.

To create partitions on the newly installed storage disk by using parted (and only
if you haven’t done so via fdisk), follow this process:

1. Type parted /dev/sdb to edit the partition table for the second (new)
disk.

2. Type mklabel gpt to create a GPT table.

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3. Type mkpart primary ext4 1MB 2000MB to create a new primary

partition of the specified size.

4. Type print to display the new partition information.

5. Type quit to write changes to the partition table and exit parted.

GNU Parted is a critical tool for any sysadmin. The utility recognizes and can resize
New Technology Filing System (NTFS) partitions, which are commonly found on
Windows Servers.

The partprobe Command and the /proc/partitions Directory

Whether you used fdisk or parted to create partitions on the new disk, the
next step is to update Linux with the new information. The partprobe command
causes the system to redetect the storage disks and any partition changes. Run this
command to confirm the new partitions exist as expected.
Partition information is stored in a file named /proc/partitions, which
is recreated each time the system boots or the partprobe command is run.
The dynamic nature of this file means that it reflects changes to the system’s
configuration (changes that are detected during system startup or via the
partprobe command).
Because Linux treats /proc/partitions as a file, display its contents by using
the cat command:
# cat /proc/partitions
When viewing the output from /proc/partitions, recall that sd stands for
storage disk and that letter designations such as a and b represent specific drives.
Any numbers in the output represent partitions on that drive. Therefore, /dev/
sdb3 is the third partition storage device b.

The output of the cat /proc/partitions command displaying partitions recognized

by the system.

The blkid Command

Another useful utility for displaying partition information is the blkid command.
The command displays known information on the partitions. One particularly useful
piece of information is the UUID of the partition. The Universally Unique ID value
is a more reliable identifier for the partition than the path /dev/sdb2 since the
path is possibly changeable.

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The output of the blkid command displaying the UUID for the /dev/sda1 partition.

Add a Filesystem to a Partition

After creating the partitions on a new drive, you must add a filesystem to organize
the storage of the actual data. Different filesystems have different benefits, and
there are many of them. In general, most Linux distributions use either the ext4 or
XFS filesystems. Many maintenance tools exist for these filesystems that allow for
repair, resizing, and identifying filesystem information.

The ext4 Filesystem

The ext4 filesystem is the older of the two options. It provides journaling and is
recognized by most distributions.

The ext toolset enables a variety of administrative tasks to manage the filesystem. These
tasks are covered in a later section.

To format the new partitions, use the mkfs command. The command expects to
know the desired filesystem and a target partition.
To place the ext4 filesystem on the second partition on the new disk, type:
# mkfs.ext4 /dev/sdb2
The mkfs also recognizes a slightly different syntax. The following command
achieves the same result as the example command above:
mkfs -t ext4 /dev/sdb2

The mkfs command overwrites existing data on the partition, making that data
difficult or impossible to recover. Use it carefully!

The XFS Filesystem

While the ext4 filesystem has been the default for many Linux distributions, it is
very common to find newer systems relying on XFS instead. XFS has many modern
advantages over ext4 and relatively few disadvantages.
• XFS recognizes a larger partition size.

• XFS recognizes a larger file size.

• XFS avoids inode exhaustion.

To format the second partition on the new disk with the XFS filesystem, use the
mkfs command but with a different option:
# mkfs.xfs /dev/sdb2

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XFS Tools are available to help manage the filesystem. Management tasks include
resizing the filesystem and gathering information. The tools are covered in a later
section.

The Btrfs Filesystem

An additional filesystem choice is Btrfs. This filesystem is very scalable, provides
easy management features, and is reliable. It is the default for modern Linux
distributions such as SUSE Linux Enterprise Server 15 and Fedora 35, though it has
been removed from RHEL 8 support, which prefers XFS.
The syntax to add the Btrfs to a partition is the same as for XFS and ext4. To add
this filesystem to the second partition on the second drive, type:
# mkfs.btrfs /dev/sdb2
Like XFS and ext4, Btrfs has a toolset to provide detailed information and
troubleshooting utilities. The toolset may already be installed on the system, or it
may need to be downloaded. In some cases, you will be required to compile the
toolset. The package is named btrfs-tools.
Information about a Btrfs-formatted partition is displayed with the following
command:
# btrfs filesystem show
The btrfs-tools package can also resize filesystems, much like XFS and ext4.
Whichever filesystem is selected for the new partition, the mkfs command is used
to install it. Each filesystem also has its own management and troubleshooting
tools.

Manually Test Mount

Now that you have installed the drive, created the partitions, and placed the
filesystem, the storage capacity is ready for use. Plan to test the storage space to
ensure it’s accessible to users. Storage capacity is added to the FHS by a process
called mounting. Capacity can be manually attached by using the mount command
and detached by using the umount command.

The mount and umount Commands

A new disk has been installed, partitioned, and provided with a filesystem. It is
now ready to be attached to a directory in the FHS. Attaching the storage area to a
directory makes the storage area accessible to users.
The term for attaching storage to the FHS is referred to as “mounting,” and the
command is mount. The logical reverse of this is to detach or unmount the storage
area, and the related command is umount.

Observe that umount is a slightly confusing way of unmounting. The command and
the concept are not spelled the same.

To mount the partition, first create a directory. The directory is referred to as a

mount point. Suppose the new storage capacity will be used to manage project
data. At the root of the filesystem, create a new directory named projects, and
then issue the mount command:
# mkdir /projects
# mount /dev/sdb2 /projects

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Note that the syntax is similar to the mv or cp commands—from here to there. The
command could be interpreted as “attach the partition found at /dev/sdb2 to the
directory found at /projects.”
To test that the storage area is attached and usable, use the du and df commands.
External storage devices such as USB drives are mounted similarly. The path to the
device is specified along with the desired mount point. For removable drives, this
mount point is often a subdirectory of the /mount directory.
Assuming the USB drive is identified as sdc, use the following command to mount
the USB storage device:
$ mount /dev/sdc /media/usb

Sometimes there is confusion with the use of the word “filesystem.” One use involves
the format of a partition used to store data, such as ext4 or XFS. Another useinvolves
the organization of directories in a logical tree, such as the Linux Filesystem Hierarchy
Standard.

Test the Storage

You have partitioned the storage disk and formatted it with a filesystem. It’s
identified as /dev/sdb2, and it has been manually mounted to a directory
named /projects. The next step is to test whether the storage space is
available.
There are two approaches to testing: use reporting tools and actually storing data
in the new space. The df and du commands report storage information about
specified partitions or directories. Commands such as touch, mv, and cp place
data in the new storage location.

The du and df Commands

The df and du commands facilitate storage-space tracking. The df command
(“disk free”) enables you to view the device’s free space, file system, total size, space
used, percentage value of space used, and mount point. The du command (“disk
usage”) displays how a device is used, including the size of directory trees and files
within it. It also enables you to track space hogs, which are directories and files that
consume large amounts of space on the storage drive. These are go-to commands
to confirm excessive storage-space consumption that might be causing system
issues.
First, verify the disk usage of /projects. The command is: du -h
/projects

Output from the du -h /boot command displaying the size of each file in the directory.

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The result shows files and directories consuming space in the /projects
directory. Add the -h option to display the capacity in a human-friendly format;
otherwise, the output will display in bytes, which may be difficult to translate.
Next, check the storage space in use by using the df command. The syntax is the
same as for du, with the command being: df -h /projects

Output from the df -h /dev/sda1 command displaying the size of the partition.

To see a summary of space in use on all disks, type df without any arguments.
Both utilities are important to troubleshooting, testing, and capacity planning.

Move Data to the New Storage

Finally, to prove that storage space is available, copy an existing file to the
/projects directory (or use the touch command to create an empty file in
/projects). The command ls /projects should show the file.

Automatically Mount New Storage

Manually mounting the partition is effective for testing purposes, but it’s not
realistic to ask end-users to mount and unmount storage space regularly. Instead,
you need to automate the process to occur during the system’s boot phase so that
the space is immediately available to users.

Use a systemd.mount File

Many modern Linux distributions rely on the systemd system and service
management software suite to configure operating system settings and options.
One aspect of the systemd init process is to manage the automatic mounting of
partitions to the filesystem.
The systemctl command is used to display and change settings within systemd.
To display mounted partition information, type: systemctl -t mount
The following steps configure the system to mount the partition automatically:
1. Get UUID by using the blkid command (covered earlier): blkid /dev/
sdb2
2. Create a systemd unit file by using a text editor.

3. Restart the systemd service daemon: systemctl daemon-reload

4. Start the filesystem: systemctl start projects.mount
5. Enable the filesystem: systemctl enable projects.mount
The following is a sample of a systemd unit file that mounts the /projects
directory to the partition with the specified UUID. Assume the unit file is named
projects.mount.
# This file mounts the /projects directory via
systemd
[Unit]

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Description=Project Directory (/projects)

DefaultDependencies=no
Conflicts=umount.target
Before=local-fs.target umount.target
After=swap.target
[Mount]
What=/dev/disk/by-uuid/eca1646e-3245-5bf5-faab-
31f6c424c09f
Where=/projects
Type=ext4
Options=defaults
[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.target

The systemd suite is covered in detail later in the course.

The /etc/fstab File

Some distributions, especially older ones, rely on the /etc/fstab file to mount
partitions. Systems that use systemd still have and reference /etc/fstab, but
they supplement its settings.
The system reads /etc/fstab during startup. Partitions defined are identified
and mounted to the filesystem at the specified locations. The file is edited with a
standard text editor, but you must be careful not to make typographical errors.
The /etc/fstab file is divided into six fields.

/etc/fstab Field Value

Block device Drive and partition
Mount point Where the partition is mounted
Filesystem type The filesystem on the partition (XFS or ext4)
Mount options Read-write or read-only options, others
Dump Whether dump program backs up partition
(1 or 0)
FSCK order Order fsck checks partitions (1 for root, 2 for
all others)
A sample entry in the /etc/fstab file for the /projects directory might look
like this:
/dev/sdb2   /projects      xfs     rw     0    2
During system startup, the kernel reads /etc/fstab and mounts the specified
partitions to the listed mount points.

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Storage Deployment Summary

Because there are many steps necessary to add storage capacity to a Linux system,
it’s useful to see a summary of the process:
1. Physically install the storage device.

2. Confirm that Linux sees the storage device by using tools such as hwinfo,
lsblk, and lsscsi.
3. Partition the drive with fdisk or parted.

4. Add a filesystem such as ext4 or XFS by using the mkfs command.

5. Manually test mount the storage capacity to a mount point by using the
mount command.
6. Ensure the storage space is usable by copying actual data to the location
using cp.

7. Configure automatic mounting so that the capacity is available when the

system boots.

Manage Filesystems
Filesystems such as ext4 and XFS may require periodic maintenance. You may
wish to relabel the filesystem to something more descriptive or configure tunable
performance parameters. The filesystem may need to be expanded or shrunk
when using tools like parted to resize partitions. Here are several ext4 filesystem
management tools.

The fsck Command

A file system’s superblock contains metadata about that file system, including its
size, type, and status. The superblock is critical to the function of the file system,
and if it becomes corrupt, you may be unable to mount and work with the file
system. You can use a tool like fsck to repair the superblock, if necessary.

The e2label Command

File system labels are assigned to file systems for easy identification. The labels may
be up to 16 characters long and can be displayed or changed using the e2label
command for ext# file systems and the xfs_admin command for XFS file
systems.
The syntax for setting ext# file system labels is e2label /dev/{device
name}{partition number} {label name}
The resize2fs Command
The resize2fs command is used to enlarge or shrink an ext2/3/4 file system
on a device. You can enlarge a mounted file system, but you must unmount the file
system before you can shrink it. You can specify the desired size of the file system
in order to either enlarge or shrink it. If you don’t specify a size, the file system will
be resized to the same size as the partition.
It’s important to note that resize2fs does not resize partitions, only the file
system. You must use a command such as fdisk or an LVM tool to first expand
the size of the partition/volume and to then enlarge the file system.

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The syntax of the resize2fs command is resize2fs [options]

{device/file system name} [desired size]
The tune2fs Command
The tune2fs command helps you configure various “tunable” parameters
associated with an ext2/3/4 file system. Tunable parameters enable you to remove
reserved blocks, alter reserved block count, specify the number of mounts between
checks, specify the time interval between checks, and more.
You can also use tune2fs to add a journal to an existing ext2 or ext3 file system
(neither of which includes journaling by default). If the file system is already
mounted, the journal will be visible in the root directory of the file system. If the file
system is not mounted, the journal will be hidden.
The syntax of the tune2fs command is tune2fs [options] {device/
file system name}
The dumpe2fs Command
The dumpe2fs command is used to dump ext2, ext3, and ext4 file system
information. It prints the superblock and block group information for the selected
device. This can be useful when troubleshooting a faulty file system.
The syntax of the dumpe2fs command is dumpe2fs [options]
{device/ file system name}

Option for the dumpe2fs

Command Purpose
-x Print a detailed report about block numbers in
the file system.
-b Print the bad blocks in the file system.
-f Force the utility to display the file system status
irrespective of the file system flags.
-i Display file system data from an image file
created using the e2image command.

XFS Tools
There are many tools that enable you to work with the XFS file system.

XFS Tool Purpose

xfs_info Display details about the XFS file system,

including its block information.

xfs_admin Change the parameters of an XFS file system,

including its label and UUID.

xfs_metadump Copy the superblock metadata of the XFS file

system to a file.

xfs_growfs Expand the XFS file system to fill the drive size.

xfs_copy Copy the contents of the XFS file system to

another location.

xfs_repair Repair and recover a corrupt XFS file system.

xfs_debug Debug the XFS filesystem.

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Logical Volume Manager Storage

It’s common to add a single storage disk to a system to provide additional capacity.
The disk is then partitioned and its capacity used. The Logical Volume Manager
configuration is an alternative to this traditional partitioning scheme. The LVM
configuration is flexible and very scalable, often providing a better storage option
than single storage disks.
In the next section the discussion of LVM replaces the partitioning stage of adding
a disk. Other steps, such as detecting the storage disks and applying a filesystem,
remain the same.
The section begins with LVM concepts and then continues with LVM configurations.

Configure Logical Volume Manager

Logical Volume Manager functions based on three configuration layers for storage.
The first layer is one or more Physical Volumes (PV). PVs are drives or partitions
allocated to LVM. The next layer represents the aggregated storage capacity of any
designated PVs that are added to the Volume Group (VG). The top layer consists of
one or more Logical Volumes (LV), which are treated by the system as if they were
standard partitions. In reality, they are carved space from VGs that may store data
on multiple PVs.

The three levels of the Logical Volume Manager. Physical volumes combine to form the volume
group, which is then divided out in logical volumes to meet storage needs. (Images © 123RF.com.)

LVM provides a great deal of flexibility. Additional storage capacity can be added
to the VG and granted to the LV to provide storage space without interrupting or
reconfiguring user resources.
LVM maps whole physical devices and partitions (e.g., /dev/sda1, /dev/sdb2,
and so on) into one or more virtual structures called volume groups. Within these
volume groups are one or more logical volumes. Ultimately, the logical volumes
become the storage devices that the system, user, and applications work with.

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The /dev/mapper/ directory contains all of the logical volumes on the system
that are managed by LVM. Devices in this directory are typically formatted as:
/dev/mapper/<volume group name>-<logical volume
name>
In some cases, this directory may just include links to the actual logical volume
location.
Many distributions support LVM, and several actually place the root file system on
logical volumes during installation.
Compared to traditional physical partition management, LVM provides the following
benefits:
• Dynamically create, delete, and resize volumes without having to reboot the
system.

• Day-to-day management of volumes is easier once everything is set up.

• Map multiple logical volumes across multiple physical devices.

• A logical volume can exceed the size of any one physical device (as long as it
doesn’t exceed the total size of devices in the volume group).

• Create virtual snapshots of each logical volume so you can quickly and easily
revert a volume to a specific state.

One potential downside to LVM is that the initial setup can be somewhat complex.

LVM Management Tools

LVM divides its volume management tools into three categories based on the three
different components that make up LVM: the physical volume (PV), the volume
group (VG), and logical volume (LV) tools.

Physical Volume Tool Purpose

pvscan Scan for all physical devices that are being
used as physical volumes.
pvcreate Initialize a drive or partition to use as a
physical volume.
pvdisplay List attributes of physical volumes.

pvchange Change attributes of a physical volume.

pvs Display information about physical volumes.

pvck Check the metadata of physical volumes.

pvremove Remove physical volumes.

Volume Group Tool Purpose

vgscan Scan all physical devices for volume groups.

vgcreate Create volume groups.

vgdisplay List attributes of volume groups.

vgchange Change attributes of volume groups.

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Volume Group Tool Purpose

vgs Display information about volume groups.

vgck Check the metadata of volume groups.

vgrename Rename a volume group.

vgreduce Remove physical volumes from a volume

group to reduce its size.

vgextend Add physical volumes to volume groups.

vgmerge Merge two volume groups.

vgsplit Split a volume group into two.

vgremove Remove volume groups.

Logical Volume Tool Purpose

lvscan Scan all physical devices for logical volumes.
lvcreate Create logical volumes in a volume group.
lvdisplay List attributes of logical volumes.
lvchange Change attributes of logical volumes.
lvs Display information about logical volumes.
lvrename Rename logical volumes.
lvreduce Reduce the size of logical volumes.
lvextend Extend the size of logical volumes.
lvresize Resize logical volumes.
lvremove Remove logical volumes.

Deploy a Logical Volume Manager

The previous section covered the deployment of a single storage disk and partition.
However, if the production file server is expected to see significant traffic and
unknown storage requirements, you may decide that using LVM would provide a
more robust storage solution.
Once the disks are partitioned, it’s time to create the LVM structure. First, you’ll
designate the drives as LVM Physical Volumes (PV), then you’ll aggregate them into
a Volume Group (VG), and finally, you’ll allocate Logical Volumes (LV). The Logical
Volumes will be configured with filesystems, just like standard partitions were in
the earlier section.
You’ve installed two disks in the server that will become part of the LVM
configuration. Use the following steps to deploy a new Logical Volume. Display the
results of each command.

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Deploying the LVM

First, designate the two drives as LVM physical volumes by using the pvcreate
command followed by the path to the partitions:
# pvcreate /dev/sdb
# pvcreate /dev/sdc
# pvdisplay
The pvdisplay command allows you to confirm the configuration by displaying
the current settings.
Next, create a volume group named vg_projects containing the two physical
volumes designated above (/dev/sdb and /dev/sdc):
# vgcreate vg_projects /dev/sdb /dev/sdbc
# vgdisplay
Creating a volume group aggregates the storage capacity of one or more physical
volumes. The total capacity can then be managed as a single unit. The syntax for the
vgcreate command is vgcreate [options] new_vg_name PVs_
to_add
Options include the ability to set a maximum number of PVs or LVs associated with
the VG. Use the vgdisplay command to see the VG’s information.
Logical volumes are storage space carved from some or all of the capacity of a
VG. These logical volumes are treated by administrators as if they were standard
storage disks.
The syntax for the lvcreate command is lvcreate [options] new_
lv_name
Create a logical volume named projects consisting of 500G of storage capacity
within the vg_projects volume group:
# lvcreate --name projects --size 500G vg_projects
# lvdisplay
The lvdisplay command shows the current configuration of the logical
volumes.
The remaining deployment steps are the same as with traditional partitioning. You
will add a filesystem to the Logical Volume by using the mkfs command. Then
you’ll create a mount point, and the LVM storage space is mounted. The storage
capacity is now ready for users.

Resize LVM Storage

Using the pvcreate command enables you to add more storage space to an LVM
configuration by designating the new space as a physical volume and then adding
the physical volume to an existing volume group. This automatically increases
the capacity of the volume group. The logical volume is then extended with the
additional capacity.
Note that once the space is added to the logical volume, the filesystem must be
resized to format and take advantage of the increased capacity. The XFS tools or
ext4 utilities are used to resize the filesystem.

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Review Activity:
Storage Deployment
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What does /dev/sdc3 specify?

2. What role does the partprobe command play in the process of adding
storage?

3. What command adds the XFS filesystem to /dev/sdb2?

4. What is a mount point?

5. What are the three layers of an LVM deployment?

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Topic 7C
Manage Other Storage Options
6

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.3 Given a scenario, manage files and directories

In some cases, direct-attached storage, such as internal drives, will not be sufficient
for the reliability, performance, or scalability requirements of a project. In such
cases, larger storage solutions, such as RAID, NAS, and SAN storage, may be
required. For security reasons, disk contents may need encryption.

Linux Unified Key Setup

Data stored on a disk is vulnerable to security breaches. One way of mitigating
this risk is to encrypt the data before it is written onto the disk. Linux Unified
Key Setup (LUKS) is a platform-independent full-drive encryption solution that is
commonly used to encrypt storage devices in a Linux environment. On Linux, LUKS
uses the dm-crypt subsystem incorporated in the Linux kernel around version
2.6. This subsystem creates a mapping between an encrypted device and a virtual
device name that the user space software can use. LUKS offers a high degree of
compatibility with various software because it standardizes the format of encrypted
devices.
The cryptsetup command is used as the front-end to LUKS and dm-crypt. The
LUKS extensions to cryptsetup support various actions, including those listed
in the table below.
The syntax of the cryptsetup command is cryptsetup [options]
{action} [action arguments]
In this syntax, various LUKS commands are substituted for the {action} field.

LUKS Action Purpose

luksFormat Format a storage device using the LUKS

encryption standard.

isLuks Identify whether a given device is a LUKS

device.

luksOpen Open a LUKS storage device and set it up for

mapping, assuming the provided key material
is accurate.

luksClose Remove a LUKS storage device from mapping.

luksAddKey Associate new key material with a LUKS

device.

luksDelKey Remove key material from a LUKS device.

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Before encrypting a device, it’s a good idea to overwrite its contents with random data
or all zeros. This ensures that no sensitive data from past use remains on the device.
The shred command can be used to securely wipe a storage device in this manner.
The syntax is shred [options] {file-name}

Redundant Array of Independent Disks

As identified earlier, individual storage disks are a single point of failure, putting
data at risk of being lost or unavailable. One way of mitigating this risk is to use
redundant arrays of independent disks (RAID) or combinations of two or more disks
to store data. However, not all RAID standards mitigate the risk of lost data; some
forms only provide performance benefits.

RAID Standards
Three common RAID standards are RAID 0 (disk striping), RAID 1 (disk mirroring),
and RAID 5 (disk striping with parity).
Disk striping (RAID 0) relies on at least two disks. The disk partitions are divided
into sections called stripes and data is written sequentially through the stripes.
Because RAID 0 provides no fault tolerance, it is mainly used for performance
benefits with application data that does not need to be preserved (such as caching).

RAID 0 disk striping. (Images © 123RF.com)

Disk mirroring (RAID 1) duplicates data on two storage disks. This provides
complete redundancy (100% of the data resides on each disk) but is a relatively
inefficient use of storage capacity. RAID 1 usually results in faster reads than a
single standalone disk.

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RAID 1 disk mirroring. (Images © 123RF.com)

Disk striping with parity (RAID 5) is a modification of RAID 0 that provides

fault tolerance. Like RAID 0, stripes are created on the storage media, and data
is distributed across the stripes. In addition to regular data, parity information is
added to each disk. This parity information is used to recreate the missing data
from any one failed storage drive. RAID 5 is particularly useful for file servers.

RAID 5 Disk striping with parity. (Images © 123RF.com)

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RAID 0 Traits RAID 1 Traits RAID 5 Traits

Speed increase - less Speed increase for Speed increase - much
data written to each reads - either disk like with RAID 0
drive, and data written services the read call
simultaneously to each
drive
Reduced fault tolerance Increased fault Increased fault
- the failure of any one tolerance - even if one tolerance - data from
drive results in all the disk fails, the other disk any one failed drive is
data being unusable contains everything recreated in memory
needed to continue
Requires at least two Requires two disks Requires at least three
disks disks
While performance benefits are always appreciated, most administrators will select
RAID solutions in an effort to gain fault tolerance.

Software RAID
Most servers contain hardware RAID controller cards. These cards provide a
performance benefit and allow flexible configurations. However, operating systems
such as Linux can configure and manage storage devices like RAID arrays. In Linux,
the mdadm command manages RAID. Think of the mdadm command as “multiple
device administration.”
To display information on a RAID array, use the mdadm command with a series of
flags. The flags set mdadm into different modes, such as Assemble, Monitor, and
Build.

mdadm Flag Purpose

--monitor Monitor changes to the array, such as a

failed drive.

--manage Add or remove storage, designate

spares.

--verbose Provide detailed output.

The mdadm utility also provides a dynamic file that displays messages and status
information related to RAID arrays. To display the contents of this file, type:
cat /proc/mdstat
The output of the cat /proc/mdstat command displays the RAID level the
kernel currently supports and any current RAID configurations. The RAID levels are
referred to as “Personalities” and will exhibit values such as [raid1] or [raid5].
Any configured RAID arrays are identified on an md_d0 line, which consists of the
current RAID configuration and a list of disks that are members of the array. For
example, the output might look like the following:
Personalities : [raid0] [raid1] [raid5]
md_d0 : active raid1 sde1 sdf1

Network-Attached Storage
A network-attached storage (NAS) device is a dedicated network node that
provides inexpensive, scalable, and easy-to-configure storage. The device is
essentially an enclosure of storage drives managed by a minimal open-source
operating system.
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The NAS has a network configuration (usually an IP address) that makes it

accessible from any client able to reach that address.

Distinguish Network File Systems for NAS

Files stored on the NAS are made available on the network by using one of two
common network file systems: either Network File System (NFS) or Server
Message Blocks (SMB). SMB is commonly associated with Microsoft Windows
systems, but it is not exclusive to them.

SMB is sometimes referred to as Common Internet File System (CIFS).

A small network segment containing a Network-Attached Storage device. (Images © 123RF.com.)

The SMB protocol provides users with shared access to files and other resources
across a local area network (LAN). SMB clients make requests for resources
to SMB servers, which respond and provide the appropriate level of access. This
protocol is primarily used with Windows computers. However, SMB-compatible
software called Samba helps interface Linux and Windows hosts running network
shares.
Common Internet File System (CIFS) is a specific implementation of SMB.
Microsoft designed it as a successor to SMB version 1, but SMB versions 2 and 3
superseded it. However, Linux still uses the CIFS name in some of its tools, though
these tools support newer versions of SMB.
Network File System offers similar functionality to SMB, but the protocols are not
compatible. NFS is preferred in situations where Linux clients access Linux servers.
In environments that are a mix of Windows and Linux, the SMB protocol is the
better choice.

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NFS configurations are covered in a future section.

Storage-Area Network
A storage-area network (SAN) is a significantly more expensive and complex
option. However, it is usually faster and more scalable. Dedicated storage devices
are managed as a single unit and are controlled by one or more Linux servers.
Network protocols communicate between the management nodes and the storage
devices. Two common protocols are Fibre Channel (FC) and Internet Small
Computers Systems Interface (iSCSI).

iSCSI Attributes Fibre Channel Attributes

Relatively easy to configure More difficult to configure
Standard and common to most IP Performance increase over iSCSI
networks and servers
SCSI commands over a standard IP SCSI commands over a Fibre Channel
network network

In some cases, Fibre Channel devices may be attached to the server. The fcstat
command displays information about existing Fibre Channel adapters. These
adapters are typically found in conjunction with SAN solutions.
The syntax for the fcstat command is fcstat [options] {driver-
name}
For example, to display driver-collected information for the Fibre Channel
connection, type:
fcstat fcs0
The fcstat command also contains subcommands that provide additional detail,
such as link statistics. The syntax for displaying link statistics is:
fcstat link_stats {link-number}

A network segment featuring a SAN using Fibre Channel protocols. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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Identify multipathd
One common attribute of SAN implementation is multipathing. This concept refers
to providing multiple connections between a server and its SAN storage devices.
The benefit is fault tolerance (in the event one path becomes unavailable) and
performance (load balancing across paths). In Linux, multipathd is responsible
for checking and displaying information about paths.
The multipathd daemon manages the paths and reconfigures the network map as
needed to react to changes in paths (such as failures).
The multipathd command displays information about the state of paths.
For example, to display the current configuration, type multipathd show
config.
Network File Systems for SAN
Like standard file servers and NAS devices, SAN storage solutions may be
configured with NFS or SMB network filesystems. Users can connect to these shared
resources to access files and directories.
Note that the NFS and SMB protocols provide communication between network
clients and the filesystem. These operate on a higher level than iSCSI and Fibre
Channel, which govern the communication between the hosting server and
connected SAN storage.

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Review Activity:
Storage Options
7

Answer the following questions:

1. Why is RAID 5 fault tolerant and RAID 0 not?

2. You purchase two 100 GB storage disks to use in a RAID 1 mirror.

Assuming the entire storage capacity of both disks is at your disposal,
what is the maximum amount of data your RAID 1 array can store?

3. What do the Fibre Channel and iSCSI standards provide?

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Topic 7D
Troubleshoot Storage
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.1 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot storage issues.

Storage media performance is based on capacity and read/write capabilities. Read/

write tasks are measured based on input and output performance values and
sysadmins want these tasks to be as efficient as possible. Slow disk performance
can significantly impact the overall server performance. Measuring and addressing
I/O issues requires the use of several tools, as noted in this Topic.

Disk Performance
Storage devices read and write data, an action referred to as input/output (IO). Even
with solid-state storage, drive actions may be one of the slowest tasks the server
performs. Factor in many users reading and writing simultaneously, and it’s easy to
see why disk performance is a concern for sysadmins.
NVMe storage disk detection may fail during the initial installation of the drive or
during later boot sequences. Ensure the BIOS settings are correct for the storage
disk type and that the GRUB2 configuration file does not contain typos when
referencing the NVMe drive.
NVMe disks are also prone to failure from heat, so proper cooling is essential, and
frequent backups are recommended.

GRUB2 is discussed in a later section.

High Latency
Latency refers to the time it takes for data to travel across the communications
media. In the case of direct-attached storage (such as local storage disks), the media
is the motherboard, disk controllers, and connecting cables. Latency is any delay
as the data travels the path. Some latency is inevitable; the goal is to ensure the
latency is acceptable within the server’s performance requirements. The goal is for
this number to be as low as possible.
The organization’s individual needs define storage performance. Often these
needs will vary by service. For example, web services have different performance
requirements than database services. Hardware specifications, software, and
specific configurations impact disk IO performance and wait times. These variables
make it difficult to identify ways to decrease latency and improve throughput.

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Low Throughput
Throughput is a measure of the storage device’s effective bandwidth, or ability
to move data to or from the drive. The goal is for this number to be as high as
possible.
Managing disk performance begins with purchasing a server with the appropriate
storage specifications. These specifications impact the drive’s throughput. Often,
this means SCSI or SAS storage, as SATA may not perform well enough for servers
with many storage devices. The drives themselves are important, too, not just the
control interface. For physical disks, the RPM value should be as high as possible—
often 15,000 RPMs.
Organizing storage into RAID arrays may also provide a performance benefit in
addition to fault tolerance. Hardware RAID controllers are typically preferred.

Measuring IOPS
You can check performance by keeping track of the Input/Output Operations
per Second (IOPS). Identifying throughput to ensure that disk performance is
acceptable on a Linux server involves the iostat and ioping commands.
The iostat utility generates reports on CPU and device usage. For storage, it
provides input and output statistics for block devices and partitions. Using the -d
option to specify device information only, the iostat command lists the following
statistics for each storage device:
• Transfers (I/O requests) per second (tps).

• Number of blocks read per second (kB_read/s).

• Number of blocks written per second (kB_wrtn/s).

• The total number of blocks read (kB_read).

• The total number of blocks written (kB_wrtn).

You can use this report to monitor how a storage drive is being used and to identify
any potential bottlenecks. For example, a faulty drive might have lower reads and/
or writes per second than expected. You can also use the report to help you decide
how to best distribute the I/O load between the available devices.
The syntax of the iostat command is iostat [options] [device
names]
The ioping command generates a report of device I/O latency in real time. It will
continuously “ping” the specified device with requests and print information about
each request at the command line. By default, this information tracks how long it
took an I/O request to finish. Aside from specifying a device to test, you can also
specify a path name to test whatever device is associated with that path.
Consider using ioping to troubleshoot latency issues with storage devices,
especially if you believe your read and/or write speeds are slower than they
should be.

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The syntax of the ioping command is ioping [options] {file/

directory/device name}. Some of the associated options are listed here:

Options for the ioping Command Purpose

-c {count} Specify the number of I/O requests to

perform before stopping.

-i {time} Set the time (interval) between I/O

requests.

-t {time} Set the minimum valid request time.

Requests faster than this are ignored.

-T {time} Set the maximum valid request time.

Requests slower than this are ignored.

-s {size} Set the size of requests.

Both iostat and ioping are useful for troubleshooting I/O errors that may
occur due to failing drives, performance issues, or storage disk driver problems.

Using I/O Schedulers

I/O scheduling is the process by which the operating system determines the order
of input and output operations of block storage devices. Scheduling is important
because, compared to CPU and memory operations, block storage operations
are relatively slow—especially in disk-based technology like hard disk drives. The
Linux kernel, therefore, doesn’t write or read to a drive in the order that requests
are submitted; instead, it prioritizes certain requests over others to minimize
performance issues that can come with I/O tasks.
Although the kernel handles scheduling automatically, you can configure the
scheduler with different behavior types. Some behaviors are more appropriate than
others in certain situations, and setting a new type may increase read/write speeds.
Sysadmins typically change the scheduler during the troubleshooting process to
finely tune storage performance when every bit of performance matters.
There are a number of different schedulers available to modern Linux kernel
versions. Three of the most commonly used are Deadline, cfq, and noop.

Deadline
The Deadline scheduler performs sorting of I/O operations using three queues: a
standard pending request queue, a read first in first out (FIFO) queue, and a write
FIFO queue; the latter two are sorted by submission time and have expiration values.
When a request is submitted, it is sorted into the standard queue and placed at the end
of its appropriate FIFO queue. When the top request of the FIFO queue becomes older
than the queue’s expiration, the scheduler stops working with the standard queue and
starts servicing requests from the top of the FIFO queue—in other words, it switches to
the oldest requests. This ensures that the scheduler doesn’t “starve” a request for too
long. This makes it ideal for certain workloads like multi-threaded workloads.

CFQ
This refers to the Complete Fair Queuing (CFQ) scheduler. It is the default scheduler
for modern versions of the Linux kernel. In this scheduler, each process is given
its own queue, and each queue has an interval by which it is accessed (its time
slice). The scheduler uses a round-robin system to access each queue and services
requests from these queues until either their time slices or requests are exhausted.

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When the queue is empty, the CFQ waits 10 milliseconds for any new requests in
the queue, and if it doesn’t see any, it moves on to another queue. Like the deadline
scheduler, this helps to minimize request starvation. Its advantage is that it services
processes fairly and provides good performance in most workload situations.

Noop
Noop is the simplest scheduler and does not sort I/O requests, but merely
merges them. This can be ideal in situations where the device or its storage
controller performs its sorting operations. It can also benefit devices that don’t
have mechanical components requiring seek time, like SSDs and USB flash drives,
because this scheduler doesn’t expend much effort in reducing seek time. However,
the previous two schedulers are preferred in most other situations.
Set the scheduler on a particular device by modifying the scheduler file located at
/sys/block/<device name>/queue/scheduler.
Setting the scheduler is as simple as echoing the desired option to this file, as in:
echo noop > /sys/block/sda/queue/scheduler
Note that this sets the scheduler for runtime only; the setting will revert upon
reboot. To ensure your changes persist, you must modify the system’s boot loader
configuration.

Capacity Issues
One of the great challenges for sysadmins is managing storage capacity. Storage
space is relatively inexpensive, and there are many storage options, from direct-
attached storage to network storage to cloud storage. Users often see no need to
delete data, and many files are kept just in case they’re needed.

Display Storage
To manage storage, begin by understanding what storage devices exist. Tools such
as blkid and lsblk display information about recognized storage devices. Another
resource is the /proc/partitions file, which delineates the partitions that
Linux is aware of. Display this information with the cat /proc/partitions
command. Finally, both fdisk and parted display drive and partition
information.
If the storage devices are organized using LVM, commands such as pvdisplay,
vgdisplay, and lvdisplay provide information about the configured
volumes.
The mount command displays all attached storage and may be useful for
understanding exactly where particular storage devices reside (they won’t always
be local).

Find Issues
The du and df commands are commonly used to gather specific storage utilization
information. Both tools are flexible and have many options.
Use df to get general information on the mounted storage capacity. Use df with
a specific device path to gather more information about a given partition. For
example:
# df
# df /dev/sda2

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Output from the df command.

The du command provides utilization information and usually targets a specific

directory. Most sysadmins will immediately use du to target the /home directory
(within which are the home directories of all standard users). Users often consume
a great deal of storage capacity. You might use du in the following ways:
# du /home
# du /var/log

Output from the du command.

Resolve Capacity Issues

What should administrators suggest when the above tools identify storage capacity
challenges? One obvious approach is scaling up (larger capacity drives) or scaling
out (more drives). These suggestions are not free, however. Another option is to
move the data to a different storage location, such as a NAS or SAN. Some data can
also be archived and compressed by using the tar command.
Cloud storage is a viable option for many organizations. Cloud storage may provide
cost-effective, secure, and scalable storage for user data, backups, and company
information. Consider recommending cloud-based Storage as a Service (STaaS).
Whether dealing with direct-attached storage, NAS, SAN, or STaaS, disk quotas help
sysadmins manage storage capacity by forcing users to remove or archive unused
data. Many users do not realize the impact that storing large amounts of data on a
server can have on the server’s cost, maintenance, and performance.

Inode Exhaustion
Each file created on a Linux partition is given an identifier by the filesystem. This
identifier—called an inode—uniquely identifies the file. Filesystems such as ext4
have a limited number of inodes available to allocate. While the available number is
very high, filesystems that store many small files may eventually run out of inodes
to assign. This is referred to as inode exhaustion.
If you receive an error message such as “No space left on drive” or “Cannot create
directory” but there is still storage capacity available on the drive, you’ve likely
encountered an inode exhaustion issue.
You can use the df and du commands again in this case to troubleshoot this issue.
The df -i command displays the percentage of inodes consumed and available
in the IUse% column of the output. If you have available storage space but are
receiving an error message when creating files, check this value.

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The --inodes and -d options for du also display information on which

directories are consuming the most inodes. Try the following command:
# du --inodes -d /
Be aware that this command may take some time to complete depending on the
size of the filesystem.
XFS and BtrFS dynamically allocate inodes and are far less likely to run into this
issue. Their available inodes are based on a percentage of the filesystem size.

Filesystem Issues
Filesystem corruption often occurs when Linux servers are not shut down
gracefully. This is more prevalent with non-journaled filesystems (most modern
filesystems, such as XFS and ext4, are journaled).
The fsck utility can be run on disks to detect and attempt to correct issues. Note
that the volume must be unmounted for fsck to be run against it. The fsck
command was discussed in Topic 7B.
Filesystem mismatch errors may be reported, especially after changes to the
filesystem or partition size. This issue may occur when an application (or the
system) attempts to write to the storage disk location where the filesystem
superblock resides. It may also happen if the storage disk itself is damaged or if
there is a misconfiguration of the filesystem or partition table.
You may be able to recover and access data by unmounting the filesystem (in
rescue mode) and using a repair utility such as fsck.

Mount Options Issues

Errors in the /etc/fstab file or in systemd.mount unit files may cause
filesystems not to mount when the system boots. One of the most common issues
is references in the file that point to nonexistent drives or nonexistent mount
points. Another common issue is typographical errors of any sort that direct the
system to mount a filesystem in an invalid manner.
Care must be taken when working with /etc/fstab and systemd.mount
files to not make any errors. If necessary, boot into rescue.target to correct
these files.

Device Issues
There are common troubleshooting steps for storage devices. Begin by ensuring
Linux is aware of the device. Commands such as blkid and lsblk display
storage device information. The hwinfo command can be filtered to show storage
disks, too. If the disk is not detected by Linux, confirm its physical connectivity
by checking the interface and power cable for a tight connection. If the drive is
installed in a motherboard slot, confirm the connection is good.
Once physical connectivity is established, Linux should be able to detect the drive.

The CompTIA troubleshooting methodology was covered in Topic 1D.

Use fdisk or parted to display details on partition information. The /proc/

partitions file displays general partition information that the system is aware
of. Use the partprobe command to refresh this information.

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If issues with the filesystem are suspected, use the various ext4 or XFS tools to
confirm the status of the filesystem.
Verify the drive can be mounted by using the mount command. First, create
a directory that acts as a mount point, and then attach the storage capacity to
the directory. If the partition is not automatically mounted at boot, check for
typographical errors in /etc/fstab or the systemd.mount file.
Network file servers share directories by using NFS or SMB to make storage capacity
available from across the network. These remote filesystems may also be mounted.
When troubleshooting mount issues with remote filesystems, first ensure network
connectivity is established by using tools such as ping and ip addr. Next, verify
the network file server has made the directories available on the network and that
the user has permission to mount and read/write to the directories.

Network tools such as ping and ip addr are covered in a later Lesson.

Display LVM Settings

Use the various display commands associated with LVM to detect issues. By
thinking of LVM deployments as three layers, it is easier to anticipate where
problems may arise. The lvdisplay command shows Logical Volume settings,
including which Volume Group the storage space is pulled from.
The vgdisplay command shows Volume Group configurations, including which
Physical Volumes are associated with the VG.
Use the pvdisplay command to view Physical Volume information. This
information can be supplemented by using commands such as blkid, lsblk,
and cat /proc/partitions.

Display RAID Settings

Many hardware RAID controllers provide their own software-management suites.
For software RAID implementations, use the mdadm command to display and
manage RAID configuration settings. In addition, the /proc/mdstat file
provides status information.

Both mdadm and /proc/mdstat were covered in an earlier section.

The fstrim Command

Based on how solid-state drives manage data, when users delete files, the files
do not actually get erased. Instead, the space is marked as available, but the
content remains. From the user’s perspective, the data is gone and unavailable.
SSD trimming actually removes the data and frees the space. SSD trimming is an
optional feature that proactively removes data so that the space is ready for new
information to be written.
Linux supports the fstrim command. Both the drive and filesystem must be
compatible with the trim function.

Lesson 7: Administering Storage | Topic 7D

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Review Activity:
Storage Troubleshooting
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What command reports real-time disk latency information?

2. List the commands necessary to show configuration information for

each of the three layers of LVM.

3. When trying to save a file to a storage disk, you receive a message

stating the drive is out of space. The df command indicates there is
plenty of free space. What might be the issue?

4. You have added a partition to an existing disk by using fdisk. The

partition is not displayed by the cat /proc/partitions command. What
other command do you need to run?

Lesson 7: Administering Storage | Topic 7D

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Lesson 7
Summary
5

Proper administration of storage directly impacts the server’s performance and the
ability of users to access critical data. System specifications, such as SATA, SCSI, and
SAS play an important role, as do design decisions such as traditional partitioning
versus LVM-based storage. In fact, it may be more efficient to store data on NAS,
SAN, or cloud-based devices rather than on internal storage disks. Monitoring
performance and troubleshooting storage disk issues are common sysadmin tasks.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• Understand the process of configuring storage with traditional partitions.

• Understand the process of configuring storage with LVM.

• Compare the benefits of LVM.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

lsblk lsblk Display Lesson 7, Topic B
{drive-path} information
about storage
devices
recognized by
the system.
lsscsi lsscsi Display Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] information
about SCSI
devices.
fdisk fdisk Create, modify, or Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] delete partitions
{device-name} on a storage
drive.
parted parted Create, destroy, Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] and resize
{device-name} partitions.

mkfs mkfs [options] Format new Lesson 7, Topic B

{filesystem-name} partitions.
{partition-name}
mount mount Attach storage to Lesson 7, Topic B
{filesystem-name} the FHS.
{directory-name}

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

umount umount Detach storage Lesson 7, Topic B
{filesystem-name} from the FHS.
{directory-name}
df df [options] Display device Lesson 7, Topic B
{directory-name} storage
information.
du du [options] Display device Lesson 7, Topic B
{directory-name} usage
information.
e2label e2label /dev/ Display or modify Lesson 7, Topic B
{device name} file system labels.
{partition
number} {label
name}
resize2fs resize2fs Change the size Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] of an ext2/3/4
{device/file file system on a
system name} device.
[desired size]
tune2fs tune2fs Configure Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] parameters
{device/ file associated with
system name} an ext2/3/4 file
system.
dumpe2fs dumpe2fs Dump ext2, ext3, Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] and ext4 file
{device/ file system
system name} information.

cryptsetup cryptsetup Encrypt data Lesson 7, Topic C

[options] before it is
{action} written to disk.
[action
arguments]
shred shred [options] Securely wipe a Lesson 7, Topic C
{file-name} storage device
by overwriting
contents with
random data or
all zeros.
iostat iostat Display reports Lesson 7, Topic D
[options] on CPU and
[device names] device
storage.
ioping ioping Generate a Lesson 7, Topic D
[options] report of device
{file/ directory/ I/O latency in real
device name} time.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 8
Managing Devices, Processes, Memory,
and the Kernel
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Linux sysadmins must identify and configure hardware resources. First, administrators
must be able to find hardware information using a series of commands to identify CPU,
memory, bus, and other hardware devices. Next, sysadmins manipulate processes
consuming hardware resources to optimize and troubleshoot the system. Often the
focus of this optimization is the CPU and memory. Finally, the Linux kernel—the core
of the operating system—may be managed to maintain performance, enable modern
features, and provide compatibility with current hardware.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Gather hardware information.

• Manage processes.

• Manage memory.

• Manage the Linux kernel.

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Topic 8A
Gather Hardware Information
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals.
4.3 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot central processing unit (CPU) and
memory issues.

Identifying recognized hardware on the Linux system is a critical part of device

management. Various commands provide details on the CPU, memory, graphics
cards, network cards, and storage controllers. Linux also recognizes newly installed
devices by using a device manager called udev. Often, device information is
dynamically gathered by Linux during the boot process to ensure that the displayed
information accurately reports recognized hardware.

Use Hardware Information Tools

Several tools exist to report hardware details. These commands may display
manufacturer, model information, and Linux configuration settings. General tools,
such as the hwinfo command, often contain useful options to narrow report
results, allowing you to focus on just the hardware you need.
Hardware information can be used for many sysadmin tasks, including system
upgrades, performance monitoring, troubleshooting, and inventory management.
For example, if you submit a support ticket to a software vendor, you will likely need
to provide details about the system the software runs on.

Use the hwinfo Tool

The hwinfo command displays detailed information on hardware resources Linux
is aware of. These resources include:
• Central processing unit (CPU)

• Storage disk controllers

• USB controllers

• Graphics cards

• Network interface cards (NIC)

• Print devices

One common option used with hwinfo is --short, which returns abbreviated
information on the resources. Using either hwinfo or hwinfo --short
displays information on all detected hardware. However, it’s more likely you’ll want
details for specific devices.

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Option for the hwinfo Command Purpose

--cpu CPU information

--netcard NIC information

--storage Storage disk controllers information

--block Storage disk information

--usb USB controller information

For example, to display CPU information, type hwinfo --short --cpu

The output of the hwinfo command.

Use the dmidecode Tool

Similar to hwinfo, dmidecode displays system information for current devices.
It also indicates upgrade possibilities by showing maximum processor and memory
upgrades.
Display information for specific devices by using the -t option along with the
device type. For example, type dmidecode -t cpu to display CPU information.

The output from dmidecode may be very long. Use the pipe redirector to display
the information in a pagination utility such as less or more.

Display Bus Information

You can display additional information about devices attached to specific busses
with commands such as lspci and lsusb. Both commands offer various levels
of detail (or verbosity) to display just the information you need.
With either command, try the -tv option to display verbose information in a tree
structure, allowing you to see devices connected to specific controllers.

Output of the lspci command along with the -tv option.

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Devices in the /dev Directory

The udev device manager provides plug-and-play functionality by generating
device files when the system boots for whatever hardware devices it detects.
These device files provide an interface for Linux (and users) to interface with
the devices.
Note that the device files are not the same thing as the device drivers. Device
drivers reside between the device files and the hardware devices, allowing
communication between the two (and therefore between the OS and hardware).

Use the udev Device Manager

The udev device manager detects hardware changes, such as the addition or
removal of a hardware device, on the system. The devices are represented as files
in the /dev directory.

Recall that in the previous section, you displayed storage device information from the
/dev/sda file.

It’s possible to test the udev device manager by using the monitor subcommand.
Run udevadm monitor and then attach a new USB device to the system. You
should see the device is detected and the output shows device details.
Information can be displayed for specific attached devices by using the udevadm
command. For example, type udevadm info /dev/sda to see storage
device information.

The term “storage device” represents traditional magnetic hard disk drives, modern
solid-state drives, USB flash drives, and any other media used to store data.

Identify Block, Character, and Special Devices

If you execute the ls -l command on the /dev directory, the device files are
displayed. You might notice the leftmost field in the permissions string is either
the letter b or c. These characters identify the device as either a block or character
device.

Partial output of the /dev directory.

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Character devices, such as keyboards, deal with data on a per-byte or character

level. Hard disk drives, however, are examples of block devices. Data is moved
in blocks, and the device can be mounted as a storage area. Information may be
cached, too. Device drivers are developed differently for each of the two device
types.

Device Type I/O Process Method Example

Block device Processes I/O in blocks and can be Storage devices
mounted
Character device Processes I/O on a per-character basis Keyboard, mouse

Three other device files are listed: null, zero, and urandom. These are known
as the special device files.
The /dev/null special file is a writeable location that is used as a target for
generated data that should be discarded. This data may be error messages that are
redirected to /dev/null by using the 2> redirector.
The /dev/zero file is a way of filling storage capacity. For example, using the
dd command, a sysadmin can create a file of a specified size as part of testing. For
example, to create a one MiB file named foo.txt, run the following command:
# dd if=/dev/zero of=foo.txt count=1024 bs=1024
This command uses /dev/zero as the source of data that fills the file to its
specified size.
The /dev/urandom file can create is a source of random characters for
tasks such as creating completely randomized passwords. Take care of how this
command runs on low-performing systems at the risk of consuming all available
resources.

Display CPU Information

The utilities hwinfo and dmidecode are not the only commands that can
display processor information. Two other CPU-specific display commands are
lscpu and cat /proc/cpuinfo.
Sysadmins may need details on the CPU(s) as part of performance monitoring,
hardware inventory, when considering processor upgrades, and when building a
virtualization host.
The lscpu command gathers information on the CPU. The entire output can be
displayed or specific columns selected. Information on each CPU includes cores,
sockets, caches, family, and model. The output isn’t well-formatted by default, so
add the -e option to display the results in columns:
$ lscpu -e
The /proc/cpuinfo file is dynamically created when the system boots,
providing current configuration information about the CPU. This information
includes the processor’s specifications but also details on a per-core basis. You can
read the file by using commands such as cat.

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A portion of the output from the head /proc/cpuinfo command.

Display Memory Information

Troubleshooting and managing system memory is just as important as monitoring
the CPU. Linux reports the memory configuration of the system in several places.

This section covers installed memory, not how that memory is being utilized. Memory
utilization is covered in a future section.

Memory Tools
Use the lsmem command to display memory blocks, including their size and state
(online, offline).

The output of the lsmem command.

Much like the /proc/cpuinfo file, the /proc/meminfo file displays

statistics and details about currently recognized memory on the system. The file
can be read using the cat command.

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A portion of the output from the head /proc/meminfo command.

File contents might be useful when troubleshooting memory. For example, if you
believe the system has 64 GB of RAM installed, but only 32 GB are reported, you
can use this file to see what memory Linux recognizes. Doing so may help identify
which sticks of RAM are not recognized (and therefore, may not be seated in the
motherboard correctly).

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Review Activity:
Hardware Information
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What two commands display information on motherboard busses?

2. When is the /dev directory populated?

3. How might /dev/zero be used to help create a file of a given size?

4. What file has the make, model, number of cores, and other details
about the CPU?

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Topic 8B
Manage Processes
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.4 Given a scenario, configure and use the appropriate processes and services.
4.3 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot central processing unit (CPU) and
memory issues.

Processes are instances of running code. These may be parts of the OS, services,
applications, or scripts. Some processes are executed as part of the system, while
others are initiated and managed by users. Each process is assigned a unique
process identification number (called a PID), and this number is used to manage
the process throughout its life cycle. This section covers process management,
troubleshooting, and optimization.

Processes Concepts
Process management is an essential part of performance monitoring and
troubleshooting on Linux systems. Sysadmins manage processes with tools that
indicate their resource consumption, status, and priority levels.

What Is a Process?
A process is an instance of running code. Applications reside dormant on the
storage disk until executed by a command or initiated by the system. When
executed, the processor loads an instance of the application into memory and
manages it . At that point, it is a running program.
As with other system functions, processes are managed by number rather than
name. These numbers are called process identifiers (PID), and a PID is almost
always used to manipulate the process. Most processes start and stop without
issue, but periodically administrators may need to see what processes are running
or discover which processes are consuming large amounts of system resources.

Manipulate Processes
Sysadmins view and manipulate processes as part of system management. Many
basic commands display specific process information. The most important basic
information to acquire is the PID.

Display the Process ID

Use commands such as pgrep, pidof, and grep to display process ID numbers.
Whether pgrep or pidof are installed depends on the Linux distribution.
The pgrep command functions similarly to the grep command for which it is
named. It searches for process information based on a string that completely or
partially identifies the process. For example, to search for the PID of the sshd and
any active SSH connections, type the following command:
# pgrep ssh

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One or more process IDs are displayed. The -l option is useful with pgrep
because it displays the actual process name along with the PID.

Output of the pgrep -l ssh command displaying the PID.

Much like pgrep, the pidof command also displays process ID information. The
primary difference between the two commands is that pidof requires accurate
knowledge of the process name, whereas pgrep searches for a string that may
be contained within the name. For example, when searching for SSH processes,
pgrep ssh will display any process containing the “ssh” string, while pidof
ssh will likely return nothing because no process name exactly matches the “ssh”
string.

Output of the pidof ssh-agent command. Note the use of the full process name.

It is possible to combine the grep command with the ps command to display

process information, including the PID. For example, the ps ef | grep sshd
command displays process information for the sshd process, including its PID. The
ps command is covered in a later section.

Process Signals
Sysadmins directly impact processes by using the PID, as displayed by pgrep or
pidof. So what activities do administrators undertake? Often, the process needs
to be ended. This usually occurs when the application is closed, such as when
quitting Vim. However, sometimes a process does not end gracefully, and the
administrator must directly manage it using signals.
Three ways of ending processes are SIGTERM (signal -15), SIGKILL (signal -9), and
SIGHUP.
Before covering these signals it’s important to understand how applications shut
down, or exit. A graceful exit uses SIGTERM. It is performed to avoid data loss
or corruption and ensures the program shuts down according to its design. This
means the program completes its regular shutdown procedure and no longer
resides in memory or has a process ID associated with it. For example, when using
Vim, the :q command initiates a graceful exit.
Sometimes, however, the graceful exit fails or is unavailable. In that circumstance, a
non-graceful exit is required. This is referred to as “killing” the program. The SIGKILL
signal is usually a last resort.

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The SIGHUP signal requests that a process exit when the terminal running the
process closes. It’s assumed that if the terminal closes, the user is no longer
interested in the results of the command.
The kill command is used to pass these signals to processes. For example, to
initiate a graceful exit, type:
$ sudo kill -15 {PID}
Likewise, kill -9 {PID} sends a SIGKILL message to the process.
SIGTERM is the normal kill signal sent to applications. SIGKILL is used when an
application refuses to exit via SIGTERM. SIGHUP tells the application to exit when
the shell closes.
An alternative command to kill is the pkill command, which also references
the process by PID. Additionally, pkill can also terminate processes based on
name, users, and other criteria.
For example, pkill can kill all processes associated with the Firefox application
(which may have many spawned processes):
$ sudo pkill -15 firefox

List Running Processes and Open Files

Commands such as pgrep display individual processes. Sysadmins often wish to
see a more comprehensive list of the processes running on the system. Various
utilities display this information, including top, htop, ps, and lsof.

The top Command

The top command dynamically displays the processes consuming the most system
resources. By default, top updates this information every three seconds. The top
command is an interactive utility. Press Shift+P to display resources based on
CPU consumption or Shift+M to display based on memory consumption.

Partial output of the top command.

The upper portion of top’s output displays useful information including system
uptime, memory consumption (both physical and virtual memory), and process
statistics. Sysadmins rely heavily on top because it is one of the most useful
monitoring programs.

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Understand CPU Time

Managing CPU utilization time combines several metrics. These metrics, most of
which can be displayed in the CPU line of the top command’s output, indicate how
busy the processor is (and therefore, whether the processor is the bottleneck).

Value Purpose
%us Displays CPU time spent running user processes.
%s Displays CPU time spent running the Linux
kernel.
%id Displays CPU idle time. (If this is high, the CPU is
working hard.)
%wa Displays I/O wait time. (If this is high, the CPU is
ready to work but waiting for I/O access.)
%st Displays Steal. (If this is high, a virtual CPU is
waiting for access to the physical CPU.)
Processor utilization metrics.

Note that with %st, you are working with a virtual CPU (vCPU) in a virtualized
environment. For example, if a physical Linux server hosts two Linux virtual
machines, then the vCPUs of the VMs may be awaiting access to the physical CPU
in the host server. If this value is high, the VMs may put too much strain on the
physical processor resources of the host server.

Processor information from the top command.

The htop Command

The htop command is a user-friendly supplement to top. It color-codes output
and provides a great deal of interactivity. Like top, htop is used for monitoring
and process management. The interface includes bar graphs to display CPU and
memory utilization. The output is also customizable.

Output of the htop command.

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The ps Command
The standard command to display process status is ps. This command has many
options to filter and display the exact process information you need.

Option for the ps Command Purpose

-e Display all processes.

-a Display all processes with a controlling

terminal but not status or full
command.

u Display the username that started the

process.

-f Display supplementary information.

p- {PID} Display processes associated with a

given PID.
The ps command supports three different styles of command option syntax: Unix-
style (preceded by a hyphen), GNU-style (preceded by two hyphens), and BSD-style
(no hyphen). Mixing these styles will produce unique results. For example, the ps
a command (BSD-style) will print all processes with a controlling terminal, including
session leaders (the first member of a group of processes). It will also print the
status of each process as well as the full command (including options) of each
process.
The ps -a command (Unix-style) also prints all processes with a controlling
terminal but does not include session leaders, the status of each process, nor the
full command of each process.

The ps command is a perfect example of why man pages are so helpful. The
command has many possible combinations, and it may be difficult to remember
them all.

Partial output of the ps -ef command.

The lsof Command

The lsof command displays open files as well as what process opened them.
Such information is useful for troubleshooting or monitoring purposes whether
configuration files or device files are open. If no options are added, the command
lists all open files. Chances are this output will be very large.

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Perhaps you need to see files opened by a specific user. In that case, the -u
{username} option filters the output for the specified user. Another option is to
display files opened by a specific process, such as a database or webserver. The -c
{process} option displays this information.

Partial output of the lsof | grep ssh command.

Use the | grep {string} command to search for specific information.

The systemd-analyze blame Command

Many processes launch during the boot process. In the event of slow boot times,
it may be useful to analyze exactly what processes are consuming the most time
during startup. It may be that some processes are not necessary to the system.
Most modern Linux systems use a configuration manager named systemd.
The systemd-analyze blame command displays the processes that take
the most time to start during boot operations.

The systemd manager was discussed in an earlier section.

Partial output of the systemd-analyze blame command.

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The sar Command

The sar command displays system usage reports based on data collected from
system activity. These reports consist of various sections, each of which include
the type of data and the time of data collection. The default mode of the sar
command displays CPU usage in various time increments for each category of
resource that accessed the CPU, such as the users, the system, the I/O scheduling,
etc. It also displays the percentage of the CPU that was idle at a given time. At the
bottom of the report is an average of each data point across listed time periods.
By default, sar reports the data collected every 10 minutes, though you can use
various options to filter and shape these reports.
You can use sar to identify excessive load on the CPU. You’re given details about
when excessive usage occurs as well as what might be causing that excessive usage.
The syntax of the sar command is sar [options]
Display System Uptime
The uptime command displays how long the system has been up. This
troubleshooting tool allows sysadmins to determine whether a server recently
restarted—an indication of its stability. This tool also displays the CPU workload
over the last one, five, and 15 minutes.

Output of the uptime command.

The results of uptime are also displayed at the beginning of the output of the
top command.

Understand Process States

Processes exist in one of several states. Identifying and understanding these states
help with both troubleshooting and performance monitoring. The process state
indicates resource consumption.
The top command displays the total number of processes existing in each of
the possible states. The ps command can also be filtered to display the state of
processes.

Output of the ps -o pid,state,command command.

Some applications are complex enough to require multiple processes to function. If

this is the case, a parent process launches one or more child processes, depending
on what’s needed by the program. The child processes are linked to their parent
process. When a parent process terminates, its child processes should terminate
as well. When a child process terminates, it notifies its parent process and awaits
acknowledgment before exiting.

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One way of displaying parent and child processes is by using the pstree
command.

Output of the pstree command displaying parent and child processes.

Identify Process States

There are four process states, though one of them is divided into two substates.
Recognize these process states to make troubleshooting and application
management easier.

Process State Description

Running The process functioning normally and receiving the
resources it needs.
Sleeping The process is awaiting access to resources to be
able to run.
Stopped The process is exiting or terminating and releasing
resources.
Zombie Child processes send their exit status to parent
processes to be released for exiting.

The sleeping state indicates a process awaiting access to resources. The state is
a normal consequence of resource sharing. The sleep state has two substates:
interruptible and uninterruptible.
• Interruptible: The process waits for a specific time slot or event before
attempting to enter the running state.

• Uninterruptible: The process waits for a specific time-out value before

attempting to enter the running state.

Exiting processes can get stuck in the zombie state if their parent process exits
before releasing the child process. These processes must be manually killed by the
sysadmin.

Runaway Processes
Bugs or misconfigurations may lead some applications to steadily consume more
resources, eventually congesting the system and impacting its performance. These
processes may not always terminate correctly.
It’s best to attempt to terminate the process gracefully by using a command such as
sudo kill -15 {PID}. Because the process is already misbehaving, a more
forceful attempt such as sudo kill -9 {PID} or pkill may be necessary.

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High Utilization
Linux systems that display high CPU utilization and load averages may be
suffering from a number of issues. High utilization may be due to software bugs,
misconfigurations, untuned default settings, or properly functioning but high-
demand applications (such as rendering, databases, or dev programs).
Since Linux itself is relatively well-tuned, the problem is likely with a user
application. Use commands such as ps or top to identify processes consuming
resources and why those processes were launched.

Output of the ps -u command showing processes started by the current user.

Utilization at or near 100% indicates the processor’s demand is too high. The lower
this percentage is, the more CPU capacity is available to additional workloads.

Set Priorities for CPU Processes

For systems experiencing high utilization, if the workload cannot be reduced, then
other settings may be used to better manage necessary processes. Processes are
launched with a priority level, and this level can be adjusted using the nice and
renice commands.
Manage Process Priorities
Processes are launched with priority levels ranging from -20 to 19. Most processes
start with a priority of 0. Processes with a priority nearer to -20 are higher priority
than those nearer to 19.
The nice command allows users to start new processes at a specified priority
level. This level overrides the normal priority of that process.
$ sudo nice -priority ./backup.sh
Running processes can be assigned a different priority level without restarting the
application by using the renice command.
$ sudo renice -priority ./backup.sh

The difference between nice and renice is that nice is used when starting
a new application, and renice is used when changing the priority of a running
process.

Job Control
Process management is usually considered from a system-wide perspective and
handled by the root user (system administrator). Processes represent all running
code on the system. Individual users, however, can manage scripts or applications
that they have started.

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Manage Jobs
Jobs are a subset of processes and refer specifically to any process the current
user has started. Users can display processes they are running by using the jobs
command. The resulting output shows a numbered list of all existing jobs. These
job numbers are used to identify and manipulate the processes.
Normally, when a command is executed, it processes in the foreground, consuming
the shell until the command completes. Upon completion, the command exits and
the shell prompt is available to the user to run another command.
For example, imagine a backup script that takes 10 minutes to complete. Until the
script completes, the command prompt is unavailable to the user. In this case, the
script is running in the foreground as a job associated with the user. The system
sees the script as a process.
However, scripts and other commands can be executed in the background. The
process or script runs, but the shell is returned to the user rather than consumed
until termination. To background a job, such as the backup.sh script, append the
ampersand & to the command:
$ backup.sh &
You can display the status of the jobs by using the jobs command. When a job
is executing in the background, you cannot see its status. The jobs command
displays current jobs and identifies each with a number enclosed by square
brackets.

Remember, a job is simply a process or command.

What if you need to see the actual process running (for example, to check the status of
a progress bar or to ensure the program hasn’t unexpectedly halted)? You can move a
backgrounded job to the foreground by using the fg command, % symbol, and the job
number. For example, to foreground the script with a job number of 1, type:
$ fg %1
The job is now running in the foreground for you to observe.
Pause the job with Ctrl+Z, and then background it with bg %[1]. This
command returns the job to the backgrounded status to remove it from the shell.
$ bg %1
Check the status again by using the jobs command.
Jobs can also be managed by using the Ctrl meta key. The following key
combinations are useful for managing jobs:
• Ctrl+Z - Pauses a job temporarily, often so it can be moved to the
background.

• Ctrl+D - Exits the program and logs the user out of the current session.
• Ctrl+C - Stops a running process.
The nohup (“no hangup”) command prevents a process from ending when
the user logs off. For example, if an administrator launches a backup script and
then logs off the system, the script would stop running. By placing the nohup
command in front of the normal command, the script would continue even after
the administrator logged off.
The syntax of the nohup command is nohup {command/script}
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Review Activity:
Processes
6

Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between stopped processes and zombie processes.

2. Differentiate between -15 and -9 kill signals.

3. What keys are used to cause top to display resources by memory

consumption or by CPU consumption?

4. Differentiate between the nice and renice commands.

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Topic 8C
Manage Memory
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

4.3 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot central processing unit (CPU) and
memory issues.

Random Access Memory (RAM) provides a temporary, volatile, and fast storage
area for the processor. Without sufficient RAM, users cannot open applications,
and the system would be unable to provide services. Memory is a finite resource
on computer systems and sometimes there is not enough storage capacity in RAM
to support the system’s services. In this case, additional storage capacity can be
borrowed from storage drives, such as solid-state drives or hard disk drives. This
borrowing is referred to as virtual memory. While these devices provide additional
capacity, they often result in a slower system than RAM.
This section identifies system memory issues and covers the use of virtual memory.

Virtual Memory
Both Random Access Memory (RAM) and storage devices are storage locations.
While disks are nonvolatile storage locations that maintain data even when power
is removed, RAM is a temporary storage location. However, both locations are used
to store data. RAM is a much more finite and limited system resource than storage
disks. In addition, there is usually far less storage capacity in memory than on a
drive.
Each process that runs is assigned a quantity of RAM, and because this memory is
finite, a system’s entire memory can be consumed. On old systems, this resulted
in an “out of memory” error that required users to close some applications before
launching others. Modern operating systems, however, swap or trade information
between RAM and the storage disk. Additional storage space is borrowed from the
storage disk and used as RAM. This concept is referred to as “virtual memory,” and
the data is “swapped” between the two storage locations.
However, storage devices are substantially slower than RAM, so swapping places a
significant performance hit on the system.

Swap Space
Swap space is a partition on the storage device that is used when the system runs
out of physical memory. Linux pushes some of the unused files from RAM to the
swap space to free up memory. Usually, the swap space equals 1.5 x the quantity
of RAM.

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An example of swap space operations. Here a user attempts to open the httpd program (1) that
exceeds the available space in the RAM. The system moves the mariadb file into the swap partition
(2) to make space for httpd in the RAM. (Images © 123RF.com.)

The configuration of swap space can alleviate memory-related issues, especially

when the system and applications request more memory than the system has.
Systems with a low amount of RAM are particularly vulnerable to these issues.
Swap space is not a replacement for adding more memory, but it can help minimize
system and application sluggishness, unresponsiveness, and crashes. There are
three different swap types or configurations:
• Device swap: configured when you partition the storage device and used by the
OS to run large applications.

• File system swap: configured primarily upon installing Linux and used by the OS
as an emergency resource when the available swap space runs out.

• Pseudo-swap: enables large applications to run on computers with limited RAM.

Swap files are created for storing data that is to be transferred from a system’s
memory to a storage device. They are dynamic and change in size when data is
moved in and out of memory.
A swap partition is an area of virtual memory on a storage device to complement
the physical RAM in the computer. Linux systems use swap partitions because they
perform better than swap file systems.

Swap Management Commands

Sysadmins use the mkswap command to create swap space on a storage partition.
You’ll typically use it when you wish to move swap space to a different partition. For
example, you might want to save space on a low-capacity boot drive. The mkswap
command provides options to perform various tasks.

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Option for the mkswap Command Purpose

-c Verify that the device is free from bad
sectors before mounting the swap
space.
-p Set the page size to be used by the
mkswap command. A page is a chunk
of memory that is copied to the storage
device during the swap process.
-L {label} Activate the swap space using labels
applied to partitions or file systems.
After creating swap space, you won’t need it active all the time. Use the swapon
and swapoff commands to activate or deactivate the swap partition on a
specified device. Some frequently used options are shown in the following table.

Option for the swapon and

swapoff Commands Purpose
swapon -e Skip devices that do not exist.

swapon -a Activate all of the swap space.

swapoff -a Deactivate all of the swap space.

Memory Exhaustion
It is critical, particularly on Linux servers, to ensure the system has plenty of free
memory. Too little RAM greatly reduces system performance. On Linux systems
hosting major business applications such as databases or webservers, such
performance issues can impact the entire organization.
The server’s specifications should include more memory than the system is
anticipated to need.

The free and vmstat Commands

In addition to commands such as top, the free and vmstat commands are
useful for monitoring memory utilization.
The free command displays the quantity of free or unused memory. If the system
is running a number of applications, this information indicates how much memory
is still available to run additional processes.
Much like the du and df disk management tools, the free command uses the -h
option to display results in a human-readable format. The quantities of memory are
displayed in logical units, such as GB.
Because you want the server to have plenty of memory to support its functions, you
want the available free memory value to be high.

Output of the free -h command. Observe the used and free columns.

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The vmstat command displays the use of virtual memory. Recall that virtual
memory involves swapping data between two storage locations: physical
memory and storage disk(s). Such swapping is time-consuming and reduces the
performance of the system. Significant use of virtual memory indicates that the
system needs more memory or a reduced workload.
Because the use of virtual memory indicates the system is overwhelmed, you want
the utilization number from vmstat to be low.

Output of the vmstat command.

Out of Memory (OOM) Scenarios

Memory leaks occur when programs request memory space but never return it.
This could be due to software bugs or misconfigurations and could lead to a system
crash if all of its memory is consumed. Tools that measure memory utilization, such
as top, htop, and sar, can be used to detect memory leaks.
The Linux kernel may over-allocate memory resources. It relies on out-of-memory
killer (OOM Killer) to recover over-allocated memory space. In some cases, this
may cause applications to quit unexpectedly. OOM Killer logs applications it kills,
usually in /var/log/messages.

Free Memory versus Cache

Don’t confuse free system memory with the CPU cache. The CPU cache provides
very quick access to small amounts of information. The cache is a component of the
CPU, and its size varies by model.
Use the cat /proc/cpuinfo command to display cache information. The
larger the cache, the greater the benefit for running processes. Traditional RAM is
relatively large and less quickly accessed than cache memory.

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Review Activity:
Memory
6

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the concept of virtual memory.

2. What is a swap partition?

3. Differentiate between the free and vmstat commands.

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Topic 8D
Manage the Linux Kernel
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.6 Given a scenario, build and install software.
1.7 Given a scenario, manage software configurations.
2.1 Summarize the purpose and use of security best practices in a Linux environment.
4.5 Given a scenario, use systemd to diagnose and resolve common problems with a
Linux system.

One of the defining features of Linux is that it is modular, enabling you to adjust
low-level system configurations at boot and during operation. This provides you
with a great deal of flexibility in adjusting how your system runs and what types of
devices it can leverage. In this section, you’ll explore more about the Linux kernel
and some of its features, and then you’ll customize the kernel to meet your unique
business needs.
You’ll begin by identifying some of the key concepts and components that make
up the Linux kernel. This will give you a better sense of what services the kernel
provides and how you might go about customizing those services.

What is the Linux Kernel?

The kernel is the core of an operating system. All other components rely on it.
The kernel manages file system access, memory, processes, devices, and resource
allocation on a system. The kernel also controls all the hardware devices plugged
into the system. It is one of the first elements to be loaded on startup and remains
in the main memory during the computer’s operation. The kernel also contains
system-level commands and other functions that are normally hidden from users.

Kernel Space and User Space

Kernels tend to divide software running into two spaces: kernel space and user
space. The kernel space is simply where the kernel executes the services that it
provides. The user space is the area of memory that includes everything outside of
kernel space. This can include everything from high-level applications that the user
interacts with to processes that run in the background to various low-level system
libraries.
Software running in user space can access resources provided by kernel space
through the use of system calls. These calls provide the resources a user space
application needs to perform a task. For example, an application might issue a
system call to the kernel so that it can leverage input/output (I/O) services that write
data to a storage device.
The split between these two memory regions is useful because it promotes greater
stability and security. Software in one space cannot interfere with software in the
other.

Device Drivers
A device driver is a software program that enables a computer’s operating system
to identify the characteristics and functions of a hardware device, communicate

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with it, and control its operations. It acts as an interface between the operating
system and hardware devices such as storage drives, printers, scanners, monitors,
and keyboards. Device drivers can be included in the operating system or installed
on-demand.
When the system boots, drivers are loaded with the kernel, enabling Linux to work
with various devices. While the kernel and drivers are separate pieces, they work
together to allow Linux to use the device’s features. For example, printer drives let
Linux know what features the printer has (color, duplexing, and collation) and how
to expose those features to the user. The drivers are not part of the kernel and can
therefore be updated without making changes to the kernel.

Display Kernel Version Information

The Linux kernel is continually updated by creator Linus Torvalds and many other
volunteers. Each new version of the kernel is given a kernel version number to
distinguish it from past and future versions. The current naming convention for
kernel versions is major.minor, where major is the major version number and
minor is the minor version number. For example, version 5.16 was released in
February 2022.

The latest Linux kernel and stable releases can be found at www.kernel.org.

By default, uname prints the name of the kernel—Linux. You can view the kernel
version number of your current system by using the uname -r command. You
can also enter uname -i to view the hardware platform. To print all information,
enter the uname -a command.

Output of the uname -a command. Observe the kernel version is 5.14.

Manage Kernel Modules

Now that you’ve explored the Linux kernel, you’re ready to install and configure
some kernel modules. This will enable you to extend the kernel’s functionality for
specific purposes.

What Are Kernel Modules?

A kernel module is a system-level object that extends the functionality of the
kernel. It can be dynamically loaded or unloaded into the kernel when required.
It enables the kernel to update or recompile itself without requiring the system to
reboot.
Using kernel modules has several advantages:
• They reduce the burden on the kernel because otherwise all of the modules’
functionality would have to be added directly to the kernel.

• They lower memory consumption due to dynamic loading of the kernel.

• They extend the functionality of the system and avoids rebuilding and rebooting.

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A kernel module file consists of a .ko extension. Modules built for a specific kernel
version may not be compatible with another version of the kernel.

Kernel Module Commands

Kernel module management commands enable you to view, load, unload, or modify
kernel modules.

Kernel Module Command Purpose

lsmod Display the currently loaded kernel modules,
their sizes, usage details, and their dependent
modules.

modinfo Display information about a particular kernel

module, such as the file name of the module,
license, description, author’s name, module
version number, dependent modules, and
other parameters or attributes. The syntax of
this command is modinfo [options]
{module name}
insmod Install a module into the currently running
kernel. This command inserts only the specified
module and does not insert any dependent
modules. The syntax of this command is
insmod {module name}
rmmod Remove a module from the currently running
kernel. The syntax of this command is rmmod
{module name}

The modprobe Command

The modprobe command is used to add or remove modules from a kernel. This
command is capable of loading all the dependent modules before inserting the
specified module. It is therefore preferred over using the insmod and rmmod
commands.
To add modules using modprobe, use the -a option and specify the modules you
want to add. To unload a module, use the -r option and specify the modules you
want to remove.
The syntax of the modprobe command is modprobe [options]
{module names}
Additional options for the modprobe command include those in the following
table.

Option for the modprobe Command Purpose

-f Force the module to be inserted or
removed.
-n View the output results without actually
executing operations.
-s Print errors to the system log (syslog)
rather than stderr.
-v Enable verbose mode.

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The depmod Command

For modprobe to accurately install dependent modules, it reads the modules.dep
file to identify how modules are linked to one another. The depmod command is
used to update this database of dependencies so that modprobe can function
properly.
The depmod command searches the contents of /lib/modules/<kernel
version>/ for each module. A module may export a “symbol,” indicating that
it can provide a service to other modules. Other modules may call these exported
symbols into their own code to leverage their capabilities. So, depmod builds the
modules.dep file by aggregating all instances of symbols being exported and used.
The syntax of the depmod command is depmod [options]
Symbols provide a way for modules to call upon the functions or other
programming objects of other modules. For example, module1 has a C function
named foo() that performs some useful task. Another module, module2, wants
to use foo() when it is linked to the kernel, rather than incorporate that routine
in its own code. This is only possible if module1 explicitly exports foo() for
external use. It does this by using EXPORT_SYMBOL() or one of its variants
on the function. The foo() function then becomes available as a symbol for any
other module in the kernel to leverage.

Module Directories
The /usr/lib/ directory contains shared libraries and binaries for general
programs and software packages. The files in this directory are not meant to be
executed by the user or custom shell scripts. More specifically, the /usr/lib/
modules/ directory contains the modules of different kernel versions installed.
It holds a directory named after the kernel’s version number. Inside this directory,
modules are stored across various subdirectories based on their categories. For
example, a Bluetooth driver may be stored in:
/usr/lib/modules/<kernel version>/kernel/drivers/
bluetooth/
Inside /usr/lib/modules/<kernel version>/kernel/ are several
subdirectories, some of which are described in the following table.

Module Subdirectory Purpose

arch Contains modules for architecture-specific
support.

crypto Contains modules for encryption and other

cryptographic functions.

drivers Holds modules for various types of hardware.

fs Contains modules for various types of file

systems.

net Holds modules for networking components

such as firewalls and protocols.

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The /etc/modprobe.conf file is a configuration file that contains settings that

apply persistently to all the modules loaded on the system. It is used to configure
modules and their dependencies and to specify module aliases. An alias is just an
alternative name to use for a module.
In newer Linux distros, this file is deprecated. The /etc/modprobe.d/
directory is used instead and contains various .conf files. Other than creating
aliases, these files can tell modprobe to run additional modules with specific
options when your chosen module is loaded into the kernel. This enables the
chosen module to leverage another module’s functionality without actually loading
it into the kernel.
You might do this when your module doesn’t directly depend on a second module
but does run better if that second module is installed.
Files ending in .conf in the /etc/modprobe.d/ directory can use one of several
commands.

.conf File Command Purpose

alias {alternative name} Specify an alternative name for a
{module name} module with a long name.

blacklist {module name} Ignore internal aliases, which occur

when modules define their own aliases.

install {module name} Run the specified command without

{command} inserting the module into the kernel.

Kernel Updates and Parameters

In addition to loading modules into the kernel at runtime, you can also change
some of the kernel’s parameters while it is running. You can use these parameters
to improve system performance, harden security, configure networking limitations,
change virtual memory settings, and more.
The /proc/sys/ directory lists the parameters that you can configure on
your system. Like the directories containing kernel modules, this /proc/sys/
directory is divided into several categories, including those in the following table.

/proc/sys Subdirectory Related Parameters

crypto Encryption and other cryptographic
services.

debug Debugging the kernel.

dev Specific hardware devices.

fs File system data.

kernel Miscellaneous kernel functionality.

net Networking functionality.

user User space limitations.

vm Virtual memory management.

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Manage Kernel Parameters

The sysctl command displays or sets kernel parameters at runtime. It has
various options, as defined in the following table.

Option for the sysctl Command Purpose

-a Display all parameters and their current
values.

-w {parameter}={value} Set a parameter value.

-p[file-name] Load sysctl settings from the

specified file or /etc/sysctl.conf
if no file name is provided.

-e Ignore errors about unknown keys.

-r {pattern} Apply a command to parameters

matching a given pattern, using extended
regular expressions.
The syntax of the sysctl command is sysctl [options]
The /etc/sysctl.conf file enables configuration changes to a running
Linux kernel. These changes might include improvements to networking, security
configurations, or logging of information.

Kernel Panic
A kernel panic is a mechanism by which the system detects a fatal system error
and responds to it. A fatal error typically results in the system becoming unstable or
totally unusable. Software that handles kernel panics will display an error message
to the user and dump the current state of kernel memory to a storage device for
later debugging. Depending on how the system is configured, the panic handler will
either reboot the system automatically or wait for the user to do so.
In Linux, kernel panic can happen for many reasons and at any point during
operation, but it is usually experienced during the boot process. Common causes
include the following:
• The kernel itself is corrupted or otherwise improperly configured.

• The systemd program is not executed during boot, leaving the system
unusable.

• The kernel cannot find or otherwise cannot mount the main root file system.

• Malfunctioning or incompatible hardware is loaded into the kernel on boot.

The equivalent of a kernel panic in Microsoft Windows is the well-known Blue Screen of
Death (BSoD).

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The dmesg Command and dmesg Log File

The dmesg (“display message” or “driver message”) command is used to print
any messages that have been sent to the kernel’s message buffer during and
after system boot. Device drivers send messages to the kernel indicating the
status of modules and parameters that the drivers use. These drivers can also
send diagnostic messages to the kernel when they encounter errors. Other kernel
components can also send messages to the buffer.
In addition to using the dmesg command, you can also access the message buffer
from the /var/log/dmesg file. In either case, you can leverage dmesg to look
for potential issues with kernel components or to validate that certain modules are
being loaded.
The syntax of the dmesg command is dmesg [options]
The dmesg command includes several common options:

Option for the dmesg Command Purpose

-c Clear the kernel buffer after printing its
contents.
-f {facility list} Restrict output to the specified
comma-separated list of facilities. A
facility is a component category that is
producing messages, such as user for
user-level messages.
-l {level list} Restrict output to the specified
comma-separated list of levels. A level
defines a message’s nature and priority,
such as notice for messages that aren’t
considered critical.
-e Display a human-readable version of
the time of each message as well as its
delta, or the difference in time between
subsequent messages.
-L Color-code messages for easier
readability.
-H Output in a human-friendly format,
combining both -e and -L options and
using a text pager.
-h List the available options as well as the
available facilities and levels.

Partial output of the dmesg command.

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Manage Application Crashes

Application crashes may occur due to software bugs or system access issues.
For example, incorrect pointers to memory spaces may cause an application to
quit unexpectedly. If this occurs frequently, consider enabling a core dump—an
operation usually disabled by default on most distributions. The core dump serves
as a crash report and can be sent to the developer for further analysis. The dump
includes the running state of the application at the time of the crash along with any
virtual memory information associated with it.
Address application issues by considering some of the following questions:
• Did the application compile correctly?

• Did you modify any parameters before compiling?

• Did you configure any nonstandard settings during or after the installation?

• Is the application fully up-to-date and patched?

• Have you examined the application’s log file (if it exists)?

The systemd management system includes a very robust journaling and logging
component that can be useful for understanding system and application crashes.
Note that systemd journal is a different and independent service from rsyslog, the
traditional Linux log file service. The journal is maintained by the journald daemon
and draws information from more sources than rsyslog. It also displays the log files
more easily by using the journalctl command and a series of options.
For example, to display journal entries for SSH, type:
$ sudo journalctl -u ssh
The journal can be helpful when troubleshooting system and application crashes
that occur frequently due to the level of detail provided and the robust filtering
options.

The rsyslog service is discussed in a future section.

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Review Activity:
The Linux Kernel
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a kernel module?

2. What does the output of the dmesg command display?

3. Where else is dmesg output found?

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Lesson 8
Summary
4

Linux provides many commands to display and manage system hardware. These
commands allow sysadmins to understand the system’s current configuration,
including drivers, OS kernel (and its related modules), and recognized hardware.
In addition, the processes consuming hardware resources must be optimized
and managed. Finally, for both stability and security, the OS kernel must be kept
up-to-date.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• Consider whether what’s reported in the /proc and /dev directories is
hardware Linux recognizes, not necessarily the hardware installed. Hardware
that is not properly connected may not be displayed.

• Use /dev/null as a target to data to be discarded.

• Use /dev/zero as a source of data to be written.

• Use /dev/urandom as a source of random data to be written.

• Processes are instances of running code and identified by a PID.

• Processes are displayed by using commands such as ps, top, and htop.

• Performance information related to processes is displayed by using commands

such as top, htop, and sar.

• Processes exist in various states, including running, sleeping, stopped, and

zombie.

• Jobs are processes started and managed by users.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

hwinfo hwinfo Display detailed Lesson 8,
[options] information about Topic A
{device} hardware
resources.
dmidecode dmidecode Display system Lesson 8,
[options] information for Topic A
{device} current devices.

lspci lspci Display Lesson 8,

[options] information about Topic A
devices attached to
specific busses.

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

lsusb lsusb Display information Lesson 8,
[options] about devices Topic A
attached to
specific busses.
lscpu lscpu Display CPU Lesson 8,
[options] information. Topic A

lsmem lsmem Display information Lesson 8,

[options] about memory blocks. Topic A

ps The ps command Display process Lesson 8,

supports multiple status. Topic B
command syntax
formats.
sar sar Display system usage Lesson 8,
[options] reports. Topic B

nohup nohup Prevent a process Lesson 8,

{command/ from ending when Topic B
script} the user logs off.

mkswap mkswap Create swap space on Lesson 8,

[options] a storage partition. Topic C

swapon swapon Activate the swap Lesson 8,

[options] partition ona specific Topic C
device.
swapoff swapoff Deactivate the swap Lesson 8,
[options] partition on a specific Topic C
device.
free free Display the quantity Lesson 8,
[options] of free or unused Topic C
memory.
vmstat vmstat Display the virtual Lesson 8,
[options] memory usage. Topic C

modinfo modinfo Display information Lesson 8,

[options] about a particular Topic D
{module-name} kernel module.

insmod insmod Install a module into Lesson 8,

{module-name} the currently running Topic D
kernel.
rmmod rmmod Remove a module Lesson 8,
{module-name} from the currently Topic D
running kernel.
modprobe modprobe Add or remove Lesson 8,
[options] modules from a Topic D
{module-names} kernel.

depmod depmod Build the modules. Lesson 8,

[options] dep file by Topic D
aggregating all
instances of symbols
being exported and
used.

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

sysctl sysctl View or set kernel Lesson 8,
[options] parameters at Topic D
runtime.
dmesg dmesg Print any messages Lesson 8,
[options] that have been sent to Topic D
the kernel’s message
buffer during and
after system boot.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 9
Managing Services
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Linux servers (and Linux workstations, too) enable users and applications to
complete tasks that drive business. This function begins with the initialization of the
Linux kernel by systemd and SysVinit. These utilities start any configured services,
such as SSH for remote administration or make websites available via Apache.
Finally, sysadmins must configure the system for the comfort and practicality of the
users and their preferred locale settings.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Manage system services.

• Configure common system services.

• Configure localization settings.

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Topic 9A
Manage System Services
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.4 Given a scenario, configure and use the appropriate processes and services.
4.5 Given a scenario, use systemd to diagnose and resolve common problems with a
Linux system.

Most Linux systems initialize using either the newer systemd or older SysVinit
processes. Both initialization programs start and manage services and daemons
that make the server useful. Each program also has a separate group of
management commands. Systemd is very robust and includes the ability to manage
boot options, service startups, and even scheduled tasks by using unit files and
directives. This Topic covers the use of both management systems.

What Are Services and Daemons?

While the terms service and daemon are sometimes used interchangeably, there are
specific differences between the two.
Daemons are noninteractive programs running on the system. They do not provide
direct communication with users and operate in the background.
Services are interactive, though they too operate in the background. Users may
interact with services. Services are the purpose behind server computers.
Note that services are usually implemented as daemons and also contain an interactive
component. Hence, services such as SSH will have a related daemon, such as sshd.
Service and daemon management is an essential part of the sysadmin role. Here
are a few critical services that users rely on throughout the business day:
• Web service: Makes web pages available across the network and relies on httpd.

• SSH service: Allows secure remote administration and relies on sshd.

• NFS service: Allows remote access to exported directories and relies on several
daemons, including nfsd and mountd.

• NTP service: Synchronizes time among network servers and relies on ntpd.

System Initialization
System initialization is the process that begins when the kernel first loads. It
involves the loading of the operating system and its various components, including
the boot process. System initialization is carried out by an init daemon in Linux—the
“parent of all processes.” The init daemon refers to a configuration file and initiates
the processes listed in it. This prepares the system to run the required software.
The init daemon runs continuously until the system is powered off, and programs
on the system will not run without it.
On Linux, there are two main methods that initialize a system: systemd and
SysVinit. Which method is active on your Linux system will affect how you manage
services on that system.

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Most modern Linux distributions use systemd to manage initialization. However,

some distributions, especially older ones, rely on a different initialization
mechanism named System V. The exam focuses on systemd, but some knowledge
of System V is still important.

System V initialization is covered later in this Topic.

systemd
The systemd software suite provides an init method for initializing a system. It
also provides tools for managing services on the system that derive from the init
daemon. The systemd suite is now the dominant init method in modern Linux
distributions, and was designed as a replacement for other methods like SysVinit.
The systemd suite offers several improvements over older methods. For example,
it supports parallelization (starting programs at the same time for quicker boot)
and reduces shell overhead. In systemd, Control Groups (cgroups) are used to
track processes instead of process IDs (PIDs), which provides better isolation and
categorization for processes.

Use systemctl Commands

One of the most frequent tasks for administrators is managing services and
daemons. Management includes starting, stopping, and checking the status of these
applications.
It’s critical to remember that Linux services and daemons acquire their settings
from configuration files that are read when the system or the applications start. Any
changes to these settings occur by editing the files, which must then be reread to
discover the new configurations. In addition, administrators may choose whether a
given service starts when the system boots.

Managing Services with systemctl

The systemd command to manage startup options is systemctl. This command
relies on the command subcommand argument syntax. There are many
subcommands, but several of the most common are listed here.

systemctl Subcommand Purpose

start Start the service or daemon (not persistent).

stop Stop the service or daemon (not persistent).

restart Restart the service or daemon.

enable Set the service or daemon to start at boot

(persistent).
disable Set the service or daemon not to start at boot
(persistent).
status Display the current status of the service or
daemon.
mask Prevent a service from being started by any
other service.

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Note that enabling a service and starting a service are two different things. Enabling a
service configures the service to start the next time the server starts. This merely sets
the default status in the configuration file, and it does not start the service in the cur-
rent runtime. Starting a service turns on the service in the current runtime but does
not set its default startup status in the configuration file. Usually, when a new service
is installed, the sysadmin will both start the new service and enable it.

Using the systemctl commands.

The term "persistent" describes a setting that remains in place even after a reboot.
Enabling a service means it will start each time the system boots, whereas starting a
service means it will run for the current system's runtime but will revert back to its
default status upon reboot.

The difference between disabling/stopping a service and masking a service is that

with masking, a symlink (symbolic link) is created to /dev/null, preventing the
service from being started by any other service. Disabling a service merely deletes
the symlink to the service’s unit file. Another service might still call and start this
disabled service. Masking a service is a much stronger way of preventing it from
running.

Systemd unit files are discussed in a later section.

Understand systemd Unit Files

Under the systemd initialization process, the term unit refers to a resource that
systemd knows how to manage via daemons and configuration files. This system is
much more flexible than earlier initialization methods.
Unit files define how systemd manages the unit. The default unit files are stored
at /lib/systemd/system, but the configurations are managed by sysadmins
at /etc/systemd/system (the unit files in this location override any setting
from the /lib/systemd/system directory).

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There are many systemd unit file types, with .service, .timer, .mount, and .target as
the primary examples.
Unit files include [sections] followed by directive=value statements. Two
common sections are [Unit] and [Install]. The [Unit] section typically manages
the unit’s relationship to other units, including Wants= and Requires= directives.
The [Install] section specifies the results of enable and disable actions by the
administrator. This includes WantedBy= and RequiredBy= directives.
Note the [Unit] section and four directives in the example image below.

The emergency.target file.

Service Unit Files

Unit files that end with the .service suffix represent processes systemd manages.
These files typically include dependency directives such as Requires= and After=
that describe any other components this service depends on and when it should
run to ensure those dependent components are loaded. These directives ensure
that services start on time so that all prerequisites are complete before the next
service to starts. Mistakes in the Requires= and After= lines may prevent services
from starting on time.

Directives for .service Unit Files Purpose

Before= When multiple units are specified, this
unit will start before any unit listed in this
field.
After= When multiple units are specified, this
unit will start after any unit listed in this
field.
Requires= Units listed will be started if possible,
and the primary unit will fail if the units
specified by Requires= fail to start.
Wants= Units listed will be started if possible, but
the primary unit will still launch even if
the units specified by Wants= fail to start.
Type= Configures the startup type for the
service. Values include simple, exec,
forking, oneshot, dbus, notify, and idle.

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Directives for .service Unit Files Purpose

User= Specifies the user under whose authority
the service runs (usually root).
ExecStart= Executes commands along a specified
absolute path upon startup to start a
service.
ExecStop= Executes commands along a specified
absolute path upon shutdown to stop a
service.
Network services, for example, may be configured via .service unit files. Here is a
very basic firewall configuration example.
[Unit]
Description=Firewall

[Service]
Type=oneshot
RemainAfterExit=yes
ExecStart=/usr/local/sbin/simple-firewall-start
ExecStop=/usr/local/sbin/simple-firewall-stop

[Install]
WantedBy=multi-user.target

Timer Unit Files

Systemd is also capable of managing time-based events by using .timer files. A time
expression is written in the unit file and specifies what event is to be executed and
defines the time interval.

Time Expression Purpose

OnBootSec (monotonic) Time spanning from a
specific event, such as system startup.
OnCalendar (realtime) Time referenced from the
system clock.
OnCalendar events are displayed as DayOfWeek, Year-Month-Day, and as
Hour:Minute:Second.
For example, a timer running daily at 3:00 a.m. displays as:
• OnCalendar=*-*-* 3:00:00

Another example is an event that runs at 9:00 p.m. on the first Friday of the month:
• OnCalendar=Fri *-*-*1..7 21:00:00

Systemd .timer files can be used to replace schedulers such as cron. Schedulers
permit administrators and users to specify when an event should occur. The classic
example of a timer is to schedule a system backup for the middle of the night.

The cron scheduler is discussed in a later section.

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Timer file for the logrotate service.

Mount Unit Files

Mount points may also be managed by systemd. A mount point is a directory
within the filesystem where storage space is associated. Mount points managed by
systemd rely on .mount unit files.
Mount points managed by systemd are defined in .mount unit files that contain a
[Mount] section. This section defines the attributes of the mount action. Four of the
more common options are listed in the table below.

Options for .mount Unit Files Purpose

What= Absolute path to storage to mount.
Where= Absolute path to mount point directory.
Type= Define the filesystem type (optional).
Options= Any additional required options for the
mount action.

Mount points managed via systemd reference paths use a slightly different naming
convention than ones managed via normal Linux paths. Where Linux paths contain
forward slashes as delimiters, systemd .mount unit files use the dash character
instead. A path that might normally read /mnt/projects/servers becomes
mnt-projects-servers. There are also a few replacements for special
characters and punctuation.

The [Mount] portion of a .mount file.

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Target Unit Files

Manage Target Unit Files
Systemd targets represent system startup configurations. These targets define what
services start when the system starts, often by chaining multiple configuration files.
Four of the most commonly used targets are listed in the table below.

Common .target Files Purpose

default The target to which the system boots by
default.
multi-user.target Starts the enable services and the system
to the CLI.
graphical.target Starts the enable services and the system
to the GUI.
network-online Starts the specified network services, and
delays the target until network service is
established.

Here is a sample .target file from the man page:

# emergency-net.target

[Unit]
Description=Emergency Mode with Networking
Requires=emergency.target systemd-networkd.service
After=emergency.target systemd-networkd.service
AllowIsolate=yes
This example contains a [Unit] section. Other .target files may also contain an
[Install] section. This file includes a user-friendly description, a requirements
statement (for other targets or services that are required), an After field for when
the target should load, and a field indicating whether the target can be switched
manually.

Configure Targets
The default.target unit file points to the selected target—either CLI
(multi-user.target) or GUI (graphical.target). When the default
startup option is changed, this file is modified.

[Unit] section of the default target unit file.

The systemctl command allows manipulation of the targets. To display the

default target, type:
# systemctl get-default

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Displaying the default target.

To move the system to the graphical target, type:

# systemctl isolate graphical.target
To set the graphical target as the default, type:
# systemctl set-default graphical.target

Remember that Linux servers often run at the CLI (multi-user.target) so

that all available resources can be dedicated to services. End-user Linux workstations
usually run at the GUI (graphical.target).

Identify Service Failures

Most services are configured to start when the system boots, though some are
called by other services or by users.
When systemd manages service startup, use the systemctl command to
troubleshoot and identify issues.
First, check the status of the service (using sshd as the example):
# systemctl status sshd
Next, ensure the service is enabled:
# systemctl enable sshd

Output from the systemctl status and enable commands.

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Remember, if a service is disabled, it may still be launched by other services.

To truly prevent a service from starting, use the systemctl mask
subcommand.
In some cases, one service depends on another to start. In this case, ensure the
primary service is not masked or disabled, but rather set to enabled.

Recognize Older SysVinit Startup

SysVinit is an older init method that has been largely replaced by systemd.
However, some distributions still support SysVinit. Like systemd, SysVinit provides
you with various tools to manage services and the state of the system.
Aside from systemd’s improvements, one major difference between it and
SysVinit is that SysVinit has runlevels. Runlevels control the state of the
operating system in much the same way that systemd targets do; they
determine what types of daemons should be running in order to create a
specific type of environment. In fact, systemd targets were created to map to
existing runlevels. As with systemd targets, you can change a system’s runlevel
and set a default.

SysVinit was popularized in the UNIX System V (pronounced "System Five") family of
operating systems.

Runlevel Purpose
0 Halt or shut down the system.
1 Start single-user mode.
2 Start multi-user mode at CLI without
networking.
3 Start multi-user mode at CLI with
networking.
4 Unused
5 Start multi-user mode with GUI and
networking.
6 Restart the system.

The /etc/inittab file stores details of various processes related to system

initialization on a SysVinit system. It also stores details of the runlevels in use.
The init daemon reads from this file to determine what runlevel to boot into,
what daemons to start, and what to do if the runlevel changes. Each entry in
the /etc/inittab file takes the format:
id:rstate:action:process
The id is just a unique identifier for the entry, rstate defines what runlevels the
entry applies to, and action specifies one of several tasks that determine how
SysVinit handles the command defined in the process field.

Use SysVinit Commands

Two commands manage enabling and starting services under SysVinit: service
and chkconfig.

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The service command is another way to control SysVinit services through

SysVinit scripts. It supports the subcommands listed below.

Subcommands for the service

Command Purpose
status Print the current state of a service.

start Start (activate) a service immediately.

stop Stop (deactivate) a service immediately.

restart Restart a service immediately.

reload Reread a service’s configuration files

while the service remains running.

The syntax of the service command is service [options]

[service] [subcommand]
The chkconfig command can be used to control services in each runlevel. It can
also be used to start or stop services during system startup. The following are some
subcommands and options that can be used with chkconfig to control services.

Subcommands and Options for the

chkconfig Command Purpose
{service} on Enable a service to be started on boot.

{service} off Disable a service so that it is no longer

started on boot.
{service} reset Stop (deactivate) a service immediately.

restart Reset the status of a service.

--level {runlevel} Specify the runlevel in which to enable or

disable a service.
The syntax of the chkconfig command is chkconfig [options]
[service] [subcommand]

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Review Activity:
System Services
3

Answer the following questions:

1. When using the systemctl command, how does enabling a service differ
from starting a service?

2. What command restarts the sshd service after a configuration change?

3. What are the target names for the GUI and CLI startup options?

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Topic 9B
Configure Common System Services
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.4 Given a scenario, configure and use the appropriate processes and services.
1.7 Given a scenario, manage software configurations.

One of the sysadmin’s primary roles is to ensure the services users and systems
rely on are available and configured. There are many possible services. Some
servers are configured with multiple services, while others are dedicated to a single
function. This Topic reviews several common services that sysadmins are regularly
responsible for, including task scheduling, remote administration, and sharing
resources from a centralized file server.

Basics of Configuration
System and service configuration files store the settings necessary to manage
the system. Linux reads these configuration files as part of the startup process
and loads the services accordingly. If you make a change to a configuration, the
system must reread the file to implement the updates. This can be accomplished by
rebooting, reloading, or restarting the service.
For example, to restart a service after editing a configuration file, type:
# systemctl restart {service-name}
Reloading a service is a similar command:
# systemctl reload {service-name}
There are several common services that Linux administrators configure. This
section covers SSH, rsyslog, NTP, scheduling, web services, NFS, and CUPS.

Understand Secure Shell (SSH)

The Secure Shell (SSH) provides authenticated and encrypted remote connectivity.
It is generally used for remote administration and is the standard for managing
Linux systems as well as many network devices. On the destination SSH server, the
primary configuration file is /etc/ssh/sshd_config.
Here are a few common SSH settings:
• Default port number is 22/tcp.

• Disable root authentication over SSH.

• Configure a banner message that warns users of proper use.

• Configure key-based authentication for greater security and convenience.

The actual configuration of SSH services is presented in a later section.

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Configure rsyslog
Log files are a critical component of system administration. Log files display
information on failed services, system restarts, configuration changes, user
authentication, and more. By default, log files are stored locally on each Linux
system. However, the rsyslog logging utility is capable of forwarding log files to
remote systems.

rsyslog Severities and Facilities

The standard logging mechanism for Linux is rsyslog. This utility is an update to
the older syslog system. In most instances, the two are the same. Rsyslog uses two
values to manage entries: severities and facilities.

rsyslog Severities Level

emerg 0
alert 1
crit 2
error 3
warn 4
notice 5
info 6
debug 7

Many services and daemons log messages. These services are referred to as
“facilities.” Here are a few sample facilities:
• cron

• kernel

• ftp

• ntp

The Modules portion of the rsyslog.conf file.

There are many possible facilities, depending on what services and applications are
installed on the system.
The rsyslog configuration file is found at /etc/rsyslog.conf. Additional
configurations may be found in /etc/rsyslog.d/50-default.conf.
Each line represents a different log configuration for the identified facility, such as:
cron.error  -/var/log/cron

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This entry logs all cron messages from error upwards to /var/log/cron.

Common facilities and severities.

Display and Forward Logs

Searching Local Logs in /var/log
The operating system and applications log entries into files stored at /var/log.
Some applications write to their own log files, while others write to a standard
system log file.

Essential Log Files Purpose

/var/log/syslog General system-related logs, found on
Red Hat–derived distributions
/var/log/messages General system-related logs, found on
Debian-derived distributions
/var/log/secure Authentication logs, found on Red
Hat–derived distributions
/var/log/auth.log Authentication logs, found on Debian-
derived distributions
/var/log/yum.log Logs YUM package management

/var/log/httpd/ A directory for Apache webserver to log

information

Log files are simple text documents, so commands such as tail, cat, and grep
are very useful for displaying entries. The tail command is particularly useful
because rsyslog places the most recent log file entries at the bottom of the file.

The three most recent entries in the dpkg.log file.

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Remote Log Forwarding

Helpdesk Ticket #01997

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Information
Risha Patel Services you 2024-06-02

Subject Configure server04 and server07

Ticket Detail Can you set up and test log forwarding for two of our Linux
servers, 04 and 07? We need server04 to be the centralized log
file repo, and server07 to forward all its logs to that repo on
server04.

Let me know if any questions, thanks

Risha
Date last 2024-06-02
updated

Forwarding log files from multiple servers to a single server makes archiving and
parsing the files much simpler.
The first configuration occurs on the computer where logs will be centralized. You
must configure it to listen for inbound rsyslog connections.
1. Uncomment the following lines in the /etc/rsyslog.conf file. You will
find these lines in the Modules section of the file:

• # Provides UDP syslog reception

• $ModLoad imudp.so

• $UDPServerRun 514

2. Configure a template to organize the storage of the inbound logs. The

%HOSTNAME% variable means the logs will be organized based on the
hostname of the sending server. The following setting is placed in the
Templates section of the file:

• $template DynamicFile,"/var/log/%HOSTNAME%/forwarded-logs.log" *.*

-?DynamicFile

3. Configure the firewall to accept inbound connections over port 514/udp.

• On the forwarding server, edit the /etc/rsyslog.conf file and add

the following line to the Rules section: *.* @IP

• Where IP is the IP address of the destination log storage server.

• Restart the rsyslogd on both servers.

4. Finally, test the configuration. On the source computer, type logger TEST.
On the destination log storage computer, search /var/log for a directory
with the source computer’s name and an entry that reads “TEST”.

Tools such as logrotate automate log file archiving.

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Configure Network Time

Many critical services on the network rely on time synchronization, so it’s imperative
that all devices agree on the current time. Linux administrators select one of two
daemons to manage time synchronization against public time servers. The older
service is ntpd, and the more recent service is chronyd. Either may be installed,
depending on the distribution. Only one time service should be active at a time.

Configure ntpd
The Network Time Protocol daemon (ntpd) synchronizes system time against one
or more specified time servers over port 123/tcp. You can define the time servers
by editing the /etc/ntp.conf file.
server timeserver-IP-address
Don’t forget to restart the service, since you made a configuration change:
# systemctl restart ntp

Often the /etc/ntp.conf file is configured for you by the Linux distribution
vendor.

Configure chrony
In some cases, the ntpd may not be responsive enough for certain systems. Linux
deployments that do not have constant or consistent network connections may
not accurately or immediately synchronize time settings via the ntpd. The chrony
service provides a more flexible and consistent time synchronization service in
these cases. Like ntpd, chrony uses port 123/tcp.
Two components make up the chronyd service: the chronyd daemon and the
chronyc command.
The chrony configuration file is /etc/chrony.conf . The file contains a
list of the time servers chrony will synchronize with. Here is a sample of the
configuration:
server 0.pool.ntp.org iburst
server 1.pool.ntp.org iburst
server 2.pool.ntp.org iburst
server 3.pool.ntp.org iburst
To see detailed configuration, status, and synchronization information, use the
following commands:
# chronyc -n tracking
# chronyc activity

Sysadmins must select one or the other time service; either ntpd or chronyd. Do not use
both time services simultaneously.

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Configure Scheduling
The primary Linux task scheduler is cron. This tool references a crontab file to
determine whether any tasks have been assigned to a specific minute. A system-
wide crontab file is located at /etc/crontab, and a per-user crontab is at
/var/spool/cron/crontabs.
Helpdesk Ticket #01998

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-06-05

Subject setting up a regular backup

Ticket Detail Hi, can you help me figure out how to back up my files? I want
to do this daily during off hours, something like 10 pm.

Thanks,
KG
Date last 2024-06-05
updated

Cron jobs can be used to specify tasks each minute, hour, day, month, and any day
of the week. This makes them extremely flexible.

Illustration of cron component placement.

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Configure cron
The cron configuration relies on a crontab file. To schedule an event, edit the
crontab file using the crontab -e command.
The syntax of the crontab command is crontab [options]

Do not use a regular editor for managing the cron daemon. The crontab -e
command includes other features for managing the cron daemon. For example, after
editing the file, it automatically restarts cron.

Helpdesk Ticket #01998-r

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-06-05

Subject setting up a regular backup

Ticket Detail Hi, can you help me figure out how to back up my files? I want
to do this daily during off hours, something like 10 pm.

Thanks,
KG
Response Hey Kai, absolutely. Call the script “backup.sh” and, at the
prompt, type in:
0 22 * * * /home/kgarcia/backup.sh
Date last 2024-06-06
updated

Here are a few other examples you could show the user who requested help.
To run the curl command to download a file daily at 10 p.m., type:
0 22 * * * curl -s http://sample.com/updated-
file.txt
To execute the command at 8 p.m. Monday through Friday, type:
* 20 * * 1-5 /path/to/command
To execute the command at 2:15 a.m. daily, type:
15 2 * * * /path/to/command
To execute the command at 4:30 a.m. on the first day of each month, type:
30 4 1 * * /path/to/command
To see scheduled cron jobs for the current user, use the cron -l command.

Configure at
The at command runs a task once at a specified time. It is not designed for
repetitive or regularly scheduled tasks. The at command is very flexible. Users can
specify a particular date and time, or they can cause the scheduled command to run
after a given period of time.
The command is typically used in an interactive manner, where the at command
and time interval are specified, and then a task is defined in an interactive prompt.
This enables the user to enter a path to a script or a command to be run. Pressing
Ctrl+D exits the interactive mode.

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The syntax of the at command is at [options] {time}

Scheduling a “Hello World” message at 3 p.m.

Schedule a task in noninteractive mode using pipe:

echo "Hello World" | at 3 pm
Use at -l or atq to display scheduled jobs for the current user.
The at command takes several possible arguments for specifying time, including
those listed here in this table.

Arguments Specifying Time for the

at Command Purpose
noon Specifies 12:00 p.m.

teatime Specifies 4:00 p.m.

midnight Specifies 12:00 a.m.

now + 3 minutes Specifies the time three minutes from

now.
now + 1 hour Specifies the time one hour from now.

In addition to cron, systemd .timer files can be used to schedule events. Recall that
.timer files were discussed in an earlier section.

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Configure a Webserver
Apache webserver requires very little configuration for a basic deployment. The
basic process consists of installing the service, editing a single configuration file,
configuring the firewall, and creating content.

Helpdesk Ticket #01999

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Ali Selassi Marketing you 2024-06-07

Subject internal website

Ticket Detail Can you help me set up the internal Marketing website?
I just need it to be a static landing page, nothing fancy.
Thanks!
Date last 2024-06-07
updated

To edit the configuration file, use a text editor such as Vim or Nano to open /etc/
httpd/conf/httpd.conf. This file contains a great many comments and
optional directives. For a basic deployment, only two directives need to be modified.
Browse or search for the Listen and DocumentRoot directives, and then make the
following changes:
Listen 127.0.0.1:80
DocumentRoot "/var/www/html"

The listen configuration.

The document root configuration.

In this case, the webserver listens for connections to itself (hence the 127.0.0.1
loopback address) on port 80. The files that make up the website are found
at /var/www/html.
Next, configure the firewall to permit inbound HTTP (port 80/tcp) connections.
# firewall-cmd --permanent --zone-public --add-
service=http
# firewall-cmd --reload

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Add the http service to the firewall.

Recall that firewall management was covered in an earlier section.

Finally, use a text editor to create a simple test web page with the following content:
Hello World
Welcome to my website!
Name the file index.html, and store it at /var/www/html (the location specified
by the DocumentRoot directive in httpd.conf).

Create the index.html home page.

The Apache service must own this file, so use the chown command to set
ownership:
# chown apache.apache /var/www/html/index.html

Change ownership to Apache.

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Finally, start and enable the Apache httpd web service:

# systemctl enable httpd
# systemctl start httpd

Start and enable Apache.

Use a web browser on the local system to display the web page. Launch the
browser, and in the address bar, type http://localhost to see the page.

Test the webserver deployment.

Configure NFS
One of the most common uses for a server is file storage. File servers centralize
business content, making security and backups easier. The Network File System
protocol permits remote client computers to connect to file servers from across the
network to access shared directories.

NFS was introduced in an earlier Lesson.

NFS Server Configuration

To deploy NFS on a file server, first install, enable, and start the service. To enable
and start NFS, type:
# systemctl enable nfs-server
# systemctl start nfs-server
Next, create or select directories on the file server that should be exported (shared)
on the network. Note what directories these are and what access permissions might
be required. Edit the /etc/exports file to make these resources available
across the network. You will add the absolute path to the directory and various
access controls.

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Here are two samples:

/media/projects     192.168.2.0/24(rw,sync)
/media/resources    *(ro,sync)
In the above configuration, the projects directory will be available to any client
connecting from the 192.168.2.0/24 subnet. Those clients will have read and
write (rw) access. The resources directory will permit connections from any client IP
and provide read-only (ro) access.
Remember to restart the service for these changes to take effect.

Configure the NFS Client

To display the available directories on the remote file server, use the showmount
-e {server} command.
# showmount -e 192.168.2.10
On the NFS client workstation, you can mount the exported directory to a local
mount point. For example, to mount the remote /media/projects directory
to the local /media/share directory, type:
# mount -t nfs4 192.168.2.10:/media/projects
/media/share
In this example, the remote file server’s IP address is 192.168.2.10.

Don't forget to configure any firewalls for NFS connectivity. NFS relies on port 111/tcp
(and /udp) plus port 2049/tcp (and /udp).

Configure Printing
Printing is a critical function on a network. The term printers refers to the software that
manages the print process, while print devices are the actual hardware that applies
toner (or ink) to paper. The older Linux printers were managed by a series of lp (line
printer) commands, including the lpr and lpq commands discussed below. Modern
implementations often rely on CUPS to manage the print infrastructure.

Helpdesk Ticket #02000

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Anna Tanaka HR you 2024-06-09

Subject Print solution needed

Ticket Detail We’re trying to set up a printer managed by a website for
some internal operations staff. Can you help set this up?

Date last updated 2024-06-09

Configure CUPS
CUPS is a print management system for Linux that enables a computer to function
as a print server. A system running CUPS is a host that can initiate print jobs from
client systems. These jobs are then processed and sent to the appropriate printer.
The main advantage of CUPS is that it can process different data formats on the
same print server.

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CUPS is designed for scheduling print jobs, processing administrative commands,

and providing printer status information to local and remote programs. CUPS
provides a web-based interface for configuring the service. Changes made through
this interface modify the /etc/cups/cupsd.conf and /etc/cups/
cups-files.conf files.
Once CUPS is installed on the system, it must be enabled and started, just like any
other service. The management interface is accessed via a web browser. Simply
type http://localhost:631 to connect to the management page.
# systemctl enable cups
# systemctl start cups

Don't forget to open the firewall port. CUPS uses port 631/tcp.

Locally attached and network print devices are added to the CUPS configuration,
enabling administrators to manage print queues, security, and availability.

The lpr Command

The lpr command submits files for printing. Files supplied at the command line
are sent to the specified printer or to the print queue if the printer is busy. Without
specifying the printer to use, the command will send the print job to the default
printer, which you can configure with CUPS. The lpr command reads the print file
from standard input if no files are supplied at the command line.
The syntax of the lpr command is lpr [options] [file names]
Options for the lpr Command Purpose
-E Force encryption when connecting to the
server.
-P {destination} Send the print job to the destination
printer specified.
-# {copies} Set the number of copies to print from
1 to 100.
-T {name} Set the job name.

-l Specify that the print file is already

formatted and should be sent to the
destination without being filtered.
-o {option} Set a job option, such as printing in
landscape mode, scaling the printed
output, printing double-sided, etc. Job
options vary depending on the printer.
-p Print the specified files with a shaded
header that includes the date, time, job
name, and page number.
-r Specify that the printed files should be
deleted after printing.

While the lpr command submits print jobs, the lpq command displays existing
print jobs that the printer is managing.

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Review Activity:
System Service Configuration
5

Answer the following questions:

1. A sysadmin has several virtual machines that are frequently on and

off the development network. The administrator complains of time
synchronization problems with applications on the VMs. What time
service can you suggest to help?

2. Define some reasons to forward Linux log files to a central server.

3. Differentiate between the at command scheduler and the cron

scheduler.

4. When would a script run if it were configured in cron with the following
settings? 30 1 * * *

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Topic 9C
Configure Localization Settings
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.7 Given a scenario, manage software configurations.
4.5 Given a scenario, use systemd to diagnose and resolve common problems with a
Linux system.

Before users can get comfortable working in the Linux environment, they may need
to have the system localized to their specific region, culture, or preferences. In this
topic, you’ll configure localization options for users who need them.

Manipulate System Settings

In the world of operating systems, localization is the process of adapting system
components for use within a language or culture other than the one that the system
was originally designed for. In a practical sense, this usually means translating
interface components into specific languages, converting measurements into the
system used in a specific region, configuring the keyboard layout to one that the
user is comfortable with, and setting the date and time attributes of a specific
location.
Localizing a Linux system is important for organizations that provide Linux services
to personnel and customers all over the world. For example, an administrator in
Japan will likely be more comfortable working on a Linux server if that server is
localized to use the Japanese language rather than the English language. Working
with the local time and with a compatible keyboard will also enhance the user
experience for all members of an organization.

Use the date Command

The date command is used to print the date in a specified format. The date
command prints the date based on the /etc/localtime file. By default, it
prints the results in the following format:
<day of week> <month> <day> <24 hour time ##:##:##> <time zone> <year>

The output of the date command.

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You can also format the time using a number of different formatting options. You
initialize the formatting options with a plus sign (+), and each option is prefaced
with a percent sign (%). For example, to retrieve the week number (out of 52 weeks
a year), you’d enter:
date +%V
You can also use the date command to change the system’s date by including the -s
option with a provided argument.
The syntax of the date command is date [options] +[format]

Formatting Option for the date

Command Purpose
%A Display the full weekday name.

%B Display the full month name.

%F Display the date in YYYY-MM-DD format.

%H Display the hour in 24-hour format.

%I Display the hour in 12-hour format.

%j Display the day of the year.

%S Display seconds.

%V Display the week of the year.

%x Display the date representation based on

the locale.
%X Display the time representation based on
the locale.
%Y Display the year.

Configure Localization
After you review the system settings with the date command, you can make
adjustments where necessary.

Use the timedatectl Command

The timedatectl command is used to set the system date and time
information. It can take one of several subcommands.

Subcommand for the timedatectl

Command Purpose
status Show the current settings.

restart Synchronize the local (system) clock

based on the hardware clock when
setting the hardware clock.
list-timezones Display available time zones.

set-timezone {timezone} Configure a specific time zone.

set-time {HH:MM:SS} Set the system clock to the specified time.

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The syntax of the timedatectl command is timedatectl [options]

[subcommand]
The following table lists some of the options for the timedatectl command.

Option for the timedatectl

Command Purpose
-H Execute the operation on the remote
host specified by IP address or hostname.
--no-ask-password Prevent the user from being asked
to authenticate when performing a
privileged task.
--adjust-system-clock Synchronize the system clock with the
real-time clock.
-M {local container} Execute the operation on a local
container.

For example, to configure the current time zone for Denver, Colorado, in the United
States, type:
# timedatectl set-timezone "America/Denver"

The output from the timedatectl list-timezones command is immense. Consider filtering
the results with | grep or paginating the results with | less.

The localectl Command

The localectl command is used to view and configure the system locale and
keyboard layout settings. A system’s locale determines how it will represent various
culture-specific elements, the most prominent of which is the language used in the
interface. However, a locale can also determine factors such as how date and time
are formatted, how monetary values are formatted, and more. Keyboard layouts
can be configured independently of the locale and will determine how each physical
key press is interpreted by the operating system. There are many keyboards with
different physical layouts, so the system needs to be configured with the correct
one or else the wrong character may be entered.
Like the timedatectl command, the localectl command offers various
subcommands for managing the system locale and keyboard layout.

Subcommand for the localectl

Command Purpose
status Show the current locale and keyboard
layout. This is the same as issuing
localectl by itself.
set-locale Set the system locale to the locale
provided.
list-locales List all available locales on the system.

set-keymap Set the keyboard layout to the provided

layout.
list-keymaps List all available keyboard layouts on the
system.

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The syntax of the localectl command is localectl [options]

[subcommand]
The following table lists some of the options for the localectl command.

Option for the localectl Command Purpose

-H {remote host} Execute the operation on the remote
host specified by IP address or hostname.
--no-ask-password Prevent the user from being asked to
authenticate when performing a
privileged task.
--no-pager Prevent the output from being piped into
a paging utility.
--no-convert Prevent a keymap change for the console
from also being applied to the X display
server and vice versa.

Troubleshoot Time Zone Configurations

Proper time-zone configurations enable users to better manage time. This is
important when managing scheduling services such as cron or at, as well as for
convenience when using the system. Linux recognizes time zones based on two
primary sources.

Understand /etc/timezone and /usr/share/zoneinfo Directories

The /usr/share/zoneinfo/ directory is a container for all of the regional
time zones that you can configure the system to use. Subdirectories in this
container usually organize languages by region; for example, the Africa subdirectory
includes time-zone files for specific countries or cities within the continent.
The individual files are not raw text files but are special files used by the system.
One way to change the system’s time zone is by creating a symbolic link to one of
these individual time-zone files from the /etc/localtime file.

A portion of the zoneinfo directory contents on a Fedora system.

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In some Debian-based distros, /etc/timezone can be used to view the time

zone. This text file lists the time zone by the region structure you’d see in the /
usr/ share/zoneinfo directory. For example, the file might include the text
Europe/Berlin to indicate that the system is using the zone that this city is in.

The /etc/timezone file on an Ubuntu system.

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Review Activity:
Localization Settings
6

Answer the following questions:

1. Where are regional time-zone files stored on Red Hat–derived systems?

And Debian-derived systems?

2. True or false? The localectl command configures the system locale and
keyboard settings as one collective setting that is aligned with the
locale’s specific cultural elements.

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Lesson 9
Summary
3

The configuration services and locale settings enable users and other systems to
complete business tasks and serve customers. When the system starts, it runs
an initialization program to manage the necessary configurations. Most modern
Linux systems rely on systemd for initialization and service management, though
some older systems use SysVinit instead. These programs start web, print, file, and
remote administrations services that support users.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• Differentiate services versus daemons.

• Services are interactive but run in the background to provide features.

• Daemons are noninteractive and run in the background to provide features.

• Recognize the two system initialization programs: systemd and SysVinit.

• Understand service management in systemd using systemctl and the

start, stop, restart, enable, disable, and mask subcommands.
• Understand service management in SysV using service and chkconfig
commands.

• Recognize that service configurations are held in files and services must be
restarted if a configuration file is changed.

• Understand the role services play in the network.

• Recognize common service configuration files for SSH, rsyslog, NTP, cron, and
NFS.

• Recognize the port numbers for the services covered in this Lesson.

• SSH default port is 22/tcp

• ntpd default port is 123/tcp

• chrony default port is 123/tcp

• HTTP default port is 80/tcp

• NFS default port is 111/tcp and 111/udp plus 2049/tcp and 2049/udp

• CUPS default port is 631/tcp

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Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

systemctl systemctl Manage startup Lesson 9,
[subcommand] options. Topic A
[argument]
service service Manage enabling and Lesson 9,
[options] starting services under Topic A
[service] SysVinit.
[subcommand]
chkconfig chkconfig • Control services in Lesson 9,
[options] each runlevel. Topic A
[service]
• Start or stop services
[subcommand]
during system
startup.
crontab crontab Schedule an event by Lesson 9,
[options] editing the crontab file. Topic B

at at [options] Run a task once at a Lesson 9,

{time} specified time. Topic B

lpr lpr [options] Submit files for printing. Lesson 9,

[file names] Topic B

date date [options] Print the date in a Lesson 9,

[format] specified format. Topic C

timedatectl timedatectl Set the system date and Lesson 9,

[options] time information. Topic C
[subcommand]
localectl localectl View and configure Lesson 9,
[options] the system locale and Topic C
[subcommand] keyboard layout
settings.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 10
Configuring Network Settings
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Basic networking skills are critical to Linux server administrators. The TCP/IP suite is
fundamental to modern networks and is built on a series of network devices. Each
node in a TCP/IP network has a unique identity, so displaying and configuring these
identities is a common task for Linux admins. Many network tools exist to provide
remote connectivity, whether that access is for administrative purposes or mere file
transfers. And many network tools exist to help troubleshoot these network access
issues.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand network fundamentals.

• Manage network settings.

• Configure remote administrative access.

• Troubleshoot the network.

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Topic 10A
Understand Network Fundamentals
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate networking tools or configuration files.
4.2 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot network resource issues.

Modern networks, including the Internet, function based on the TCP/IP protocol
suite. Basic knowledge of this suite is fundamental to Linux system administration,
as is general knowledge of network devices. Furthermore, sysadmins need
to understand IP address assignment, classes, and relationship to network
segmentation. Finally, the concept of port numbers relates particular services—
such as web access or email—to numeric identifiers.

TCP/IP and Network Devices

The Transmissions Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite governs
network communications on internal networks, the Internet, and cloud-based
networks. The protocols making up the suite manage many aspects of network
communication, including addressing and identification, encryption, compression,
error checking, and file transfers.

Be aware that management of features such as encryption or compression includes a

lack of these features. In other words, some protocols manage encryption by not offering
it as a feature. HTTP is an example.

Layers of the TCP/IP Suite

The TCP/IP protocol suite is divided into four layers, with each layer providing
responsibility for one or more aspects of the communication process. Those four
protocol layers are:
• Application: protocols that support network applications such as web browsers.

• Transport: protocols that support reliable communications.

• Internet: protocols that support addressing.

• Network access: protocols that support network connectivity.

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The layers of the TCP/IP suite. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Network Nodes
The term node refers to devices with an identity on the network. That identity
may be represented by a physical address or one of two logical addresses, or any
combination of the three.
Each network interface card (NIC) has a unique identity coded into it that
identifies that NIC on the network segment. That code is referred to as a media
access control (MAC) address. It is the most fundamental network identity and is
considered a physical address.
Each NIC may be assigned a logical address called an Internet Protocol (IP)
address. The IP address uniquely identifies the NIC in the network environment.
IP addresses are shown in dotted decimal (base 10), which is a range of 0–9. The
computer works with the IP address in binary (base 2), which is a range of 0–1.
Nodes may be given a human-readable name, called a hostname, that helps
people better understand what device they are working with. This identity is often
configured during the installation of the operating system and is sometimes called
the “computer name.” Hostnames are limited to 255 characters.

Output of the ip addr show eth0 command.

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Different devices on the network reference the different addresses. Often switches will
govern traffic based on MAC addresses, while routers will manage traffic based on IP
addresses.

Network Devices
There are several essential network devices and components to understand. These
may be part of the troubleshooting process or network installation. Linux systems need
to be configured properly to interact with these network devices and components.
A switch acts as a concentrator, centralizing all network connections for a segment
to a single device. Switches can be used to manage traffic for performance and
security concerns. As a general rule, switches work with MAC addresses at Layer 2
of the OSI model. There are switches that work at higher layers, too.
Routers act as control points for communications between network segments.
Administrators can configure the router to permit or deny certain kinds of traffic,
as well as pass traffic from one network segment to another. Routers work with IP
addresses at Layer 3 of the OSI model.
Typically, network media is twisted-pair Ethernet cable. Twisted-pair may come
shielded (STP) or unshielded (UTP). It is inexpensive and relatively easy to work
with. It is the most common type of network cable. Other cable types include
coaxial (coax) and fiber optic. Wireless networks forego cables and can transmit
data using radio waves.
Administrators use TCP/IP to organize networks for security and performance. Some
networks are divided into multiple segments to isolate certain types of traffic. For
example, traffic may be separated between production and development networks.

IP Addresses
IP addresses provide an addressing system for managing network identities.
Internet Protocol version 4 was defined in 1981. The addresses are 32 bits in
length, providing approximately 4.3 billion addresses. Humans usually work with IP
addresses in the decimal form, such as 192.168.2.200, while network devices work
with the address in binary.
IPv4 addresses are divided into at least two portions—a network identifier and a
host identifier. The network identifier defines to which network segment the host
belongs, and the host identifier uniquely identifies that host within the segment.
Because the network ID may use different bits within the address, a second
numeric value is used to show which portion of the IP address is the network ID
and which part is the host ID. This value is known as the subnet mask. It is essential
to understand the role of the subnet mask. It indicates where in the IP address the
division is between the network ID and the host ID.

IPv6 addresses are covered in a later section.

IPv4 Address Classes

The approximately 4.3 billion IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes. These
classes provide a framework for the possible segmentation of networks. Each class
provides a specified number of networks, as well as a number of hosts available
on each network. For the first three classes, the division between the network ID
and the host ID occurs at one of the dots. Network professionals must be able to
recognize all five classes by the value of the first octet and know the default subnet
mask for each class.

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The 4.3 billion IPv4 addresses are divided into the following five classes:

Number
Starting Ending of Hosts per Default
Class Address Address Networks Network Subnet Mask
Class A 0.0.0.0 127.0.0.0 126 16,777,214 255.0.0.0 or /8
Class B 128.0.0.0 191.255.0.0 16,384 65,534 255.255.0.0 or /16
Class C 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.0 2,097,152 254 255.255.255.0 or /24
Class D 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255 n/a n/a n/a
Class E 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 n/a n/a n/a

Reserved Ranges
In addition to knowing the five IP address classes, there are several other IP
addresses or address ranges that are important. Due to the depletion of IPv4
addresses, there are three IP address ranges that are reserved for internal use only.
You will almost always find these in use on internal business and home networks.
• Class A Reserved: 10.0.0.0–10.255.255.255

• Class B Reserved: 172.16.0.0–172.31.255.255

• Class C Reserved: 192.168.0.0–192.168.255.255

Subnet Masks and Network Segments

Network administrators will divide a network into segments in order to better
manage network traffic. Their goal may be to manage that traffic more efficiently,
resulting in better network performance, and/or to isolate that traffic for the
purpose of security.
The logical divisions of the network are referred to as subnets and are identified by
a network ID. This network ID is part of the IP address each node is using. All nodes
in that subnet will have the same network ID in their IP address. Each node will have
a unique host ID within that subnet. Recall that the subnet mask shows which part
is the network ID and which part is the host ID.

A network segmented into two subnets. (Images © 123RF.com)

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Address Configuration
There are two network services that are commonly involved with TCP/IP network
configuration. You will need to understand the role of both of these services in
order to properly configure your Linux system.
Humans have a difficult time working with long strings of numbers such as IP
addresses. The Domain Name System (DNS) service provides name resolution,
a way of relating an easy-to-remember hostname with a difficult-to-remember IP
address. DNS is implemented as a database hosted on one or more servers. The
database may only contain the names and IPs of nodes in your own network, or it
may be part of the larger Internet DNS infrastructure.
All nodes on the network must be configured with a unique IP address and
other corresponding information. There are two ways of accomplishing this
configuration— statically or dynamically. Static configuration is usually appropriate
for servers and network devices, while dynamic configuration is typically used with
end-user workstations. The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service
provides dynamic configuration.

IPv6
The IPv4 addressing scheme has many limitations. A newer standard is being
implemented in the form of Internet Protocol version 6. IPv6 addresses many of the
weaknesses of IPv4 with a much larger address space, built-in encryption, and more
efficient routing.
IPv6 uses 128-bit addressing, while IPv4 relies on 32-bit addressing. The result is a
much larger address space. IPv6 includes more modern features and is common
on large networks, such as telecom, Internet service providers (ISPs), and cloud
environments.
Linux is fully compatible with IPv6, so Linux servers and workstations should not be
a limiting factor in the deployment of IPv6 in a network environment.

Network Ports
Network port numbers are numeric values assigned to the various application-
layer protocols. Network devices use these port numbers to understand what
application will handle the communication. Humans work with the application-layer
protocols by name, such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Computers need to
work with these by port number.
A few of the more commonly used ports are provided in this table.

Network Port Number Application-layer Protocol

22 Secure Shell (SSH)
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
80 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
123 Network Time Protocol (NTP)
443 Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
(HTTPS)

IT personnel, from service desk employees to infrastructure administrators, are

expected to understand basic IP addressing, subnet masks, network segmentation,
and IP address configuration.

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Review Activity:
Network Fundamentals
3

Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between MAC addresses, IP addresses, and hostnames.

2. Explain the difference between the Network ID and the Host ID portions
of an IP address.

3. List three advantages of IPv6 over IPv4.

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Topic 10B
Manage Network Settings
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate networking tools or configuration files.

Network settings are often configured manually (or statically) on servers and
dynamically on client devices. Various tools display and manage these settings,
aiding administrators in system configuration and troubleshooting. As has already
been covered, Linux configurations are stored in text files, and network settings are
no different.
This Topic focuses on network management tools and the process of configuration
IP address settings and name resolution.

Configure Network Interfaces

IP addresses are a critical identifier on the network, so configuration and
troubleshooting both revolve around the proper settings. The older ifconfig
command displays settings and allows for configuration; however, the ip
command is the recommended solution for modern Linux distributions.

Use ip Commands
The ip command replaces ifconfig in many distributions. It provides similar
information to ifconfig, including IP address, subnet mask, and MAC address.
The ip command is one of the first tools used in network troubleshooting on a
Linux system. Some common ways to utilize the ip command include:
• ip addr show —Displays the IP address information on all interfaces.
• ip link —Displays the status of each interface.
• ip link set eth1 up —Enables the interface identified as eth1.
• ip link set eth1 down —Disables the interface identified as eth1.
The syntax of the ip command is ip [options] {object}
[subcommand]

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Available ip subcommands.

Viewing the IP address configuration is a critical part of network troubleshooting.

The ip command is one of the most important tools in the administrator’s arsenal.

The ip command is installed as part of the iproute2 software package.

Use the ifconfig Command

The ifconfig command enables a user to view the current IP addressing
information for each NIC recognized by the system. Viewing the IP address
configuration is one of the earliest steps in network troubleshooting. The
ifconfig command shows the IP address, subnet mask, broadcast ID, MAC
address, basic performance information, and NIC name. The tool also enables NICs
to be placed in an up or a down configuration (enabled or disabled).
The ifconfig command is officially deprecated in Linux, as noted in the man
page; however, it is still available in many current distributions.
The syntax of the ifconfig command is ifconfig [options]
[interface]
Some of the more common uses for the ifconfig command are:
• ifconfig —Displays the configuration for all interfaces.
• ifconfig eth0 —Displays configuration for a specific interface named eth0.
• ifconfig eth0 up —Enables an interface.
• ifconfig eth0 down —Disables an interface.
• ifconfig eth0 192.168.2.200 netmask 255.255.255.0 —
Sets a static IP address and subnet mask on eth0.

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The ifcfg command is an alternative to ifconfig or the ip command for

managing IP addressing. The command is less robust than the other two and not as
commonly used.

Use the iwconfig Command

The iwconfig command is used to provide wireless NIC configurations, including
settings like SSID and encryption information.
The syntax of the iwconfig command is iwconfig [options]
[interface]
This table describes some commonly used iwconfig command options.

Option for the iwconfig Command Purpose

nick {name} Set a nickname for the NIC.

mode {mode} Set the operating mode for the NIC that
corresponds to the network topology.
freq {number} Set the Wi-Fi frequency used by the NIC.

channel {number} Set the Wi-Fi channel used by the NIC.

retry {number} Set the maximum number of MAC

retransmissions for the NIC.

Use NetworkManager
Linux distributions often include a utility called NetworkManager to aid in the
proper configuration of the IP information. NetworkManager includes three
different interfaces that may be used, depending on whether or not a GUI is
available on the Linux system.

The nmcli Command

The nmcli tool is the most fundamental of the NetworkManager interfaces. It
contains many subcommands that enable you to view and configure network
information. Because many network servers will not include a GUI, it is important to
be comfortable with nmcli to manage network settings.

The nmcli tool displaying the status of all connected network interfaces.

The syntax of the nmcli command is nmcli [options] [subcommand]

[arguments]

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This table outlines some often-used subcommands for nmcli.

Subcommand for the nmcli

Command Purpose
general status View a summary of network connectivity data.

connection show View identification information for each NIC.

con up {device ID} Enable the specified NIC.

con down {device ID} Disable the specified NIC.

con edit {device ID} Enter interactive mode to configure the

specified NIC.
device status Display the current status of each NIC.

The nmtui Command

While Linux administrators often work at the command line, it is certainly useful
to have a visual representation of network configuration options. By running the
nmtui command, you can call up a text-based user interface, or TUI. Navigating
a TUI is accomplished by using the Tab key, the Spacebar, the Enter key, and the
arrow keys. The Tab key moves the cursor from field to field. The arrow keys are
used to make selections within the field. The Enter key is used to activate a setting,
such as OK or Quit. The Spacebar is used to check or uncheck a check box.

Editing a network interface using the TUI.

The nmgui Command

NetworkManager also includes a GUI tool, which is particularly helpful for managing
the network connections of workstations. The nmgui tool enables IPv4 and IPv6
configuration, and it provides access to a wide variety of other network settings.
This tool will certainly be familiar to most end-users.

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Viewing network interface details in a GUI.

Network Configuration Files

Recall that Linux system configurations are stored in text files and are found in
the /etc directory. The network settings for your Linux system are found in the
/etc/sysconfig directory. There are multiple subdirectories and files that
store more specific information, including the /etc/sysconfig/network-
scripts directory and the /etc/sysconfig/network file.
The /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts directory contains network device
configuration files. These files include the configurations of any NICs, bonds, and
bridges that might exist on the Linux system. These files usually take the form of
ifcfg-<NIC>. Settings can include whether the NIC is configured for static or
dynamic IP addresses, whether the NIC is enabled or not, etc. The exact settings
vary depending on the needed configuration and device type.
While it is possible to manually edit these files with a text editor like Vim or
nano, the NetworkManager utility is often a much better way of managing the
interfaces. There is a command-line, text interface, and graphical interface for
NetworkManager.
For Debian-derived distributions, network configuration files representing the
interfaces can be found in the /etc/network directory. Many Debian-based
distributions also use NetworkManager, so editing the files in /etc/network is
usually not necessary.
The /etc/sysconfig/network file is used to configure whether networking
should be enabled at boot and to configure hostname information, gateway
information, etc. These settings may instead be configured on a per-interface basis
in the /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-<NIC> files.

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Use ethtool
The ethtool is used to manage NIC driver and network configurations. Whether
or not it is installed by default will depend on the distribution in use. The ethtool
utility has a great many options for gathering information. The basic output displays
interface options such as modes, speed, duplex configuration, Wake-on-LAN
settings, etc. Not only does the ethtool command allow admins to see these
settings, but it also allows them to change these options.

ethtool displaying statistics for a network interface.

The syntax of the ethtool command is ethtool [options] {device

name}
The following table describes some common ethtool command options.

Option for the ethtool Command Purpose

-S {interface} Show statistics for a NIC.

-i {interface} Show driver information for a NIC.

-t {interface} Execute a self-test on the NIC.

-s {interface} {setting} Change some of a NIC’s settings, such

{value} as its speed and duplex mode.

-f {interface} Write (“flash”) a firmware image to

the NIC.

Assign IP Addresses
IP address configurations can be set in two ways: statically or dynamically. Each
method has advantages and disadvantages. It is important to know when to use
each method. Administrators will statically (or manually) configure IP addresses on
some types of network nodes. Client devices, however, are usually configured with
dynamic IP address settings. IP address configurations are then leased from a DHCP
server. The result is that both methods are used in most networks, not just one
method or the other.

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Static IP Addresses
Static IP address configuration means that the settings are implemented manually
by an administrator. This method increases the risk of mistakes but also ensures
the system always has the same identity. Static IP address configurations are
usually appropriate for network devices (such as routers and network switches) and
servers. They may also be used for network print devices.
Static configurations are characterized by:
• Non-changing IP address configuration.

• Heightened possibility of mistakes when entered manually.

• Increased administrative workload when configured and reconfigured.

Dynamic IP Addresses
Dynamic IP address configuration means that the settings are retrieved from a
server. This method decreases the risk of mistakes but also means the system may
not always have the same IP address. Dynamic IP address configurations are usually
appropriate for client machines. They may also be used for network print devices.
Consider these traits of dynamic configurations:
• IP address configuration may fluctuate over time.

• Reduced risk of typographical errors during configuration.

• Decreased administrative workload when configured and reconfigured.

Dynamic IP Addressing Components

There are two components to a dynamic IP lease generation process. The first
is the DHCP server, and the second is the client that will lease the IP address
configuration.

Understand the DHCP Server

A Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server contains one or more
pools of IP addresses and related configuration options that client machines can
lease. This saves a significant amount of administrative effort since IP address
information does not have to be configured statically for each system.
DHCP servers are configured with a scope, or a range of available IP addresses,
along with additional options. The DHCP service must be installed on the server that
will host the service and allow client machines to lease configurations.

Understand the DHCP Client

Workstations lease their IP address configurations from a DHCP server. The
process consists of four steps, initiated by the clients. The leases are temporary,
so periodically the clients will be required to renew their leases. The renewal
process provides an opportunity to update the clients if there have been network
configuration changes.
The lease typically includes the IP address for the client, the associated subnet
mask, the IP address of the default gateway (router), the IP address of one or more
DNS servers, and the length of time the lease is valid. There are additional options
that may be configured as well.

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Periodically, DHCP clients must renew their leased IP address configuration. If the
DHCP server detects that the client has out-of-date information, it will force the
client to lease a new configuration. If there have been no changes, the renewal
will succeed. The lease renewal process is steps three and four of the initial lease
generation process.

The process of a DHCP client leasing and renewing an IP address from a DHCP server.
(Images © 123RF.com.)

Use the dhclient.conf Config File

The primary DHCP client reference file is the /etc/dhcp/dhclient.
conf file. This file enables the configuration of DHCP client settings, including
timeout values, dynamic DNS configurations, etc. The file is called and managed
by NetworkManager, which serves as a network configuration service for multiple
network settings, including the DHCP client configuration. It is typically appropriate
to manage DHCP client configurations by using NetworkManager rather than
editing the /etc/dhcp/dhclient.conf file directly.

Use the dhclient Command

The dhclient command allows administrators to manage the current
configuration. When run without options, dhclient broadcasts a DHCPDiscover
on the network. Add the -r option to release the current IP address configuration.
This is an important strategy in network troubleshooting.

Configure Name Resolution

TCP/IP data packets must include a source IP address and a destination IP address.
Humans have a very difficult time remembering long strings of numbers. For
example, imagine if every website you have bookmarked or every email address
you have in your contacts information was noted for you as an IP address instead of
a name!

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Humans work with easy-to-remember names, such as www.redhat.com or www.

ubuntu.com. Such information is virtually useless to computers, which need
the IP address information in order to properly find the resource. Names are a
description, whereas addresses are a location. Some names, such as webserver01.
devnetwork.internal, are fully qualified domain names (FQDNs), while others,
such as server01, are simple hostnames.
On the network, it’s relatively easy for users and administrators to rely on
descriptive names, such as webserver01 or sales-color-printer. Network protocols,
however, must rely on numeric addresses. Name resolution is the process of
relating these two values. It allows an administrator to specify a connection to
sales-color-printer and the network to understand that as 192.168.2.42.
Name resolution is the process of relating these easy-to-remember names with
difficult-to-remember IP addresses. There are two general ways in which name
resolution works. The first is via static text files such as the /etc/hosts file. The
second method is via a dynamic database called Domain Name System (DNS).

The name resolution process using a DNS server. (Images © 123RF.com.)

The hostnamectl Command

The systemd hostnamectl command enables you to view the system’s network
hostname and other information about the system’s hardware and the Linux kernel
it is running. You can also use this command to change the system’s hostname.
The syntax of the hostnamectl command is hostnamectl [options]
[subcommand] [arguments]
For example, to set the hostname to server01, enter: hostnamectl set-
hostname server01
The hostname command displays the system’s current network name
configuration and is a useful troubleshooting reference. To display the network
name, simply type hostname.
Like other Linux settings, name resolution configurations are stored in various text files,
including /etc/hosts, /etc/resolv.conf, and /etc/nsswitch.conf.

Understand Name Resolution Files

Early network environments were relatively small, and the identities of network
nodes did not change frequently. Name resolution could be managed by using a
text file, stored locally on each system, that contained all the systems and their
related IP addresses. This file would have to be manually updated if there were any
name or IP address changes, additions, or deletions. In today’s modern, transient
networks, this method is not realistic. The number of entries in the file and the
frequent changes to the identity entries would be overwhelming.

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Helpdesk Ticket #02001

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-06-14

Subject test server connection request

Ticket Detail Hey, I need some help getting connected to a test server by
name, not IP address. I only need this access for the next
two weeks for the project I’m working on, and I need the
name access limited to just me. Can you let me know how to
manage this?

Thanks,
KG
Date last updated 2024-06-14

The /etc/hosts file is still important, however, because it can be used in special
case situations where a particular system—perhaps a developer’s workstation—
needs to connect to an experimental server that is not registered on the network.
While the /etc/hosts file is not commonly used, it is essential in certain
scenarios.

Locally configuring name resolution.

The /etc/resolv.conf File

Modern networks use a name resolution service like DNS to relate computer names
and IP addresses. Network devices will query a DNS server in order to resolve a
name and IP address relationship. The DNS server contains resource records that
will provide answers to the query. DNS servers are centralized and much easier to
maintain and keep current than /etc/hosts files are.
The /etc/resolv.conf file is stored locally on each system, informing that
system of the IP address of one or more DNS servers. DNS is an essential service,
so it is a good practice to have at least two DNS servers listed in the /etc/
resolv.conf file.

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Configuring name resolution using public DNS servers.

The /etc/nsswitch.conf File

The /etc/nsswitch.conf file includes several configuration options. The
option related to name resolution defines the order in which name resolution
methods will be used by the system. The order may be the /etc/hosts file first,
then DNS; or DNS first, then the /etc/hosts file. The preferred configuration is
/etc/hosts then DNS.

The /etc/nsswitch.conf file.

Responding to Ticket #02001

You decide to edit the /etc/hosts file on Kai Garcia’s workstation. You then
verify the /etc/nsswitch.conf file directs the system to the /etc/hosts
file before a name resolution server. You also confirm that the contents in /etc/
resolv.conf are accurate for any other name resolution queries. If the test
server is named test-server01 and it has an IP address of 192.168.2.42, you would
add the following to the /etc/hosts file:
192.168.2.42 test-server01

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Use the route Command

The route command manages the route table on the local system after any IP
address configurations, such as IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway, have
been set. Static routes can be added or removed from the system, and the existing
routing table can be displayed.
To display the current route table, type:
# route
To add a route to the 192.168.2.0/24 network for interface eth0, type:
# route add -net 192.168.2.0 netmask 255.255.255.0
dev eth0
The route table permits the system to direct network traffic out through the
appropriate interface to move the traffic nearer to the destination network.

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Review Activity:
5

Network Settings
Answer the following questions:

1. Why would an administrator need to use the ip link set eth0 up

command?

2. Describe the dynamic and static IP address assignment processes, and

list the types of devices that likely rely on each process.

3. What commands are needed to refresh dynamically assigned IP settings?

4. What is the purpose of the /etc/resolv.conf and /etc/nsswitch.conf files?

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Topic 10C
Configure Remote
Administrative Access
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate networking tools or configuration files.
2.4 Given a scenario, configure and execute remote connectivity for system
management.

Administrators often take advantage of the convenience and security of remote

administration. Command line tools, such as SSH, and GUI utilities like VNC allow
administrators to remotely manipulate the system as if they were physically
present. If the goal is merely to move files from one system to another, data
transfer tools exist—several of which can provide encrypted connections.
The following Topic defines SSH settings, explains downloading files using a
multitude of protocols, and explores GUI-based remote connectivity.

Configure SSH
The primary remote administration tool in Linux is Secure Shell (SSH). SSH provides
encrypted and authenticated remote access to Linux systems. However, it is also
very common to use SSH to connect to network devices such as routers and
switches. Linux, Unix, and macOS systems include SSH by default, and the protocol
can be added to Microsoft Windows.
SSH has become an even more critical tool with the rapid growth of cloud
computing. SSH enables cloud administrators to securely connect to remote cloud
resources and is an essential tool.

SSH Server Configuration Files

Two configuration files manage SSH on Linux. The first, /etc/ssh/ssh_config,
defines SSH client settings and usually is not customized. The second, /etc/
ssh/sshd_config, has many configuration options (most of which are security-
oriented).

Be careful not to get confused by the similar names of the SSH configuration files
(ssh_config versus sshd_config).

Common SSH server configurations with the /etc/ssh/sshd_config include

changing ports, preventing the root user from connecting over the network via SSH,
and requiring key-based authentication.
To change the port number, search for the port value and assign a port number:
Port 2222

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To block the root user from authenticating over SSH, set the following value to no:
PermitRootLogin no
To both prevent password-based authentication and permit key-based
authentication, set the following two values (be sure you have configured key-based
authentication first!):
PasswordAuthentication no
PublicKeyAuthentication yes

Don't forget to restart sshd if you make changes to the configuration file.

Additional SSH Configurations

The first time a user runs an ssh command, a hidden directory is created in the
user’s home folder. The directory is ~/.ssh, and it may store multiple files related
to the user’s SSH connections.
The ~/.ssh/config file allows the user to configure specific settings for specific
connections. Administrators may connect to many systems, and some of those
systems may have custom or specific requirements. For example, perhaps dev-
server01 uses the default port 22 for SSH, but dev-server02 uses port 2222. Without
the config file, the user would have to remember these different settings. The
config file permits the user to store connection-specific information.

A sample SSH config file.

The ~/.ssh/authorized_keys file stores the keys on the remote SSH

servers the client machine connects to, allowing key-based authentication to occur.
Note that this file resides on the remote SSH server.
The ~/.ssh/known_hosts file stored the public keys of remote systems the
client has connected to. The goal is to protect the client from man-in-the-middle or
impersonation attacks. Note that this file resides on the local SSH client.

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Configure Key-Based Authentication

The standard SSH authentication process is a password challenge. The connecting
user submits a username and password that is recognized on the local system.
Password-based authentication, however, has some significant limitations:
passwords may be intercepted, guessed, or found after being written down.
Automated processes, such as remote backup scripts that connect over SSH, can
be interrupted by password challenges and passwords for multiple remote systems
may be difficult for administrators to recall.
Key-based authentication generates a public-private key pair that uniquely identifies
the user. The private key remains on the user’s workstation, and the public key is
stored on the remote system. When the user attempts to connect, the keys are
checked to ensure they match, thus guaranteeing the user’s identity. This is more
secure and much easier to automate for automated connections, such as remote
backup scripts. A single key pair can be used for multiple systems.

Helpdesk Ticket #02002

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Information
Risha Patel Services you 2024-06-22

Subject Authentication on remote server

Ticket Detail Can you please configure key-based authentication on
server29, repurposing as a remote server.

Date last updated 2024-06-22

Cloud service providers strongly urge administrators to administer systems via SSH
key-based authentication. Many organizations rely on SSH authentication keys for
on-premises and cloud resources.

The use of public and private keys is covered in more detail in a later section.

Configuring Key-Based Authentication

To close the assigned Help Desk ticket requesting a key-based authentication
configuration on a remote SSH server, follow these steps.
1. Generate the public-private key pair:
# ssh-keygen
2. Next, transfer the public key to the remote system. For example, to transfer
your user01 key to remote system 192.168.2.200, type:
# ssh-copy-id [email protected]
Note that you’ll be challenged for a password for this connection as the
configuration for key-based authentication is not yet complete.

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3. Finally, test the connection. To connect to 192.168.2.200 with the user01 key,
type:
# ssh [email protected]
Observe that you are not challenged for a password. The key exchange quickly
authenticates you.
Key-based authentication is managed by the ssh-agent tool, and it needs to be
aware of existing keys. These keys are automatically added to the agent when
generated, but the ssh-add command allows a user to manually add an existing key
to the agent if it’s not already aware of the key.

Understand SSH Tunneling

SSH can be used to secure other TCP-based network connections for applications or
protocols that don’t provide their own authentication and encryption methods.
The process of tunneling an application through SSH to secure it during
transmission is called SSH port forwarding. There are two main types: local
forwarding and remote forwarding.
In local forwarding, the local client listens for connections on a port and then
tunnels any active connection to a remote server using SSH. One use case
for local forwarding is to remotely access a system over the Internet using a
protocol like VNC. When you connect to the VNC server with your local VNC
client, that traffic (usually over a port like 5900) will be forwarded through SSH,
securing it.
In remote forwarding, the SSH server forwards inbound client traffic to another
system on a different port. One use case for remote forwarding is setting up a
VNC server on a local system and forwarding all VNC traffic to a port on a remote
client. Whenever the remote client connects to this port using localhost (their own
network address), they can establish a remote desktop connection with the local
server.
Dynamic port forwarding creates a proxy that is then used by other applications
for SSH connectivity. A range of ports is used rather than a single port, as
with standard forwarding. The advantage over the other two methods is the
ability to connect to multiple destinations simultaneously via different port
numbers without having to tear down and rebuild the connections each time.
Applications such as web browsers can be configured to use the connections
established by SSH dynamic port forwarding for web administration of multiple
systems.

Other CLI Remote-access Tools

Often, users do not need a full command-line connection to a remote system.
Instead, the user may simply be uploading or downloading files between
the local and remote systems. In some cases, administrators may be making
configuration changes to the remote system but prefer a GUI interface, such as
Cockpit.

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Use the curl and wget Commands

Helpdesk Ticket #02003

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-06-24

Subject constant download

Ticket Detail Hi, I’m always downloading a configuration file from the
internal server -- is there a better way to do this? I was trying
to schedule this operation with cron, but that’s proving to
be challenging. What else can I try?

Thanks,
KG
Date last updated 2024-06-24

Wget and cURL are HTTP clients capable of downloading files from remote
webservers. Most HTTP connections occur using web browsers and download a
series of files that are assembled into a web page. Simple downloads, however,
don’t justify the use of a browser. Furthermore, it’s difficult to script or automate
browser-based downloads.
The following is an example of using the cURL tool to download a file from the
Nmap website:
# curl -o nmap-7.70.tar.bz2 https://nmap.org/dist/
nmap-7.70.tar.bz2
The following is an example of using wget to download a file from the Samba
website:
# wget http://download.samba.org/pub/samba/samba-
latest.tar.gz
While curl and wget perform the same basic function, there are some key
differences.wget is a command-line utility only, whereas curl is implemented
using the cross-platform libcurl library and is, therefore, more easily ported to
other systems.wget can download files recursively, whereas curl cannot.curl
supports many more network protocols than wget does (wget only supports
HTTP/S and FTP).wget is better suited for straightforward downloading of files
from a web server, while curl is better suited to building and managing more
complex requests and responses from web servers.

Use the netcat Command

The netcat or nc command can be used to test connectivity and send data
across network connections. The command may be spelled out as “netcat” or
abbreviated as “nc” depending on the distribution. Systems may be identified by
IP address or by hostname.
When troubleshooting, use netcat to listen on the destination computer
and attempt a connection from the source computer in order to verify network
functionality.
The syntax of the netcat command is netcat [options]

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The following table provides some example use cases for the netcat command.

Use Case Example Command

Port scan a computer. netcat -z -v domain.tld 1-1000
(scans ports 1 to 1000)
Transfer file content between 1. On comp1 (listen on port): netcat
two computers. -l 4242 > received.file
2. On comp2 (connect to listener): netcat
comp1 < original.file
Connect two computers for 1. On comp1 (listen on port): netcat
the purpose of transferring -l 4242
information.
2. On comp2 (connect to listener): netcat
comp1 4242

Use Data Transfer Tools

Other data transfer tools, such as SCP and SFTP, use SSH connectivity to more
securely copy files. The rsync utility is distinguished by its ability to only transfer
changed files, which can drastically reduce network traffic by avoiding copies of
duplicate information that already exist at the remote destination.

The scp Command

The SCP tool is used to copy data to or from a remote host over SSH. Because it
uses SSH, data you send to an off-site backup will be encrypted in transit, protecting
its confidentiality. Like SSH, SCP uses TCP port 22 by default.
The following is an example of copying a file to a remote host using the scp
command:
# scp file.txt user@host:/home/dir

Other commands, such as nc, may also be used to transfer files across the network.
However, nc may be more difficult to set up than establishing a basic scp connection.

The sftp Command

The sftp command is the implementation of the Secure File Transport Protocol
(SFTP). SFTP uses an SSH tunnel as a transportation mechanism to encrypt data.
Whereas scp is used purely for transferring files, sftp can transfer files and
manage files and directories. So, you can list, create, and remove directories on
the remote system. The sftp command also supports resuming file transfers,
whereas scp does not.
Just like with the standard ftp command, you can use sftp interactively or
noninteractively. For example, to retrieve a file noninteractively, type:
# sftp user@host:file.txt
The rsync Command
Sysadmins use the rsync tool to copy files both locally and on remote systems. Its
real power lies in its efficient use of network bandwidth; instead of copying all files,
it only copies differences between files. So, if you use rsync on all files in a directory,
it will check the destination directory to see if those exact files already exist. Only
files that aren’t already in the destination will be copied.

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The rsync command can copy files over SSH, or it can use the rsyncd daemon if
you set it up on the remote system. In the latter case, rsync must be installed and
running on the source and destination systems.
The following is an example of synchronizing the files in a local directory to a
remote directory over SSH:
# rsync -a /home/mydir/ user@host:/home/mydir/
The rsync command is used for network file transfers, where bandwidth may
be at a premium. This is different from a local move action, such as using the mv
command to move a file from one directory to another on a local filesystem.

Understand Remote GUI Tools

Tools such as SSH, rsync, cURL, and others rely on CLI environments. This makes
them uniquely suited for automation via scripting or remote administration by
those comfortable with Bash command line commands. The convenience and
flexibility of a GUI are undeniable, and in many cases, a sysadmin might prefer
a GUI-based remote-access method. Some GUI-based options are Cockpit, VNC,
XRDP, and X FORWARDING.
Cockpit provides remote administration options over a web-based connection. It
includes an intuitive interface and many configuration options. It is not installed
by default on all distributions. To connect to a Cockpit-enabled system, type:
http://{IPaddress}:9090
Virtual Network Computing (VNC) offers complete access to a remote desktop and
is very common for administration. VNC relies on a client-server model that gives
the remote administrator complete access to the system.
XRDP is open-source implementation of Microsoft’s Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
to provide remote desktop access across a network.
X FORWARDING is the X Windows System (X11) that provides the graphical interface
for Linux systems. Desktop environments rely on X to enable GUI services. X is
network-aware and can enable clients to access GUI elements over a network.
You can forward X traffic through an SSH tunnel in order to encrypt these
communications.

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Review Activity:
Remote Administrative Access
6

Answer the following questions:

1. A developer wants to integrate an SSH connection to a remote server

into a script. The developer needs to avoid a password challenge for the
SSH connection. What solution can you recommend?

2. Why might a sysadmin use the curl or wget commands?

3. What advantage does the rsync utility have over SCP and SFTP? What
disadvantage does it have?

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Topic 10D
Troubleshoot the Network
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate networking tools or configuration files.
4.2 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot network resource issues.
4.5 Given a scenario, use systemd to diagnose and resolve common problems with a
Linux system.

Network troubleshooting involves many layers and components. It may also span
areas of IT influence, such as between the server team (managing Linux servers)
and the network team (managing routers and switches). Often, troubleshooting
scenarios involve a fairly discrete part of the network. There may be issues with
the server’s network configuration or with the remote system’s network settings.
There may be network bandwidth, latency, or performance issues. Many issues
revolve around name resolution challenges. This section breaks down the tools and
approaches necessary for Linux admins to troubleshoot network problems.

Identify Network Configuration Issues

Troubleshooting network clients begins by understanding the system’s current network
configuration and whether that configuration was set statically or dynamically.

Helpdesk Ticket #02004

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Information
Rey Harper Services you 2024-07-12

Subject Server connectivity issues

Ticket Detail Hi, I’m working on a connection issue between a client
and server, and could use your help getting started.

Thank you,
Rey Harper
Jr Sysadmin
Date last updated 2024-07-12

Use the following steps as a guide when troubleshooting failed network connectivity
between a client and an NFS, web, or SSH server located on a separate segment.
1. Display the current IP address configuration by using commands such as ip
addr or ifconfig. Verify the address and subnet mask values are accurate
with no typographical errors. Confirm the gateway value is the IP address of
the NIC in the router connected to this client’s subnet.

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Recall that 127.0.0.1 is the loopback address, and it is not valid on the network. An
address of 169.254.x.x indicates the client attempted to lease an IP configuration
from a DHCP server but failed.
2. Use the route command to display the system’s routing table. This table lets
the system know which interface is connected to which subnet.

3. Initiate a ping test against the remote server and the gateway address.
Ping the remote server by name and by IP address. Use the traceroute or
tracepath command to display the network path between the client and
server.

Statically-assigned IP addresses were manually entered by an administrator and

may contain typographical errors or duplicate IPs. Carefully confirm these settings.
Dynamically-assigned IP addresses from a DHCP server rarely contain typographical
errors (unless the DHCP server is misconfigured). Ensure the IP address assignment
is current. Use the dhclient -r and dhclient commands to release and
acquire the IP address configuration.
4. Confirm the remote server is online and has a valid IP address configuration.

These steps will generally be followed in this order.

Test Remote Systems

Various other tools exist that allow administrators to discover and view information
about remote nodes. The Nmap network mapper is one of the most powerful tools
sysadmins have for understanding the network and the nodes connected to it. It’s
also useful to view certificate information from web servers or other nodes that
guarantee identities via SSL.
In addition to commands such as ping and traceroute to test connectivity to
remote clients, tools such as Nmap and OpenSSL s_client can provide more detailed
and specialized results.

Display Network Nodes with Nmap

Nmap is highly configurable, but at its most basic it displays the network
configuration of the remote system. Nmap reports connectivity, listening ports,
firewall status, operating system identification, and a host of other values.
To display basic configuration, type the following Nmap command:
nmap -sn {destination IP address}

Output of a simple Nmap scan of the localhost.

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Nmap is covered in more detail in a future Lesson.

Test Certificates with the openssl s_client Command

OpenSSL provides SSL connectivity between clients and servers. SSL relies on
certificates generated as part of the public-private key PKI design. When there are
issues connecting to webservers using SSL or TLS, the openssl s_client
command helps identify the problem.
To display connectivity information, including the server’s certificate, type:
# openssl s_client -client foo.com:443

The term "foo" is a common example file or URL name that means nothing or a
changeable value. The focus is not on the actual object, but rather on the command(s)
associated with it.

Compare the returned certificate and trust information to determine whether there
is a problem with the remote server’s certificate.

Identify Network Interface Errors

Frequently the network itself is to blame for connectivity issues rather than the
Linux systems connected to it. Such network errors may include dropped packets or
collisions.
Data moves across the network in small packets. The data is disassembled and
addressed on the sending end and reassembled at the receiving endpoint.
Unfortunately, these small data packets are sometimes lost. Linux administrators
can help narrow the scope of network problems by determining whether data is
lost at the server or along the network path. Because packet loss can be caused
by software bugs or failing server components (such as NICs), the Linux system
may be to blame. However, overtaxed or failing network devices (such as routers
and switches) may also be at fault, so correctly identifying where the loss occurs is
helpful in solving dropped packet issues.
Network collisions occur when systems send information on the network
simultaneously and result in none of the communications being valid. Often,
collisions are related to older network hardware, such as using hubs as
concentrators instead of enterprise-class switches.
Hubs, switches, and network interface cards (NICs) feature LED indicators to
report basic connectivity information. A status light shows whether connectivity
exists at all, and green or amber LEDs display connectivity speeds. Many networks
will operate at 1Gbps speeds, as 100Mbps speeds are often no longer sufficient.
Review the network device’s configuration for details. Also, review the type of
ethernet cable in use.
Various network tools help identify bandwidth and latency issues. Bandwidth
measures how much data can be moved on the network in a specified time. Latency
measures how much time is required for a network signal to travel from the source
to the destination and back.

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iftop
The iftop command displays bandwidth usage information for the system,
helping to identify whether a particular NIC or protocol is consuming the most
bandwidth. The iftop command may not be installed on all Linux distributions.
This command can help you identify why a particular link may be slow by showing
the traffic on that connection. You can use it to check to see what is consuming the
most bandwidth on an interface. For example, iftop -i eth0
Network slowness is often a symptom of bandwidth saturation, in which a network
link’s capacity is exceeded, i.e., all bandwidth is being used up. This can lead
to degraded network performance or even service outages. With the iftop
command, you can investigate any NICs on a network link that you suspect may
be sending or receiving excessive sums of traffic across that link. For example, one
host might be making repeated requests to an internal web server, and both hosts
might be flooding the network with their requests and responses. Once you’ve
identified the source of the issue, you can then take steps to stop the offending
host from making these requests, such as terminating the service responsible for
the requests.
The syntax of the iftop command is iftop [options]
[-i {interface}]

Output showing the connection bandwidth statistics.

iperf
The iperf command is used to test the maximum throughput an interface will
support. The utility must be installed on both endpoint systems. One system is
designated as a “server” and the other as a “client.” It is the iperf client that is
getting tested. You can use this command to ensure that throughput is meeting
your expectations.
A basic test uses these steps:
1. On the server, run iperf -s
2. On the client, run iperf -c {server address}
3. Examine the results that appear.

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Testing network bandwidth between two hosts.

The tracepath and traceroute Commands

The traceroute command is used to report the network path between the
source and destination computers, including any routers the connection uses.
The process of a packet traveling from one router to the next is called a hop. The
traceroute command, therefore, outputs each hop along the path. This is
particularly effective when troubleshooting Internet connectivity or connections
within very large routed environments. If the traceroute fails, being able to
identify where along the path it failed is useful for troubleshooting.
The tracepath command is a simplified version of traceroute that does not
require administrative privileges to run. It also contains fewer options.
The syntax of the traceroute and tracepath commands is traceroute/
tracepath [options] {destination}

Following the route between two network hosts.

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While tools such as itop and iperf give information about the quality of the
connection, tracepath and traceroute display the network path followed
by the connection.

Troubleshoot High Network Latency

Users may complain of slow web pages, slow web apps, and messages or file
transfers that take a long time. All of these are signs of high latency. Latency issues
can be caused by many network components, and troubleshooting begins with
determining whether the problem is with the local Linux system or with network
components such as routers or switches elsewhere on the network.
Begin with ping. While ping is normally used to determine whether connectivity
exists, it also reports back travel time for the echo messages. This report helps
determine the scope of the problem and may provide insights on where the issue
resides. The traceroute utility also helps narrow down whether you have a
local host issue or a remote network device issue. Finally, tools such as iperf
provide detailed network analysis.
The information gained with these tools will guide you to the cause of high latency.
Some of the most common causes are:
• Router issues: hardware problems with the router or its NICs.

• Switch issues: problems with the switch hardware or its ports.

• Routing issues: errors in the router configuration.

• Switching issues: errors in the switch configuration.

• Network or router saturation: too much network traffic.

It’s also possible the NIC in the local machine is misconfigured or failing. Ensure it’s
using a current device driver and that no system errors are associated with the NIC.
Consider replacing the NIC with a known-good spare.

Identify Name Resolution Failures

One of the most important network services is name resolution. If systems are not
able to reach or use DNS name resolution servers, they are not likely to be able to
access the needed network services.

Helpdesk Ticket #02005

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Information
Rey Harper Services you 2024-07-19

Subject Testing name resolution issues

Ticket Detail Hi, can you share some suggestions for name resolution
testing utilities that might be installed on the variety of
distros we have on the network?

Thank you,
Rey Harper
Jr Sysadmin
Date last updated 2024-07-19

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Many different tools test and troubleshoot name resolution. These tools should
be used after you have confirmed that the system is configured with the proper IP
address of one or more DNS servers (use cat /etc/resolv.conf to verify)
and after using ping to test connectivity to the DNS server.

To quickly display the hostname for the system, type the hostname command.

Use the resolvectl Command

The resolvectl command allows troubleshooters to manually query name
resolution services to confirm names and IP addresses are accurately returned.
Resolvectl is part of the systemd suite, and it uses command subcommand
syntax.
To make a basic name resolution query, type:
resolvectl query {domain-name}
For example, to resolve the comptia.org domain name, type:
# resolvectl query comptia.org

Resolving the comptia.org domain name using the resolvectl query.

Use the dig Command

The dig command is a powerful tool for gathering information and testing name
resolution. It is installed on most Linux distributions. Output is displayed in an
answer section. The output includes the IP address mapped to the domain name,
the DNS server that answered the query, and how long it took to receive that
answer.
The basic syntax is dig
{domain name}
The command dig @{IP address} {domain name} will resolve the
domain name against the DNS server specified by the IP address field.

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Output of a dig query.

Use the nslookup Command

The nslookup command gathers name resolution information and tests name
resolution. It is available on most Linux distributions as well as Microsoft Windows. This
command has a noninteractive mode, in which you can provide a domain name in a
single command, and an interactive mode, in which you can issue the command by
itself and then provide domain names on separate consecutive prompts.
The syntax for noninteractive mode is nslookup {domain name}

Output of an nslookup query.

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Use the host Command

Another simple tool capable of gathering information and testing name resolution
is the host command. It is installed on most Linux distributions.
The basic syntax is host
{domain name}
The command host {domain name} {IP address} will resolve the
domain name against the DNS server specified by the IP address.

Output of a host query.

The dig, nslookup, and host utilities are installed as part of the bind-utils
package.

Use WHOIS
WHOIS is a name resolution protocol that queries DNS servers to display the
hostname, fully qualified domain name (FQDN), IP address, and other information
about a given host.
The syntax of the whois command is whois [options] {domain
name}
For example, type whois comptia.org to display the related information.

Partial output of the whois comptia.org query.

Clear the ARP Cache

As you know, nodes on the network typically have three identities: hostname,
IP addresses, and MAC addresses. DNS translates hostnames to IP addresses.
The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is used to relate IP addresses and MAC
addresses. There is also an arp command that administrators can run to discover
information about known MAC addresses.

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Computers will cache recently resolved MAC and IP address combinations. If a

computer has cached incorrect or out-of-date information, connectivity may be lost
to a particular node. The ARP cache can be cleared as part of the troubleshooting
process. For example, you can run arp -d {IP address} to a clear entry for
a particular IP address, and then try to ping the host again. Use arp -a to view
the cache.
The syntax of the arp command is arp [options]

The ARP cache.

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Review Activity:
Network Troubleshooting
5

Answer the following questions:

1. A helpdesk technician approaches you for help with a network

troubleshooting challenge. The tech states that the workstation shows
two IP addresses, neither of which matches the expected configuration.
The first IP address is 127.0.0.1 and the second is 169.2540.99.42. What
can you explain about each address?

2. A helpdesk technician approaches you for help with a network

troubleshooting challenge. The tech states that a workstation can ping
a remote server by IP address but cannot ping it by name. What type of
problem is this?

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Lesson 10
Summary
3

Knowledge of TCP/IP, including IP addressing, is essential for Linux administrators.

Administrators are often asked to troubleshoot IP address assignments, name
resolution, and network performance issues. As a server platform, Linux has a great
many tools available to help with these configurations and supporting tasks. Of
these, SSH is one of the most important.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided for your use as revision tools or as
quick references in your job role.
• Understand that different distributions use different network configuration
tools.

• Recognize the three identities of a network node:

• hostname

• IP address

• MAC address

• Understand how to check and set IP address configurations:

• ip addr and ifconfig display and configure settings

• hostname and hostnamectl display and configure hostname settings

• dhclient initiates the DHCP lease-generation process

• Recognize network configuration files:

• /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts - contains files that configure individual NICs

with IP settings, enable/disable status, etc.

• /etc/sysconfig/network - contains global network settings

• /etc/dhcp/dhclient.conf - configures how the DHCP client is configured

• /etc/nsswitch.conf - defines whether name resolution requests use /etc/hosts

or /etc/resolv.conf first

• /etc/resolv.conf - lists DNS name resolution servers and their IP addresses

• /etc/hosts - manually configured list of hostnames and IP addresses for name

resolution

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Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

ip ip [options] Display IP address, Lesson 10,
{object} subnet mask, and Topic B
[subcommand] MAC address settings.

ifconfig ifconfig Display current Lesson 10,

[options] IP address Topic B
[interface] information for each
NIC recognized by
the system.
iwconfig iwconfig Provide wireless NIC Lesson 10,
[options] configurations and Topic B
[interface] settings.

nmcli nmcli [options] View and manage Lesson 10,

[subcommand] network settings. Topic B
[arguments]
ethtool ethtool Manage NIC driver Lesson 10,
[options] and network Topic B
{device name} configurations.

hostnamectl hostnamectl View system’s Lesson 10,

[options] network hostname. Topic B
[subcommand]
[arguments]
netcat netcat Test connectivity and Lesson 10,
[options] send data across Topic C
network connections.
iftop iftop [options] Display bandwidth Lesson 10,
[-i {interface}] usage information. Topic C

traceroute traceroute Report the network Lesson 10,

[options] path between the Topic C
{destination} source and
destination
computers.
tracepath tracepath Report the network Lesson 10,
[options] path between the Topic C
{destination} source and
destination
computers.
resolvectl resolvectl query Manually query Lesson 10,
{domain-name} name resolution Topic D
services.
dig dig {domain Test name Lesson 10,
name} resolution. Topic D

nslookup nslookup {domain Gather information Lesson 10,

name} about and test name Topic D
resolution.

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

host host {domain Gather information Lesson 10,
name} about and test name Topic D
resolution.
whois whois [options] Display hostname, Lesson 10,
{domain name} FQDN, IP address, Topic D
and other
information about
a given host.
arp arp [options] Discover information Lesson 10,
about known MAC Topic D
addresses.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 11
Configuring Network Security
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
It’s critical for administrators to understand what’s happening on the network and
how that impacts servers and clients. Administrators can use firewalls to control the
flow of traffic into and out of individual nodes, network segments, or even entire
networks. Firewalls contain rules that define what traffic is permitted and what
traffic is not.
Ensuring network traffic flows as it should also includes monitoring and
troubleshooting connectivity issues, as well as understanding exactly what data
is moving on the network. The network map helps make the task of securing and
monitoring the network easier.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Configure the firewall.

• Monitor network traffic.

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Topic 11A
Configure the Firewall
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.3 Given a scenario, implement and configure firewalls.

Firewalls are one of several tools administrators use to mitigate threats. Most
operating systems provide firewalls for the location computer, and most networks
have perimeter firewalls to control the flow of traffic. This Topic covers firewall use
cases, types, and configurations.

Firewall Use Cases

A firewall is a hardware device or software service that monitors inbound and
outbound network traffic and either permits or denies that traffic based on a series
of rules. Administrators customize the rules to meet requirements and log files to
maintain a record of rule application.
Firewalls are found in three major areas of the enterprise network: host-based,
segment network-based, and perimeter network-based.
Host-based software firewalls protect a workstation or server by filtering inbound
and outbound network traffic for that host specifically. Host-based firewalls mitigate
threats to the host from other systems and protect other systems from it.
Segment network-based hardware or software firewalls protect one network
segment from another within the boundaries of a larger private, internal network.
Administrators divide the network and enforce rules governing the flow of traffic
between network divisions. This firewall mitigates threats to the devices in one
segment from the devices in another segment.
Perimeter network-based hardware or software firewalls define the boundary
between the internal private network and external untrusted networks, such as the
Internet. This firewall mitigates threats to internal systems from external threats.
Sysadmins use firewalls to separate one type of traffic from another.

Understand Firewall Actions

The most fundamental function of a firewall is to permit or deny traffic. This
decision is made based on a series of rules controlled by the administrator. Initially,
the rules are based on a series of simple elements:
• Traffic type (defined by service name or application layer port number)

• Traffic destination (inbound or outbound)

• Traffic interface (the interface where the rule is applied)

To summarize, a firewall rule might specify these elements: permit inbound HTTP
traffic on eth0.

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How sysadmins write these rules varies depending on the type of firewall. For
example, permitting or denying traffic by port or protocol is referred to as opening or
closing the port in some configurations or instructions.
Firewall rules are processed in order, with the most specific rules applied first and
the most general rules applied last. Nearly every firewall uses a generic “deny all”
rule as the final rule. A simplified explanation might look like this:
• Rule 1: Permit inbound port 80 to webserver01.

• Rule 2: Permit inbound port 21 to the 192.168.2.0/24 segment.

• Rule 3: Block all inbound connections.

Any inbound connection that matches a rule is processed against that rule. Observe
that all inbound connections would eventually match the final rule. In this scenario,
any connection that is not inbound HTTP to webserver01 or not inbound FTP to the
192.168.2.0/24 segment is blocked.

Understand Port Forwarding

Some firewalls also forward specific types of traffic to specific destinations. Using
a process called port forwarding, administrators can define an external port
number that the firewall then maps or associates with a particular system within
the protected network or network segment. This allows a more controlled level of
access to a particular system through the firewall or router.

Key Firewall Features

Firewalls use services and ports to identify traffic and control access through one
or more interfaces. Some firewall devices have several interfaces that connect to
different segments. Stateless and stateful firewalls differ by exactly what criteria are
checked to match traffic against rules.

Firewall Zones
Firewalls recognize different zones or groups of interfaces. A firewall device
may have multiple interfaces connecting to various network segments, such as
the Internet (untrusted), a perimeter network (semi-trusted), and an internal
network (trusted). Zones define a set of rules for each connection, simplifying the
administrative process. In addition, many firewalls come with pre-defined zones,
offering administrators common configurations so they don’t have to create all
rules themselves. Which zones exist by default varies by firewall service.

Stateful and Stateless Firewalls

The simplest firewalls are stateless. These firewalls merely check individual packet
address information, such as source, destination, and protocol. These values are
checked against the firewall rules.
Like a stateless firewall, stateful firewalls check source, destination, and protocol
values against rules. Stateful firewalls, however, delve into more detail. They inspect
the packet contents and identify the behavior of the connection and how the data
changes throughout the network communication process. These firewalls are
significantly more robust than stateless firewalls.

Firewall Types
While Linux devices may perform as a network segment or perimeter firewalls,
those devices are usually dedicated hardware components. In the context of Linux
systems, host-based firewalls are the main focus.

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Most Linux distributions ship with a firewall, and it is usually enabled by default.
After the operating system is installed, it often has limited network connectivity
or it may even be completely isolated. This is a good default because it allows
administrators to define exactly what connections should be permitted or blocked.
Linux firewall capabilities are managed by iptables or nftables. These services have
their own command sets or tools, such as firewalld, or UFW can be used to establish
rules.

UFW and firewalld are covered later in this Topic.

Manage the Firewall with iptables and nftables

Nearly every Linux distribution ships with a firewall, however, different distros
select various firewall technologies and user interfaces. Fedora Linux and RHEL
rely on firewalld for basic firewall configuration, while Ubuntu Linux uses the
Uncomplicated Firewall (UFW) interface to configure iptables. However, iptables is
being replaced with nftables on many distributions.

Configure iptables
The iptables tool enables you to manage packet filtering as well as stateful firewall
functionality within Linux through various tables. Each table applies to a certain
context and consists of rule sets, called chains, that the table uses to implement
the firewall. A packet is compared to the first rule in the appropriate chain, and if it
does not match that rule, it is compared to the next rule in the chain, and so on. If
the packet matches a rule, it can either be evaluated by a new chain or have one of
three actions applied to it: ACCEPT, DROP, or RETURN (skip to next rule in previous
chain).
Each table has one or more built-in chains, but you can also define your own chains
as desired.

Listing the rules in a firewall chain.

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The syntax of the iptables command is iptables

[options]
[-t table] [commands] {chain/rule specification}
Five default tables may be active depending on how the kernel is configured:

Table Purpose
filter The default table used for typical packet filtering functionality.
nat Used to implement Network Address Translation (NAT) rules.
mangle Used to alter packets’ TCP/IP headers.
raw Used to configure exceptions for packets involved in connection
tracking.
security Used to mark packets with SELinux security contexts.
By default, rules set with the iptables command are lost on reboot. In CentOS/
RHEL, you can install the iptables-services package and issue the service
iptables save command to ensure your changes persist. For Debian-based
distros, you can install the iptables-persistent package. After installation, you’ll be
asked to confirm that you want your current rules to persist. The iptables-persistent
service will then automatically run at boot and load your rules.

Configure nftables
The nftables firewall is a modern, scalable, high-performance replacement for
iptables. It uses similar logic but includes enhancements that make the lives of
sysadmins easier. For example, management of IPv4 and IPv6 rules is integrated
rather than separate as in the older iptables. Other improvements include
simplified syntax, modernized security, and increased performance.
For example, to add a rule to the input chain of the traffic-filter table that permits
inbound IPv4 or IPv6 HTTP traffic, type:
# nft add rule inet traffic-filter input tcp dport
80 accept

Netfilter, the developer of nftables, has included translation options for converting
complex iptables rules into the nftables syntax.

Manage the Firewall with firewalld

The firewall daemon (firewalld) dynamically manages a firewall without requiring
the firewall to restart upon modification. It uses the concepts of zones and services
rather than chains and rules. However, firewalld uses the underlying nftables
firewall backend. It receives its own table within which configurations are set via the
firewall-cmd command.
Firewall zones are the rule sets that can apply to specific network resources, like
a network interface. You’d typically place resources in a zone to group them with
resources having similar security requirements or similar levels of trust. There
are various default zones, each with different levels of trust. For example, the
zone with the lowest level of trust is called drop, and it immediately drops all
incoming connections. Firewall services are the rules that apply to specific services
that operate within a zone. For example, you can add a service like HTTP to the
perimeter network zone to allow incoming connections from untrusted networks
like the Internet, while denying outgoing access to the rest of the network.

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The firewall-cmd command enables you to configure firewalld by querying,

adding, modifying, and deleting zones and services as desired. Because firewalld
is the default firewall service for many Linux distributions, including Red Hat®
Enterprise Linux® and CentOS®, you will be using the firewall-cmd command
regularly. The command includes options to identify which zone and which interface
you want to configure, as well as the ability to permit services by name or by port
number.
The syntax of the firewall-cmd command is firewall-cmd [options]
The following are some common examples of using the firewall-cmd command
and its options:

Command String for firewall-cmd Purpose

firewall-cmd --get-zones List all available firewalld zones.

firewall-cmd --zone=dmz List all details of the perimeter network

--list-all zone, including the interfaces, ports,
services, protocols, and more that the
zone applies to.

firewall-cmd --zone=dmz Add the specified interface to the

--change-interface= perimeter network.
<device ID>
firewall-cmd --zone=dmz Add the HTTP service to the perimeter
--add-service=http network.

firewall-cmd --zone=dmz Add TCP port 21 (FTP) to the perimeter

--add-port=21/tcp network.

firewall-cmd --zone=dmz Remove the HTTP service from the

--remove-service=http perimeter network.

firewall-cmd --zone=dmz Remove TCP port 21 (FTP) from the

--remove-port=21/tcp perimeter network.

firewall-cmd --reload Reload the zone’s configuration.

The command option uses the now-deprecated term “dmz” to describe the perimeter
network. Terminology within the field has evolved, but the command syntax is likely to
remain the same for some time.

Settings configured with the above sample commands affect the current runtime after
the --reload flag is used. If the system restarts, these settings will be lost. To
make the settings persistent (survive restarts), add the --permanent flag to the
commands.

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Example of persistently opening a port for web services:

# firewall-cmd --permanent --zone=dmz --add-
service=http
# firewall-cmd --reload

Listing the permitted connections.

Permit the HTTP service.

Manage the Firewall with the UFW

The Uncomplicated Firewall (UFW) is a firewall management tool that makes it
easier to configure the nftables or iptables service. UFW originated with Ubuntu®
but can be downloaded and installed on other distributions. It is primarily useful for
home users who don’t have experience with the intricacies of firewall configuration.
The syntax of the ufw command is ufw [options] {action}

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A portion of the UFW graphical user interface.

The ufw command enables you to work with the command line interface. For
example, the following commands set up an allow rule for HTTP, turn on logging,
and enable the firewall:
# ufw allow http/tcp
# ufw logging on
# ufw enable
This automatically creates a default deny configuration for incoming traffic. In other
words, everything without an explicit allow rule is dropped.

Advanced UFW Settings

If you want to use UFW to employ a more complex firewall configuration, you’ll
need to edit text files rather than use the ufw command. The /etc/default/
ufw file configures high-level settings like policy defaults and kernel module usage.
More granular configuration files are found in the /etc/ufw/ directory. You can
edit these files to control when rules are applied, when customizations are run for
the ufw command, and more.
For example, UFW defaults to accepting outgoing traffic through the firewall. You
change this behavior by specifying a different policy directive in /etc/default/
ufw in this way:
DEFAULT_OUTPUT_POLICY="DROP"
As a more granular example, you can configure /etc/ufw/
applications.d/myapp to instruct UFW to recognize your app and its port
and protocol information:
[My App]
title=My App

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description=My custom application

ports=23534/tcp
Selecting a Firewall
For Linux servers, workstations, and laptops, the simple interface of firewalld or
UFW is sufficient. These systems are simple with basic filtering requirements and
are not likely to service vast amounts of network traffic. When high performance
or complexity is needed, working directly with nftables may be beneficial. One
example of such a configuration is establishing a complex set of filtering rules
between two internal network segments.
In summary, you will:
• Use firewalld for simple, host-based situations.

• Use nftables for complex, high-performance, segmentation situations.

Troubleshoot Common Firewall Issues

As you configure and implement a firewall, you may run into a common issue: The
firewall blocks traffic that it shouldn’t. Firewall rules can easily become confusing
and complex. While the symptom is easy (traffic is or is not getting through), finding
and correcting the related setting may be very difficult.
Review the following areas of the firewall configuration:
• Check the firewall rules to ensure that they are not blocking a port that your
system needs.

• Check whether the default deny-all rule for incoming connections is processed
before permit rules.

• Consider whether you have confused inbound versus outbound traffic.

• Ensure rules exist that match the traffic type.

• Check whether you’ve blocked or allowed the incorrect transport layer protocols
(TCP, UDP, or both).

• Ensure application-layer firewalls are properly configured to manage packets

whose contents match a specific application-layer protocol (e.g., HTTP, FTP, SSH).

• Be sure you have reloaded the firewall after configuration changes.

Remember that the misconfiguration may be that traffic is getting through that
should not.

While examining the firewall’s configuration is certainly helpful for troubleshooting,

it may also be useful to use an outside tool to display firewall configurations. A
network scanner such as Nmap may be helpful for identifying misconfigurations.

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Review Activity:
Firewall Configuration
3

Answer the following questions:

1. How does a firewall help mitigate threats between two network

segments?

2. What commands are necessary to persistently permit custom TCP port

9876 through the local firewalld configuration on the public zone?

3. Explain the purpose of a firewall’s default deny rule.

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Topic 11B
Monitor Network Traffic
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate networking tools or configuration files.
4.2 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot network resource issues.

Systems administration and network administration are closely linked. Sysadmins

are often required to understand how network performance impacts servers and
workstations. In addition, proper use of monitoring tools helps narrow the scope
of problems to either the network infrastructure or the server’s configuration. This
Topic covers several common network troubleshooting tools.
Many of the tools network and system administrators rely on daily are the same
tools used by threat actors. It’s just as useful to detect nodes, services, and network
devices for admins as for malicious persons, and penetration testers will use the
same utilities as the threat actors they are imitating. It is critical that you have
authorization to use security tools in a production network. Intrusion detection
software, written security policies, and the organization’s cybersecurity staff can and
will detect the use of such tools.

Use Basic Network-Monitoring Tools

Administrators rely on network monitoring for many purposes, including
troubleshooting, monitoring performance, security, penetration testing, and service
availability.
Many monitoring and troubleshooting tools are quite basic, such as ping and
tracepath, while others are somewhat more complex, such as tcpdump and
Wireshark. Still others, such as Nmap, may have very advanced capabilities. It’s
important to know what tools to use and when. To that end, you can categorize
monitoring tools in the following ways.
1. Basic connectivity. These tools test the ability to communicate between two
nodes and report information about the network path, including performance
information. The ping and tracepath tools are examples of basic tools.

2. Packet capturing. These tools intercept and display the contents of network
traffic. If the traffic is not encrypted, the contents are readable by whoever
conducted the capture. Wireshark and tcpdump are examples of packet-
capturing tools. Another name for this category of tools is protocol analyzers.

3. Scanning. These tools attempt to connect to the addresses of specified nodes

or segments and report whether the connection was successful and what type
of connection was permitted. Nmap is an example of a scanning tool.

Begin network troubleshooting and monitoring with basic tools, and move toward
the more complex utilities as circumstances dictate. This section begins with
checking connectivity before moving into intercepting network traffic.

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Test Connectivity with Path Tools

Network troubleshooting almost always involves confirming connectivity.
There are many levels of detail for the confirmation, from a basic connection to
understanding how the network path is traversed to seeing what connections
currently exist. Many of the following tools are fundamental to any networking
situation, but they are still critical. This section covers commands such as ping,
traceroute, ss, and others.
Use ping
One of the earliest parts of network troubleshooting is sending test packets
between two systems. This is done using a TCP/IP utility called ping. The ping
command generates a response request from the sending, or source, computer
and should receive a reply from the destination computer.
Possible outcomes of the ping command include:
• Reply from <host>: The connection was successful.

• Destination unreachable: The source computer cannot find a path to the

destination. This often indicates the problem is with the source computer.

• Timeout: The request reached the destination computer, but a response did not
return to the source computer before the source computer timed out. This often
indicates the problem is with the destination computer.

Although using ping is one of the earliest steps in the network-troubleshooting

process, it only tells you that something is wrong—not what is wrong.

Three possible outcomes of the ping command. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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The syntax of the ping command is ping [options] {destination}

The {destination} can be an IP address, such as 192.168.1.1, or it can be a
hostname, such as server01.

Options for the ping Command Purpose

-c {number} Send only a specified number of pinging

attempts.

-v Specify verbose output.

By default, Linux systems send continuous pings, until interrupted with

Ctrl + C, unless you deliberately define a ping count. The -c {number}
option defines the count. For example, to send five pings, type: ping -c 5
192.168.2.200

Examples of successful and failed ping results.

Continuous ping is a surprisingly useful tool. For example, if you are rebooting a
remote computer via SSH, you could set up a continuous ping. While the remote
system is restarting, the pings will fail. However, once the startup process is
complete, the remote system is again available for you to reconnect to it.

Use traceroute and tracepath

The traceroute command reports the network path between the source and
destination computers, including any routers the connection uses. The process of
a packet traveling from one router to the next is called a hop. The traceroute
command, therefore, outputs each hop along the path. This is particularly effective
when troubleshooting Internet connectivity or connections within very large routed
environments. If the traceroute fails, identifying where along the path it failed
is useful for troubleshooting.

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The tracepath command is a simplified version of traceroute that does not

require administrative privileges to run. It also contains fewer options.

The traceroute command output following the route between two network hosts.

The syntax of the traceroute and tracepath commands is traceroute/

tracepath [options] {destination}
Use mtr
The mtr utility is a combination of the ping and traceroute tools, with additional
improvements to enable testing of the quality of a network connection. Ping
packets are sent to the destination in large groups, with mtr noting how long
responses take to arrive at the packets.
The mtr command also takes note of lost packets, a symptom of a problem called
packet drop or packet loss. This occurs when one or more packets sent from a
source cannot reach their intended destination. Packet loss can cause latency if
the packets are queued for retransmission, or the data may not be successfully
transmitted at all. A large number of lost packets is a strong indicator of a network
issue along the path. By identifying that the issue exists, as well as where in the
path it exists, the mtr utility enables an administrator to find potentially failed
networking components.
The output of the mtr command identifies the percentage of packets along the
path that are dropped, and one or more nodes in that path experiencing a high
percentage of packet loss may be at fault.

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Analyzing connection information to a remote host with the mtr utility.

The syntax of the mtr command is mtr [options] [hostname]

Test Connectivity with Socket Tools

Helpdesk Ticket #02006

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Kai Garcia Engineering you 2024-08-09

Subject network monitoring tools

Ticket Detail Hello, I’m trying to monitor a network connection for the
new application my team is working on. I need to see what
ports the application is available on, and which systems are
connected to the network application. Which tools do I need
to make this happen?

Thanks,
KG
Date last updated 2024-08-09

Use netstat
The netstat (network statistics) command gathers information about TCP
connections to the system. Depending on the options used, the netstat tool informs
the user of existing connections, listening ports on the server, NIC information, and
more.
The syntax of the netstat command is netstat [options]

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Common options for the netstat command are listed in the table below.

Option for the netstat Command Purpose

-v Activate verbose mode.
-i [interface] Display information about all network
interfaces or the specified interface.
-c Continuously print information every
second.
-l Show only what ports are being listened on.
The default output of netstat is in columnar format, as follows:
• The protocol used by the socket.

• The number of processes attached to the socket.

• Flags that give further information about the socket’s status.

• The type of socket access.

• The state of the socket.

• The ID of the process attached to the socket.

• The path of the process attached to the socket.

Use ss
The ss (socket state) command is an information-gathering utility similar to netstat
but provides simpler output and syntax. The ss tool provides information about
established TCP connections or which ports the system may be listening on for
inbound connections. This can help you diagnose problems related to clients and
servers being unable to communicate with one another over the desired protocol; a
missing socket could mean that the service isn’t running, and a closed socket could
mean that either the client or the server is prematurely terminating the connection.
Another way to use the ss command is to gather information about a particular
client that may be connected.
The syntax of the ss command is ss [options]
Subcommand for the ss Command Purpose

src {ip-address} Display connections from a specific IP.

dst {ip-address} Display connections to a specific IP.

Option for the ss Command Purpose

-l Display only listening sockets.

-a Display all listening/non-listening ports.

-t Display TCP connections only.

-u Display UDP connections only.

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The ss command displaying the listening sockets related to SSH.

The ss command is useful when troubleshooting errors such as ports that are
already in use by one application when another application starts or when tracing
existing connections to or from the server for security purposes.

Use lsof
The lsof command displays files in use by active processes. However, by adding
the -i switch, it displays network sockets in use. The lsof command can be used
instead of (or in addition to) the netstat and ss commands.

Output of the lsof -i command.

Another useful troubleshooting utility is netcat. Recall that the netcat (or nc)
command can test connectivity and transfer files. This tool was covered in Topic 10C.

Analyze Network Traffic

Protocol analyzers intercept and read network traffic. Recall that data is broken
down into small packets and addressed before being sent across the network.
The data is reassembled at the destination node. The addressing and protocol
information can easily be read, as can the actual data content if it’s not encrypted.
The two common protocol analyzers for Linux are tcpdump and Wireshark.

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Use tcpdump
Linux admins often rely on the tcpdump utility for packet captures. Created in 1987,
tcpdump remains one of the most popular packet sniffers available. It is installed by
default on many Linux distributions. Users can determine traffic type and content
using this command. It provides similar information to Wireshark, and you can use
it in a similar troubleshooting process.
The syntax of the tcpdump command is tcpdump [options]
[-i {interface}] [host {IP address}]
The following table provides some common tcpdump options.

Subcommand for the

Purpose
service Command

-i Specify the interface to use.

-n Not resolve hostnames, speeding up the capture.

-v Specify verbose mode.

-w {filename} Write the results to the specified file.

-r {filename} Use tcpdump to read the results.

When writing the results to a file, tcpdump does not provide a human-friendly
format. The file can be read by using tcpdump -r or Wireshark. The file
extension is usually .pcap.

Capturing network packets with tcpdump.

To capture DNS traffic, use port 53 as part of the capture:

# tcpdump -i enp0s8 port 53
To write the verbose results of the capture on interface enp0s8 to a file named
capture-results.pcap, type:
# tcpdump -i enp0s8 -w capture-results.pcap -v

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Writing a tcpdump capture to a file.

Ensure you have authorization before using this security tool.

Use Wireshark
Wireshark is a very common packet sniffer and network analyzer. Network
analyzers intercept and potentially read network traffic. These tools may be
used for eavesdropping attacks but are also commonly used for network
troubleshooting. When network traffic is intercepted, information such as source/
destination MAC address, source/destination IP address, port numbers, and packet
payload (data) is exposed. One advantage of a tool like Wireshark is seeing exactly
which packets are moving through a network segment or NIC and which packets
are not. This is very useful for troubleshooting.

Ensure you have authorization before using this security tool.

Wireshark capturing network traffic as it flows between two hosts. (Images © 123RF.com.)

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Wireshark is primarily used with a GUI, but it does include the tshark command
for CLI use or scripting.
The tshark utility functions much like tcpdump. It even outputs capture results
in the same PCAP format. The results are a little more user friendly when generated
by tshark as compared to tcpdump.
The basic process for using tshark is the same as any other capture: Define the
interface you want to capture on, begin the capture, and then end the capture.
To identify the available interfaces, type:
# tshark -D
To begin a capture on the eth0 interface, type:
# tshark -i eth0
Use Ctrl+C to end the capture.
You could also use the -c {number} option to limit the capture to a specified
number of packets.

Map the Network

In order to illustrate how various tools can be used, you’ll walk through a common
workplace scenario. In this scenario, you are a junior sysadmin involved in an
upcoming network security audit. In preparation for the audit, you have been
tasked with conducting a network inventory. Your project parameters include
operating system identification, port status (open, closed, or filtered), and the use of
nontraditional ports for network services.

Use Nmap
The Nmap utility is an incredibly powerful network-mapping tool. It scans individual
network nodes, subnets, or entire networks and can report extremely detailed
results. The most basic scan shows the status and listening ports on a target, while
more advanced scans display target vulnerabilities, the presence of web application
firewalls, rogue DHCP servers, and more.

Ensure you have authorization before using this security tool.

Nmap is a CLI tool, but there is an available GUI named Zenmap, which is powerful
and convenient. Both utilities are examples of open-source software.

Recall that the advantage of CLI tools is the ability to automate or script their
functionality. For example, the Nmap-based network inventory objective in this example
could be scripted and scheduled to run every 90 days, providing a quarterly report to
administrators that shows changes to the network environment over time.

The syntax for the nmap command is nmap [options] [target]

For example, to conduct a basic port scan of the 192.168.2.200 node, type:
# nmap -Pn 192.168.1.1

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An nmap -Pn scan of a router.

To conduct a basic port scan of the Class C 192.168.2.0/24 subnet, type:

# nmap 192.168.2.0/24
Option for the nmap Command Purpose

-sP Ping-only scan.

-sT TCP-connect scan.

-F Fast scan.

-p [ports] Scan for specific ports.

-top-ports [number] Scan for common ports (however many

specified by [number]).

-O Detect operating system.

Result of the Nmap Port Scan Explanation

open Ports accepting connections.
closed Ports are reachable by Nmap but have
no associated service.
filtered Ports are protected by packet filtering
and provide little information.
Depending on one’s goals, open ports represent network services available for use,
or they represent attack paths.

There are other port results, but these are the three most commonly seen in Nmap
results.

Conduct Basic Nmap Scans

There are many ways of using the nmap command. It is a very robust and complex
tool. Basic scans of a single workstation or a single network segment are fairly
straightforward, however.
Checking the status of IP addresses is one example of a basic scan. Recall the
scenario described at the beginning of this page. To begin the network inventory
assignment, you can scan for available systems on the network segment. This scan

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uses the -sn options, which does not report listening ports but merely checks the
status of IP addresses to see whether a host responds to a query. The result is a
basic list of IP addresses in use.
# nmap -sn 192.168.1.0/24

Nmap scan of a network segment.

Nmap can also detect the operating systems of scan targets. This type of basic scan
does more than simply identify Linux, Windows, or macOS; instead, it is usually
capable of accurately identifying specific versions, kernels, and roles (servers). While
many of the default scans include OS detection, to specifically identify operating
systems, add the -O option.
OS detection works against entire subnets, but here is an OS detection scan against
just the 192.168.2.200 host:
# nmap -O 192.168.1.1

Nmap guessed the BSD operating system.

Nmap Output Redirection

Rather than using the traditional > redirector, Nmap has its own options for saving
the output to a file. Two common output methods (there are others) are listed in
the table below.

Redirector for the nmap

Command Purpose

-oN Generate a basic text file in human-readable

format.

-oG Generate a text file useful for grep, awk,

diff, and other commands.

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Generate a basic text file named net-scan.txt from an Nmap scan in the
~/scans directory:
# nmap -oN ~/scans/net-scan.txt 192.168.2.200
Conduct Detailed Nmap Scans
Be aware that Nmap scans of large groups of nodes can take a long time. Nmap
has a variety of features designed to avoid detection or gather immense amounts
of information. In addition, scanning a large segment, such as a heavily populated
Class C or a Class B subnet, targets a lot of machines.
Some advanced scans speed this process up. Other advanced scans focus on more
stealthy scans to avoid detection.
Here is an example of a fast scan designed to check for common port numbers,
including 22 (SSH), 80 (HTTP), 443 (HTTPS), and others:
# nmap -F 192.168.1.1

Fast Nmap scan of a router.

Another example is a TCP connect scan. This scan attempts TCP connects via the
three-way handshake, which may leave entries in the target’s log file. This scan is
slower than some other scans.
# nmap -sT 192.168.1.1
Some administrators use nontraditional port numbers to help camouflage network
services. For example, port 22 is a well-known port associated with the SSH
service. An administrator might set that service to port 2222 as a way of hiding the
service from basic scans. However, nontraditional ports could mean unexpected
configurations are in place that require further investigation.
The following example scans for nontraditional ports:
# nmap -sV 192.168.1.1
Nontraditional ports, however, may represent an entirely different security
concern. Nontraditional ports may represent rogue network services (services the
administrator is not aware of). Such services might be the result of malware or
other unauthorized and unwanted software running on the network. Such software
could offer backdoor access to the network or direct network traffic outside the
network to a threat actor.

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The nmap.org website also contains a large library of Nmap scripts that automate very
specific and detailed scans. These can be very useful for network administrators.

Nmap is a powerful but simple tool to use for network inventories, security audits,
and troubleshooting. Once you’ve completed your Nmap scans, reporting such
details as operating systems, port status, and any nontraditional reports should be
straightforward. Reports may be generated directly from Nmap output, integrated
into spreadsheets, or added to text files.

Ensure you have authorization before using this security tool.

Troubleshoot Connectivity Issues

The following is an example network-troubleshooting process. The process varies
based on the symptoms of the problem. For example, a failed connection probably
would not require packet sniffing to resolve.
1. ip addr —Does the local host have the correct IP configuration?
2. ping {destination} —Is traffic able to flow from the source to the
destination and back?

3. traceroute, tracepath —Is traffic moving along the expected

network path? Is it blocked at a specific router or firewall device?

4. ss, netstat, lsof -i —Display current connections and listening ports.

5. firewall-cmd --list-services —View what traffic may be filtered
by the local firewall.

6. Wireshark or tcpdump —Identify what network traffic is moving in a given

network subnet.

7. Nmap —Scan hosts or networks for configurations.

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Review Activity:
Network Traffic
5

Answer the following questions:

1. An administrator wants to better understand the structure of TCP/IP

packets, including addressing, transport layer protocols, and the data
payload. How would the Wireshark utility help with this understanding?

2. A developer is working on a custom application that sends data to three

different remote servers. The developer wants to see, at the network
level, what data is sent to each server. What tools can you suggest to
help with this, and what selection criteria might you suggest for those
tools?

3. A junior administrator needs to generate a report displaying the

operating systems running on all nodes on the 192.168.1.0/24 network
segment. What command might you suggest?

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Lesson 11
Summary
4

The tools that threat actors use to understand the network are the same tools that
help administrators mitigate threats. Protocol analyzers intercept and read network
traffic, so firewalls help to isolate and manage that traffic. Network mappers such
as Nmap display potential vulnerabilities, misconfigurations, or unexpected services
exposed to remote devices.
Because both administrators and threat actors use these tools, it is critical to have
authorization to use them on the network.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

iptables iptables Manage packet Lesson 11,

[options] filtering and stateful Topic A
[-t table] firewall functions.
[commands]
{chain/rule
specification}
firewall-cmd firewall-cmd Configure firewalld Lesson 11,
[options] by querying and Topic A
modifying zones or
services as desired.

ufw ufw Configure nftables Lesson 11,

[options] or iptables. Topic A
{action}
ping ping Generate a response Lesson 11,
[options] request from the Topic B
{destination} sending computer,
which should receive
a reply from the
destination
computer.

traceroute traceroute Display each hop Lesson 11,

[options] along the network Topic B
{destination} path.

tracepath tracepath Display each hop Lesson 11,

[options] along the network Topic B
{destination} path.

mtr mtr [options] Test network Lesson 11,

[hostname] connection quality Topic B
and packet loss.

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Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

netstat netstat Gather information Lesson 11,

[options] about TCP Topic B
connections to the
system.

ss ss [options] Gather information Lesson 11,

about TCP Topic B
connections and
display in a simple
output.

tcpdump tcpdump Determine traffic Lesson 11,

[options] [-i type and content. Topic B
{interface}]
[host {IP
address}]
nmap nmap [options] Report extremely Lesson 11,
[target] detailed information Topic B
about a network.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 12
Managing Linux Security
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
System security mitigates threats and vulnerabilities by ensuring Linux devices
match required configurations. These configurations, implemented via a process
called hardening, are supplemented by encryption, strong authentication methods,
and mandatory access controls. This Lesson provides configuration steps and
commands to manage security tools.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Harden a Linux system.

• Manage certificates.

• Understand authentication.

• Configure context-based permissions with SELinux and AppArmour.

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Topic 12A
Harden a Linux System
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.1 Summarize the purpose and use of security best practices in a Linux environment.

Security is a critical part of every administrator’s role. With the advent of

DevSecOps, security becomes part of the development, integration, and
maintenance life cycles. Basic server security begins with hardening—ensuring the
system is configured in a manner that mitigates threats and assures availability.
Hardening also includes the use of encryption to confirm data confidentiality, data
origin, and data integrity.
This Topic provides hardening techniques, an explanation of security goals, and an
introduction to encryption concepts.

Hardening Servers
There are many steps administrators can take to mitigate threats to Linux systems.
The process of managing such mitigations is known as hardening. Two of the most
crucial aspects of hardening are removing anything from the system that it does not
need and then using the most current version of whatever software and services
remain. There are many more tasks involved in hardening, however.
The principle of least privilege guides many hardening techniques. The principle
states that users and services should be granted as little access as possible while
still allowing them to function. In other words, if a user only needs read access to a
file, do not grant them both read and write.

Understand Hardening Steps

Server security requires many steps, and some basic practices are listed here. In
general, the guiding principle is to remove everything the system doesn’t need and
use the most current version of whatever remains.

Hardening Practice Implementation

Integrate strong physical security Enforce restricted areas, require guest
badges, ensure doors lock properly, and
monitor physical access.
Implement security scans Utilize vulnerability scanners and network
tools such as Nmap to automate security
auditing and ensure compliance.
Configure secure boot with UEFI The use of UEFI firmware ensures only
digitally signed software is loaded at boot
time.

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Hardening Practice Implementation

Configure system logging Configure rsyslog service to log significant
system and application events. System
access by the root account should particularly
be logged.
Set a strong default umask Configure an appropriate set of default
permissions via umask to enforce the
principle of least privilege.
Manage file access Carefully configure permissions and ACLs
according to the principle of least privilege,
and utilize SELinux.
Configure the host firewall Configure the firewall to enforce the principle
(elsewhere) of least privilege on network connectivity.
Configure secure SSH connectivity Configure the SSH service to deny root logins
via network connections, display warning
banners to remote users, disallow blank
passwords, and require key-based
authentication.
Disable and remove insecure Carefully audit for running services that
services become unneeded as the server’s role
changes throughout its life cycle. Remove
unnecessary services via tools such as the
DNF and APT package managers. Mask
services with the systemctl command.
Secure service accounts Audit service accounts stored in /etc/
passwd to ensure they do not have shell
privileges that would permit privilege
escalation. Block shell access by placing /
sbin/nologin in the account’s shell field
of the /etc/passwd file.
Enforce strong password Enforce strong password requirements
requirements by using the chage command. Pluggable
Authentication Modules (PAM) also help
enforce password settings.
Remove unused software Remove unneeded software via tools such as
packages the DNF and APT package managers.
Tune kernel parameters Tune kernel parameters to match the
server’s role, installed services, network
capabilities, performance requirements, and
service levels.
Automate updates Automate the application of patches and
audit the results to ensure all systems
receive the appropriate updates.

UEFI will be covered in Topic 16A. Logging was covered in Topic 9B.

Where possible, use automation to provide consistency and reduce errors.

Automated scanning, deployments, updates, and configuration all contribute to
more secure environments.

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Security Goals
One useful way of considering security is to define goals. System security attempts
to satisfy three primary goals: confidentiality, integrity, and availability. These goals
are known as the CIA Triad.
Confidentiality ensures that only the authorized user has access to data.
Establishing confidentiality may include encryption of network traffic against
interception, permissions to manage access to files or databases, and
authentication to manage access to system resources and other sensitive assets.
Integrity ensures that data has not changed unexpectedly. Such changes may
occur because of data corruption during network transfer, malicious users altering
data, non-malicious users accidentally changing or deleting data, and other similar
activities.
Availability ensures that users and services have access to the resources they need
when they need them. Availability includes system uptime, appropriate network
performance, and access to resources. Solutions such as backups, load balancing,
and low latency network connections are all part of the availability goal.

Observe how many Linux topics deal with availability. A few examples include RAID for
storage disks, the df and du commands to measure storage disk capacity, iftop
for overcoming network bandwidth limitations, and tools such as top to maintain
processor/memory utilization.

Notice in security discussions that there is no real guarantee or absolute statement

of security. In general, security professionals use the term “mitigate” rather than
“eliminate” when discussing threat management.

DevSecOps Concepts
Development processes have changed in recent years, moving toward a more
frequent and short release cycle. This practice is referred to as DevOps, and it is a
common part of application development in modern IT teams.
The shorter development cycle and more frequent release schedule for applications
have changed the approach for security. Security teams must now be integrated
into the development process rather than viewed as a single step toward the end
of the life cycle. This integration is DevSecOps, and it associates a development
culture, automation practices, and design based on blending security and
development practices throughout the process. DevSecOps does not really refer
to the surrounding security environment (firewalls, network encryption, server
hardening), but Linux sysadmins are still part of the process and must understand
the concept.

Understand Encryption
Encryption is a cryptographic technique that converts data from plaintext form into
coded, or ciphertext, form. Decryption is the companion technique that converts
ciphertext back to plaintext. An algorithm called a cipher is responsible for the
conversion process.
When a message is encrypted, only authorized parties with the necessary
decryption information can decode and read the data. This information is called
a key, and it is used with the cipher to ensure the message is unreadable to those
not in possession of the key. Encryption is therefore one of the most fundamental
cybersecurity techniques for upholding the confidentiality of data.

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The basic process of both encryption and decryption, using the key in both instances.
(Images © 123RF.com.)

Encryption can be applied to data in three different states: when the data is passing
through a network (in transit), when the data is accessed in memory (in use), and
when the data is stored on a device such as a storage disk (data at rest).
There are several subtypes of encryption for data at rest, with two of the most
prominent being full disk encryption (FDE), which encrypts an entire storage drive,
partition, or volume using either hardware or software utilities, and file encryption,
which encrypts individual files and folders on a file system using software utilities.

Encryption Goals
Encryption attempts to satisfy the three primary goals of confidentiality, integrity,
and non-repudiation.

While the encryption goals look similar to the security goals, there are differences.
One primary difference is the encryption goal of non-repudiation as compared to the
security goal of availability.

Users often assume that encryption is synonymous with confidentiality. Encryption

may provide confidentiality, but there are other possibilities. Some encrypted
information is easily read or easily decrypted because the goal may not have been
secrecy.
Data encrypted for confidentiality should only be decrypted by those authorized to
do so. The authorization is proven by the fact that they have the ability to decrypt
the content. In this case, the goal is to keep the data private.
Data encrypted for integrity is usually easily readable by anyone who might
intercept the transmission or otherwise gain access to the content. By using the
same encryption method twice, the encrypted result should be the same, proving
the data is unchanged. If the data is encrypted the same way twice and the results
are different, the data changed between the two encryption events.

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Non-repudiation ensures that a sending party cannot deny the origin of a

transaction. The sender encrypted the data in a manner that only the sender is
capable of, proving the source. The data is usually easily decrypted because the
goal is not confidentiality but origin.
These goals describe ways encryption might be used. The next section covers
specific encryption methods for each way.

Encryption Types
Two of the most common ways of encrypting and decrypting information are
symmetric key encryption, which is the use of a single key to both encrypt and
decrypt data, and asymmetric key encryption. Asymmetric encryption uses a pair
of mathematically related keys, where one key encrypts and the other key decrypts
data. One key is referred to as the public key, and the other is referred to as the
private key.

A third encryption method, hashing, is covered below.

The use of a single key (symmetric) for both encryption and decryption performs
well but introduces a problem: how to securely deliver the key to the endpoint.
The asymmetric key-pair approach solves the security problem, though at the
expense of speed. Asymmetric encryption is more secure because the public key is
available for transport across a network or other media and is viewable by anyone,
while the private key must remain on the local system and is available only to the
authorized user or service. Finally, the asymmetric key pair is governed by the rule
that if data is encrypted with one key, the data must be decrypted by the other key.
This lends increased security over symmetric encryption because one key remains
private at all times. However, the process of encrypting and decrypting content is
slower due to the use of two keys.
The use case for each type varies depending on the goal (confidentiality, integrity,
non-repudiation). The following sections summarize these use cases and the role
the keys play in managing data.

Public Key Encryption

One use of asymmetric encryption is in e-commerce. In this scenario, you may
encrypt content, such as a bank account number, with the public key. When this
occurs, the only option for decryption is the related private key, which is available
only to the authorized user or service. Anyone can encrypt the data, but only the
possessor of the private key may decrypt the information.
The primary goal with public-key encryption is keeping one’s personal information
confidential.

Private Key Encryption

Another use of the asymmetric key pairs involves encrypting information with the
private key. This means, of course, that only the related public key can decrypt the
content. Only the holder of the private key could have encrypted the information,
and therefore the transmission must have originated from that user or service. No
other user or service could have encrypted the data in that way. Anyone possessing
the public key can decrypt the information, which is acceptable since the goal is not
confidentiality.

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This method proves authenticity and meets the goal of non-repudiation. In other
words, it proves that the content came from the specified source. This is known as a
digital signature.

Hashing
The hashing encryption method uses a single-key symmetric encryption, but the
goal is to provide integrity, not confidentiality. The information is encrypted using
a key, and the encryption process generates a resulting encrypted value. If another
party encrypts a copy of the same original data, they would expect to get the same
result. If a different result is generated, the data copy is different from the original.
For example, an administrator stores a file on a Linux server and uses a hash
algorithm to encrypt the file. The hash generates a unique string. The administrator
makes both the file and hash available to users to copy. A user who copies the
file to their workstation and runs the same hash algorithm should see the same
hash result as the administrator sees. If the result is the same, the data is identical
on the server and the user’s workstation. If the result is different, the copy on the
workstation is not the same as the copy on the server. Observe that hashing does
not indicate what changed, only that something changed. Files might change based
on events such as user updates, file corruption, or malicious alteration.

Outcome of hashing. Alice, the administrator, has made the file available (1) to Bob, who runs the
hash algorithm and is able to see the correct file (2 and 3). If Mallory is able to inject a malicious
download (4), Bob would run the hash algorithm, see that it’s different from the reference file (5),
and reject it. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Hashing proves file integrity, ensuring that two copies of the same data are indeed
identical.

You will work with hashing utilities later in this lesson.

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Review Activity:
System Hardening
3

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the principle of least privilege, and provide at least two examples
of its use.

2. Explain the three components of the CIA Triad.

3. Explain the three goals of encryption.

4. Differentiate between symmetric and asymmetric encryption, and

explain the rule associated with asymmetric encryption.

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Topic 12B
Manage Certificates
5

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.1 Summarize the purpose and use of security best practices in a Linux environment.

Digital certificates provide a medium to transport public keys and information

about key holders. The certificates may be integrated into websites for e-commerce,
stored on smart cards for authentication, or utilized with email to provide
confidentiality and non-repudiation.
Public key encryption relies on the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) to manage the
certificate lifecycle, from request to issue to expiration or revocation. Many different
certificate types exist.

Certificate Use Cases

When a public/private key pair is generated, the public key is often embedded in
a digital certificate. The certificate includes a great deal of information, including
the owner’s public key, the issuer of the key pair, the holder of the key pair, the
certificate expiration date, and the issuer’s digital signature.

The public key portion of a digital certificate.

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A digital certificate is an electronic document that associates credentials with a

public key. Both users and devices can hold certificates. The certificate validates the
certificate holder’s identity through a digital signature and is also a way to distribute
the holder’s public key. In addition, a certificate contains information about the
holder’s identity.
There are many use cases for asymmetric public/private key encryption and the
related digital certificates. E-commerce: Guarantees the identity of remote servers
from which customers may purchase goods and provides a means for protecting
the purchaser’s personal information. Secure email: Guarantees the identity of an
email sender to the receiving party. Smart cards: Guarantees the identity of a user
to a system.

Recognize SSL/TLS
Security professionals must protect web traffic, and public key encryption helps
with that process. Transport Layer Security (TLS) relies on digital certificates to
provide confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity for web connections.
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is an earlier implementation of TLS, and often the two
acronyms are used interchangeably. The actual SSL protocol is deprecated but
often referenced due to its name recognition.
Websites that rely on TLS security contain HTTPS in the URL. This indicates that in
the background, the certificate information is exchanged between the web client
and the webserver to negotiate a secure connection. Web connections that use
HTTP do not negotiate this same information, leaving the connections vulnerable to
eavesdropping, impersonation, on-path, and other forms of attacks.

Certificate Authentication
Certificates are also used to allow users, applications, services, devices, and other
identities to authenticate and access resources. Authentication based on certificates
is more secure than password authentication and is usually more flexible.
Certificates may be stored on smart cards or hardware devices.

Manage PKI Certificates

Certificates have a life cycle consisting of enrollment (requesting a certificate),
issue, use, and expiration. Certificates can be revoked before their expiration
if the identity they guarantee is no longer valid. The servers and organizations
that manage this life cycle are called the Public Key Infrastructure, or PKI.
PKIs may manage third-party certificates, self-signed certificates, and even
wildcard certificates. These certificates are used for everything from secure web
communications to encrypted email.
A public key infrastructure (PKI) is a system that is composed of certificate
authorities, certificates, software, services, and other cryptographic components to
enable authenticity and validation of data and entities. The PKI can be implemented
in various hierarchical structures and can be publicly available or maintained
privately by an organization. As its name implies, a PKI implements asymmetric
cryptography for the encryption and decryption of network data, including
transactions over the Internet.

Certificate Authorities
A certificate authority (CA) is a server that issues digital certificates for entities
and maintains the associated private/public key pair. CAs sign digital certificates so
that clients can validate the authenticity of certificates owned by entities. CAs may
be third-party or internal.

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Third-party CAs issue certificates that guarantee identities in public settings, such
as the Internet. The CA acts as a trusted third party—trusted by the entity claiming
an identity and trusted by the entity confirming the identity. For example, an
e-commerce site will request a certificate from a third-party CA that confirms its
claimed identity. E-commerce customers trust that the certificate confirms the
website’s identity.
Third-party certificates issued by CAs are used when the two parties don’t trust each
other’s identities, such as when an anonymous customer makes a purchase on a
vendor’s website.

Self-Signed Certificates
Internal CAs issue self-signed certificates—certificates that are owned by the
same entity that signs them. In other words, the certificate does not recognize any
authority and is essentially certifying itself. Self-signed certificates require the client
to trust the entity directly.
Self-signed certificates issued by an internal CA are used when the two parties each
trust the organization, such as when an internal workstation connects to an internal
server.

Wildcard Certificates
Most certificates are associated with a single identity, such as a website at www.
[example].com. These types of certificates will not guarantee other identities related
to that domain, such as mail.[example].com. Hence, an organization would need to
purchase two certificates; one for the website and one for the mail subdomain.
Wildcard certificates support multiple subdomains of a single parent domain, such
as www.[example].com, mail.[example].com, and ftp.[example].com.
Common certificate use cases include HTTPS web connections, smart-card
authentication, and digitally signed files.

Integrity Checking
Integrity checking is the process of verifying that data has not been intentionally or
unintentionally modified in any way. In other words, an integrity check can validate
the security goal of integrity. It is good practice to perform integrity checking after
you finish compressing and archiving a backup file to confirm that the data has
not changed. This will help you avoid storing corrupted and inaccurate archives for
future recovery, only to find out too late that the data was not properly backed up.
Several methods enable you to check data integrity, each of which may vary based on
its security requirements or goals. One of the most common and secure methods of
checking data integrity is through the use of hashing. By calculating the hash of a file
like a backup archive, you can compare that hash to past values, and if both are the
same, you can be reasonably sure the data has not changed in the meantime.

Hash Functions
A hash function is an algorithm that performs a hashing operation. There are many
different hash functions, each of which may have its own security strengths and
weaknesses. The two most common hash functions for checking data integrity on
Linux systems are MD5 and SHA.
The Message Digest 5 (MD5) algorithm produces a 128-bit message digest. It
was created by Ronald Rivest and is now in the public domain. MD5 is no longer
considered a strong hash function and should be avoided for sensitive operations
like storing passwords; however, it is still used in integrity checking.

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The Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) is modeled after MD5 and is considered the
stronger of the two. Common versions of SHA include SHA-1, which produces a
160-bit hash value, while SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512 produce 256-bit, 384-bit,
and 512-bit digests, respectively. SHA-1 is being deprecated due to some security
weaknesses.

The md5sum Command

Helpdesk Ticket #02007

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Ali Selassi Marketing you 2024-08-17

Subject is this file safe??

Ticket Detail I’m trying to download this file from a website, and the
instructions say “check the checksum value produced with
an MD5 hash.” What does this mean? Is this a reliable
website?
Date last updated 2024-08-18

The md5sum command is used to calculate the hash value of a file or standard input
using the MD5 hash function. You can also use the -c option to specify a file contai-
ning MD5 hashes and the file names they apply to; md5sum will calculate the hashes
of the files listed and then compare them to the hash values listed. The results will let
you know whether each file passed, failed, or could not be found.
MD5 hashes are 128-bits in length. Like many other hash values, they are typically
represented in hexadecimal format (32 characters for MD5). The following is the
hash value of the string “Linux”:
edc9f0a5a5d57797bf68e37364743831
The syntax of the md5sum command is md5sum [options] [file name]
To use the md5sum command, create a test file by using Vim (or another text editor).
Type a basic sentence or phrase in the file, and then save and close the file. Next, run
the md5sum command using the file name as the argument. You’ll see hash value
output on the screen. Now, make a change to the file contents, then save and close the
file. Run the same md5sum command using the file name as the argument. Compare
the new hash. Because the contents are different, the hashes are different.
Here’s an example:
md5sum {filename} >> hashresults.txt

Checksums from md5sum after a file changes.

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Note that using md5sum to confirm the file is unchanged does not prove its
authenticity or guarantee confidentiality. It also does not prove the file contents are
safe. Hashing shows that the file contents—whatever they may be—are unchanged.

SHA Commands
There are several different commands that you can use to calculate SHA hash
values. These commands are functionally identical to md5sum but use the SHA
function with the applicable bit size.
• sha1sum
• sha256sum
• sha384sum
• sha512sum
The syntax of the sha#sum commands is sha#sum [options] [file
name]

Checksums from sha1sum after a file changes.

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Review Activity:
6

Certificates
Answer the following questions:

1. What are some of the contents of a digital certificate?

2. Differentiate between self-signed certificates and third-party

certificates.

3. When might checking file integrity with hashing tools be useful?

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Topic 12C
Understand Authentication
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.1 Summarize the purpose and use of security best practices in a Linux environment.
2.2 Given a scenario, implement identity management.

Identity and Access Management refers to identifying and authenticating users,

whether on a standalone system or in a network environment. Various approaches,
from tokens to multifactor authentication to LDAP, exist to guarantee the identity
of a user. Authentication controls, such as Pluggable Authentication Modules (PAM),
allow Linux administrators to tailor server configurations to the organization’s
written security policies.
This Topic explores authentication methods and basic PAM configurations.

What is Identity and Access Management?

Identity and access management (IAM) is a security process that provides
identity, authentication, and authorization mechanisms for users, computers,
and other entities to work with organizational assets such as networks, operating
systems, and applications. IAM enables you to define the attributes that comprise
an entity’s identity, such as its purpose, function, security clearance, and more.
These attributes subsequently enable access management systems to make
informed decisions about whether to grant or deny an entity access and if granted,
decide what the entity is authorized to do. For example, an individual employee
may have their own identity in the IAM system. The employee’s role in the company
(e.g., the department in which the employee works and whether or not the
employee is a manager) factors into their identity.
In most business environments, IAM is a crucial service for provisioning and
managing access, as well as bolstering the overall security of the IT infrastructure.
One goal of IAM is single sign-on (SSO). An SSO implementation requires a user to
authenticate only once to get access to multiple systems. For example, a user could
authenticate with a name and password and then access a customer database, a
secure webserver, and a remote file server, all without being challenged for credentials.

Review Standard Authentication

Recall that the primary way of authenticating to a Linux system is a name and
password that are checked against the /etc/passwd and /etc/shadow file.
A hashed version of the password is stored in the /etc/shadow file. When you
type in your password, it is hashed using the same algorithm as the file and then
compared against what the file expects.
This type of local authentication is fine for standalone systems or workstations used
only by a few people. However, in larger environments, centralized authentication
is far more efficient. Centralized authentication services store name and password
combinations on one or more servers. Users can log in to any system, with their
identity checked against the authentication server. This approach is easier than
maintaining user accounts on each independent standalone system.

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Centralized authentication is covered in more detail later in this section.

Authentication Methods
There are multiple ways of proving identities beyond the use of passwords. Tokens
and biometrics enhance password-based authentication methods. Linux servers are
configured via the System Security Services Daemon (sssd) to use these methods
for centralized authentication with services such as Lightweight Directory Access
Protocol (LDAP) servers.

Tokens
A token is any unique physical or digital object that you can use to verify your
identity. Tokens are typically used to generate one-time passwords (OTP),
which are passwords that either expire after first use or within a small time
period, or both. In either case, OTPs are not meant to be memorized like normal
passwords. Tokens can also leverage digital certificates as authentication
information.
A hardware token is a physical device that generates and stores the authentication
information, and that information is tied to that particular device. One common
example is a key fob that generates and displays a numeric token on the key fob’s
small screen. RSA SecurID® is the most popular security key fob.
Software tokens, on the other hand, are generated by a system that can
distribute the authentication information to authorized general-purpose devices,
including smartphones and desktop computers. RSA SecurID also has a mobile
app for this purpose, and apps like Google Authenticator can generate one-time
tokens.

Multifactor Authentication
Authentication methods can make use of several factors. These factors are
typically expressed as something you know, something you have, and something
you are.
Multifactor authentication (MFA) is the practice of requiring the user to
present at least two different factors before the system authenticates them.
This helps prevent unauthorized access when one factor is compromised (for
example, when an attacker guesses a user’s password). Tokens and OTPs
(something you have) are commonly used as the second factor after the user’s
standard password. On more advanced systems, biometrics (something you are)
is also used as a factor.
For a system to enforce MFA, it must incorporate more than one factor, not more
than one method. For example, using a hardware token and a software token
would not qualify because they are the same factor (something you have).

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A user employs both a password and a security token as part of the multifactor authentication
(MFA) process. When the LDAP server confirms both elements as correct, the user may access the
secure network. (Images © 123RF.com.)

System Security Services Daemon

The System Security Services Daemon (sssd) connects the local system to remote
authentication services. The local system, known as the sssd client, caches
authentication information from the remote authentication provider. The user can
then use these cached credentials to access resources, including those protected by
PAM configurations. The remote provider might use authentication services such as
LDAP, Kerberos, or Microsoft Active Directory.
By caching credentials, the service helps reduce the workload on the authentication
providers and allows offline authentication. SSSD also provides single sign-on
capabilities.

Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)

Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) is a directory service protocol that
runs over Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) networks.
LDAP clients authenticate to the LDAP service, and the service’s schema defines
the tasks that clients can and cannot perform while accessing a directory database,
defines the form the directory query must take, and defines how the directory
server will respond.
Secure LDAP (LDAPS) is a method of implementing LDAP using Secure Sockets
Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) encryption protocols to protect the
confidentiality and integrity of directory service transmissions.

Pluggable Authentication Modules

A Pluggable Authentication Module (PAM) defines the underlying framework
and centralized authentication method leveraged by authentication services,
such as Kerberos and LDAP. This provides a common mechanism for many
different authentication services and applications. Authentication can therefore
be streamlined within that single framework rather than be different for each
application and service.

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The streamlining of authentication also benefits administrators because PAM

makes it easier for them to configure authentication policies across all applications
and services on the system, as opposed to configuring policies in different formats
depending on the service. Developers can also write their own PAM modules to
support specific authentication and authorization functions within an app.

PAM Configurations
PAM configuration files are located in the /etc/pam.d/ directory, where each
PAM-aware service or application has its own file. Each file includes directives,
formatted in the following way:
<module interface> <control flag> <module name> <module arguments>
Module interfaces define functions of the authentication/authorization process
contained within a module. Control flags indicate what should be done upon the
success or failure of the module. The module name defines the module to which
the directive applies. Module arguments are additional options you can pass into
the module.
The four module interfaces are account, auth, password, and session. Account
checks to see whether a user is allowed access to something, auth is used to verify
passwords and to set credentials (such as Kerberos tickets), password is used to
change passwords, and session is used when performing tasks in a user session
that are required for access (such as mounting home directories).
There are also four control flags. When the optional flag is set, the module result
is ignored. The required flag mandates that the module result must be successful
to continue the authentication, and the user is notified when all tests in the module
interfaces are finished. The requisite flag is the same as the required flag except
for the requisite flag’s directive to notify the user immediately upon failure. The
sufficient flag states that the module result is ignored upon failure.

Viewing the /etc/pam.d/ directory and pluggable authentication modules.

In some distributions, you may be able to configure PAM directly through the /etc/
pam.conf file. The syntax of this file is similar to individual files in the /etc/
pam.d/ directory.

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Manage Passwords with PAM

Pluggable authentication modules have a variety of applications in password
management. In this section you’ll take a look at three situations in which you’d test
passwords: against a dictionary attack, against policy requirements, and against the
password history.

Test Passwords Against a Dictionary Attack

The following is an example of a password policy directive:
password required pam_cracklib.so retry=5
The module interface password indicates that this directive pertains to changing
passwords. The required control flag means that the result of the module must be
successful, or else the authentication process will not continue. The pam_cracklib.so
module contains functionality that prompts a user for a password and will test that
password to see whether it can be easily cracked in a dictionary attack. The retry=5
argument gives the user five chances to fail the dictionary test.

Test Passwords Against Policy Requirements

In the following example, the module will require that the user enter a “quality”
(strong) password. Non-local users—those not found in /etc/passwd—are
ignored:
password requisite pam_pwquality.so local_users_
only
Test Passwords Against Password History
This example enforces a password history so that users don’t reuse old passwords
when making password changes. Passwords are remembered for 90 days:
password requisite pam_pwhistory.so remember=90
Configure User Lockouts
There are two PAM modules you can use to trigger a temporary user lockout if
multiple authentication attempts fail: pam_tally2 and pam_faillock. The pam_faillock
module is recommended because it is a newer module that improves upon pam_
tally2 by supporting user lockout when authentication is performed over a screen
saver.
You can place these user lockout directives in /etc/pam.d/password-auth
and /etc/pam.d/system-auth
To unlock a user and reset their failure count, you can issue:
# pam_tally2 -r -u user

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Review Activity:
5

Authentication
Answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of sssd?

2. What is the relationship between PAM modules and PAM control flags?

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Topic 12D
Configure SELinux or AppArmor
3

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

2.5 Given a scenario, apply the appropriate access controls.

Standard file access relies on discretionary access controls (DAC) provided

by permissions. In some situations, DAC does not provide enough security to
resources. Mandatory access controls (MAC) enforce context-based permissions
on processes accessing resources to provide greater security. For many Linux
distributions, MAC is provided by Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux). For other
distributions, AppArmor provides similar functionality.

What is SELinux?
Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) is the default context-based permissions
scheme provided with CentOS and Red Hat Enterprise Linux and is available on
other distributions. It was developed by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA).
It provides additional file system and network security so that unauthorized
processes cannot access or tamper with data, bypass security mechanisms, violate
security policies, or execute untrustworthy programs.
SELinux enforces mandatory access control (MAC) on processes and resources
and enables information to be classified and protected based on its confidentiality
and integrity requirements. This helps mitigate the damage caused to information
by malicious applications and users.

SELinux Contexts
SELinux contexts (labels) define resource access. Access issues may be related
to incorrect labels, and relabeling the resources can help resolve such problems.
The autorelabel feature of SELinux allows sysadmins to cause contexts to be reset
throughout the filesystem.
SELinux defines three main contexts for each file and process. When you list an
object’s contexts, each one is delineated by a colon.
• User: This context defines how users can access the object. Note that this
does not refer to Linux system users but rather distinct SELinux users. Each
Linux system user is mapped to one of these SELinux user values. Different
distributions provide different users, but common ones include:

• unconfined_u —All users

• user_u —Unprivileged users

• sysadm_u —System administrators

• root —Root user

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• Role: This context defines what roles can access the object. SELinux users are
authorized to be in roles. Roles are typically used to permit or deny users access
to domains, which apply to processes. The object_r role applies to files and
directories.

• Type: This context is the “label” portion of MAC and is perhaps the most
important context for fine-grained access control. It is a way of grouping objects
together that have similar security requirements or characteristics. The word
type usually applies to files and directories, whereas a domain is just a type that
applies to processes. For example, ssh_t is the domain for the SSH process.

Display Security Contexts

Many standard Linux commands include options to display SELinux information.
For example, both the ls and ps commands display additional SELinux details.
List directory contents along with each object’s security context. You can check the
context of specific objects by issuing:
# ls -Z {file or directory name}

Output of the ls -Z ~ command displaying SELinux contexts.

List running processes along with each process’s security context. You can check the
context of specific processes by issuing:
#ps -Z {PID}
Change Security Contexts
Once you understand the resource’s current SELinux context, you can decide
whether it’s appropriate to change that context. The chcon command temporarily
changes the security context of a file.
The basic syntax of the chcon command is:
chcon {-u|-r|-t} {context value} {file or directory
name}
where {-u|-r|-t} refers to user, role, or type, respectively.
If the filesystem is relabeled or the restorecon command is used, the file’s
context is reset, restoring the default security context.
The syntax of the restorecon command is:
restorecon {file-name or directory-name}

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Apply SELinux Settings

SELinux relies on modes to control access to system resources. Depending on the
mode, SELinux policies are applied or not. Furthermore, administrators have very
granular control over the policies themselves. This control is managed via SELinux
booleans, which enable or disable specific policy settings.

Configure SELinux Modes

Helpdesk Ticket #02008

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:

Rey Harper Information Services you 2024-08-21

Subject Failed service - troubleshooting

Ticket Detail Hi, can you help with a troubleshooting issue. Service00 is
failing and I think it’s because SELinux is misconfigured, but
I still need to test that. I do know SELinux should not be
permanently disabled, but I don’t know what the next steps
are, can you help?

Thank you,
Rey Harper
Jr Sysadmin
Date last updated 2024-08-21

Three modes define how SELinux applies to the system. Think of these modes as
either turning on or turning off SELinux security. You can switch between the modes
on the fly, making configuration and troubleshooting easier.

SELinux Mode Outcome

Enforcing SELinux is enabled and policies are
enforced. This is the normal SELinux
mode that protects the system.
Permissive SELinux is enabled, but policies are not
enforced. Actions that would have been
blocked by SELinux are instead logged for
further examination by the administrator.
Disabled SELinux is turned off system-wide.

The default mode is typically Enforcing. Use the getenforce command to

display the current mode:
# getenforce
Use the setenforce command to temporarily change modes. Note that a
value of 0 is Permissive mode and a value of 1 is Enforcing mode. For example, to
temporarily change to Permissive mode while troubleshooting a resource access
issue, type:
# setenforce 0

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Once the problem is resolved, be sure to switch back to Enforcing mode with this
command:
# setenforce 1

Changing modes as part of troubleshooting.

The purpose of Permissive mode is for testing and troubleshooting. If you are
attempting to resolve resource access issues that you believe may be related to
SELinux, you can temporarily set the mode to Permissive and attempt the access
again. Your results show you specific information:If you could not access a resource
when SELinux was set to Enforcing, but you could when it was set to Permissive,
then SELinux is blocking the access.If you could access the resource in Permissive
mode but not in Enforcing mode, SELinux logs the policy that blocked your access.
Examining the log file allows you to identify which policy needs to be updated to
resolve the access control issue.If you could not access the resource in Permissive
mode, then it is likely that some other security layer, such as standard permissions
or access control lists, is denying access.
Setting the mode to Permissive is an important troubleshooting suggestion.
Disabling SELinux is not recommended.

Configure SELinux Policy Types

A SELinux security policy defines access parameters for every process and resource
on the system. It enforces rules for allowing or denying different domains and types
to access each other. Configuration files and policy source files located in the /etc/
selinux/ directory can be configured by the root user.
Each policy is categorized as either targeted, strict, or minimum. Targeted policy
subjects and objects run in an unconfined environment. The untargeted subjects
and objects will operate on the DAC method, and the targeted daemons will
operate on the MAC method. A targeted policy is enabled by default. A strict policy
is the opposite of a targeted policy, where every subject and object of the system
is enforced to operate on the MAC method. Finally, a minimum policy is similar to
the targeted policy in that subjects and objects run in an unconfined environment
but load less configuration into memory. This policy category is appropriate for
small devices, such as phones, and for experimentation with SELinux.

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Reviewing the status of SELinux with the sestatus command.

An example targeted policy might leave SSH running in an unconfined environment

but target httpd (Apache webserver) and MariaDB for more strict MAC-based
SELinux control.

Understand System Booleans

Administrators can configure different security contexts and settings for various
systems. Internal webservers, for example, likely require different security
configurations than do Internet-facing webservers. Here are common commands
for configuring SELinux:

Command Purpose
semanage Configure SELinux policies.

sestatus Get the status of SELinux, including its

current mode, policy type, and mount
point.
getsebool Display the on/off status of SELinux
boolean values. Boolean values enable
you to change policy configurations at
runtime without actually writing the
policy directly.
setsebool Change the on/off status of an SELinux
boolean value.

Additional SELinux Troubleshooting Tools

SELinux troubleshooting begins by determining whether SELinux is actually
the issue. Set SELinux to permissive mode and test access. Tools such as
audit2allow and restorecon can help update SELinux settings.
Use audit2allow
The audit2allow command converts access attempts that were denied by
SELinux into allow rules. For example, after troubleshooting an access issue by
checking log files, you discover that SELinux is incorrectly blocking access to a
resource. Rather than generate access rules yourself, you can use audit2allow
to generate the rules for you.

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Copy versus Move and SELinux

You are assigned a helpdesk ticket stating that a user created some HTML files
in their home directory and then utilized the mv command to move the files to
Apache’s default DocumentRoot location of /var/www/html (which is where the
Apache webserver expects to find the files). Apache cannot use the files, and the
user suspects a SELinux issue based on the error message.
One common issue deals with the inheritance of SELinux contexts when moving
or copying files. When a file is moved, it does not actually change locations
on the storage disk. Instead, the file’s pointer changes, but the file retains its
characteristics, including the SELinux context. When a file is copied, the duplicate is
freshly created in the destination locations. Files created in a directory (for example,
via the cp command) inherit the characteristics of the directory they are created in,
including the SELinux context.
The reason Apache cannot access the files is because they still have the SELinux
context of the user’s home directory (because the files never really moved). There
are two solutions: either copy the files from the user’s home directory, causing
the new versions to inherit that directory’s SELinux context, or update the SELinux
context of the files by using the restorecon command.

What is AppArmor?
AppArmor is an alternative context-based permissions scheme and MAC
implementation for Linux. Whereas SELinux is more commonly associated with
RHEL, AppArmor is packaged with Debian-based and SUSE Linux distros.
AppArmor provides the same fundamental service as SELinux provides, but its
approach is different in many significant ways. Perhaps the most overarching
difference is that SELinux is very complex and often difficult to configure, whereas
AppArmor was designed to be much simpler.
Functionally, the main difference is that AppArmor works with filesystem objects
based on paths, whereas SELinux references inodes directly. These paths are
referenced in flat configuration files, or profiles, that AppArmor uses to determine
how to control access. This also means that there are no types or domains in
AppArmor, only these profiles.

AppArmor Profiles
Each executable can have an associated AppArmor profile. Profiles are located in
the /etc/apparmor.d/ directory. Within this directory are several text files
that are named in a path.binary format. For example, the /bin/dig command
binary’s AppArmor configuration file would be located at /etc/apparmor.d/
bin.dig.
Within a profile, you can configure two main types of rules: capabilities and path
entries. Capabilities provide the executable in question access to some sort of
system functionality. For example, the net_bind_service capability enables the
executable to bind to a well-known TCP/IP port (port numbers below 1024).
Path entries enable the executable to access a specific file on the file system. As the
name suggests, you reference the files by their paths. After the path, you specify
what permissions you want to grant to this executable for the files. There are
several possible permissions, including r for read, w for write, ux for unconfined
execute (file being accessed doesn’t have a profile), l for link, and so on.

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Each profile operates in one of two modes: complain and enforce. In complain
mode, profile violations are logged but not prevented. In enforce mode, profile
violations are both logged and prevented.

AppArmor Tunables
Tunables enable you to configure AppArmor functionality without directly modifying
profiles. For example, profiles may reference a common object or path using a
variable name, such as @{HOME} to refer to the user’s home directory. If the user’s
home directory is not in the default location, you can adjust the appropriate tunable
file to account for this. Tunable files are located in the /etc/apparmor.d/
tunables/ directory.
AppArmor Commands
The following table describes some of the major commands that you can use to
configure an AppArmor environment.

AppArmor Command Purpose

apparmor_status Display the current status of AppArmor
profiles.
aa-complain Place a profile in complain mode.
The basic syntax is aa-complain
{path to profile}
aa-enforce Place a profile in enforce mode.
The basic syntax is aa-enforce
{path to profile}
aa-disable Disable a profile, unloading it from the
kernel.
The basic syntax is aa-disable
{path to profile}
aa-unconfined List processes with open-network sockets
that don’t have an AppArmor profile
loaded.

Partial output from the apparmor_status command.

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Review Activity:
SELinux and AppArmor
4

Answer the following questions:

1. What command displays the SELinux context for files?

2. You’re troubleshooting a file-access issue and wish to see whether

SELinux is to blame. What is one way you could test this by using the
Permissive and Enforcing modes?

3. Differentiate between targeted and strict policy types in SELinux.

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Lesson 12
Summary
4

Solid hardening practices are critical to Linux system security. Begin with a security-
oriented mindset by integrating DevSecOps practices into all aspects of system and
application development security. Use encryption as appropriate to secure data in
transit, in use, and in storage. Carefully control authentication processes to ensure
only authorized users access your systems. Finally, rely on technologies such as
SELinux and AppArmor to provide more granular control to access your resources.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

md5sum md5sum Calculate the hash value Lesson 12,
options] of a file with the MD5 Topic B
[file name] hash function.

sha#sum sha#sum Calculate the hash value Lesson 12,

options] of a file with the SHA Topic B
[file name] hash function.

chcon chcon Temporarily change the Lesson 12,

{-u|-r|-t} SELinux context of a Topic D
{context resource.
value} {file
or directory
name}
apparmor_ No additional Display the current Lesson 12,
status options or status of AppArmor Topic D
subcommands. profiles.
aa-complain aa- complain Place an AppArmor Lesson 12,
{path to profile in complain Topic D
profile} mode.

aa-enforce aa- enforce Place an AppArmor Lesson 12,

{path to profile in enforce Topic D
profile} mode.

aa-disable aa-disable Disable an AppArmor Lesson 12,

{path to profile, unloading it Topic D
profile} from the kernel.

aa-unconfined No additional List processes with open Lesson 12,

options or network sockets that Topic D
subcommands. don’t have an AppArmor
profile loaded.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 13
Implementing Simple Scripts
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
The ability to automate and schedule complex tasks on a Linux system relies on
Bash scripting. Scripts can be as simple or complex as necessary to accomplish the
goal. One of the benefits of a script is that it executes the same way every time,
rather than relying on an administrator to recall the proper order of operations or
avoid typographical errors.
Scripts are also capable of running a set number of times, for example, while
a value is true. They can also compare values and use if/then logic to process
information differently depending on the contents.
This Lesson begins with simple scripting basics and then addresses various scripting
techniques that increase flexibility.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand Bash scripting basics.

• Use shell script elements.

• Implement scripts with logical controls.

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Topic 13A
Understand Bash Scripting Basics
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to automate common tasks.

Scripts provide scheduled, repeatable sets of commands that run the same way
each time they execute. Such consistency and flexibility make them a powerful
tool for administrators. You must understand how to write scripts that call the
appropriate shell and are well-documented. In addition, scripts need the execute
permission to run and must either be placed in specific locations or you must issue
special instructions to Bash to run them.

The Purpose of Scripts

Linux sysadmins find themselves repeating tasks on a regular basis. These
tasks might include backing up and archiving files, managing system updates,
downloading files, or doing a host of other basic jobs. Accomplishing these tasks
manually may be tedious, time-consuming, and error-prone.
Scripting allows an administrator to place commands in a file. The system then reads
the file and executes the commands exactly as written. Assuming the file is accurate,
the commands are run the same way every time. Furthermore, the file can be run on a
schedule, allowing automatic backups during nonbusiness hours, for example.
The many advantages of scripting include:
• Consistency: Scripts run the same way every time they operate.

• Speed: Scripts execute commands more quickly than humans can type them.

• Accuracy: Scripts are less likely to produce errors than humans would likely
produce them when typing commands.

• Customization: Combining commands allows you to create your own custom

tools that meet your needs.

• Scheduling: Using tools such as cron and systemd timers, you can schedule
scripts to begin at certain times.

Script Comments
In the world of programming, comments are a method of annotating source code
so that it is easier for the author and other programmers to understand. In most
languages, comments are ignored by the system that compiles, interprets, or
otherwise executes the program. Therefore they exist as a way to document various
elements of the code within the code itself.
In Bash, the number or pound sign (#) indicates that every character after it on
that line is part of a comment and is not to be executed. Although you are free to
comment your code how you want, it’s usually good practice to include one or more
comment lines at the top of the script that explain what that script does and to

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comment each line or code block that may require explanation. You should refrain
from commenting on a line of code with an obvious purpose. Too many comments
can clutter the source code and make it harder to understand.
This is an example of a short script with comments:
# This script determines how many files are remaining
to process in a directory.
num_files=432        
# current number of files
processed
total_files=512      # total number of files to process
echo "There are $((total_files - num_files)) files
remaining."

How to Run Scripts

Scripts require the executable permission to run and are usually identified by
the .sh file extension. This extension isn’t required but often makes identifying
scripts easier when displaying the contents of a directory. In addition, scripts must
either be stored along the system $PATH or must be called directly from the local
directory.

Call Scripts from Local Directory

Helpdesk Ticket #02009

Submitted by: Department: Assigned to: Date Opened:
Information
Rey Harper Services you 2024-08-28

Subject Archive script

Ticket Detail I’m trying to run a script to archive files older than 120 days,
but every time I go to execute it the system says it can’t be
found. Oddly, executing ls on my home directory shows me
the script with no problem. I set up (and double-checked)
the permissions, and I’m out of ideas. Can you help me
figure this out?

Thank you,
Rey Harper
Jr Sysadmin
Date last updated 2024-08-28

One of the system variables is $PATH. This value specifies where Bash looks for
executable files. When you run a command, Bash doesn’t search every directory
on the storage disk looking for the command’s executable. That would be very
inefficient and time-consuming. Instead, Bash standardizes a few specific locations
for executables and only checks there. For example, Bash knows to check the /bin
and /sbin directories.
Bash doesn’t check custom directories or user home directories (even the /root
directory). However, it’s common for administrators to write and save scripts in
their home directory. To cause a script to execute from a directory that is not part
of $PATH, you must type ./ before the script name. This causes Bash to check the
current directory for the executable, which it normally would not do.

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In the scenario above, the jr admin needs to type the following:

$ ./myscript.sh

Use ./ to tell Bash to "look here” for the script.

Script Permissions
Remember, your ability to use any file, including a script, is constrained by the
permissions assigned to that script. Even though you created the script, you won’t
automatically have permission to run it. You need to make sure two permissions
are set for each user who needs to run the script: the execute (x) bit on the script
itself and the (w) and execute (x) bits on the directory containing the script.
You can set these permissions using chmod just as you would with any other file.

File Extensions
For the most part, file extensions in Linux are optional. Linux checks a file’s
metadata to determine what type of file it is. This goes for Bash scripts as well—you
don’t need to name your scripts with an extension. However, many developers have
adopted the convention of adding .sh as an extension to their shell scripts, such as
myscript.sh. While this does not imbue the script with any special meaning, it can
make it easier for a person to identify that a file is indeed a script. Including a file
extension can also help search operations in which you only want to look for or
within shell scripts.

Script Syntax
Not only is Bash the default shell in Linux, but it is also a powerful scripting
language. Creating Bash scripts is incredibly useful in increasing the efficiency
and productivity of your Linux administration tasks. Bash scripts can make Linux
system calls and leverage existing tools in the user space. Essentially any program,
tool, utility, or system function that you can call at the command-line, you can
also invoke in a Bash script. Likewise, Bash scripts support modern programming
elements like loops and conditional statements to enhance the logic of the task(s)
being automated.
Just as commands at the CLI have a syntax, so too do scripting languages. A
language’s syntax defines the rules for how you write the code. Each language has
its own syntax, but many share a few commonalities. Because of its association with
the underlying Linux operating system, the syntax of a Bash script is very similar to
what you’d input line-by-line at a CLI.

sh-bang
Bash scripts contain shell-specific instructions that may not be compatible with
other Linux shells. This will result in a Bash script running on Bash shells correctly,
while failing on other non-Bash shells in Linux. To specify that your script is written
for the Bash shell, you need to add the line #!/bin/bash at the beginning
of each script. This line will instruct the operating system to use the Bash shell
interpreter when executing a script on an incompatible Linux shell.

The #!/bin/bash string at the front of a script is known as "sh-bang.”

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Review Activity:
Script Basics
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of sh-bang, and how would you configure the value
for Bash?

2. How does Bash handle lines that begin with the # character?

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Topic 13B
Use Shell Script Elements
3

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to automate common tasks.

This topic introduces the elements of a script. The features discussed can be
combined and used in an almost unlimited manner to gather the information
Linux users need. Bash scripts use many of the same commands as users do at the
command prompt, but the ability to combine these commands and the output they
generate makes scripting incredibly powerful.

Use Built-in Shell Commands

Scripts use many of the same commands as Linux users do; however, there are
some commands that are more commonly found in scripting. For example, echo
and read work together to allow scripts to query users. Other commands, such as
exec and source, run additional executables.
The echo and read Commands
These two commands often work in tandem, allowing the script to ask users for
input and then read the input offered. Combining the commands adds a powerful
interactive capability to even the simplest Bash scripts.
The echo command has many uses. When integrated into scripts, echo displays
text to users during the script’s execution. This text might include questions the
user must answer, additional instructions, or even a progress report on the script’s
execution.
Assuming you use the echo command to ask the user a question, how does the
script receive the reply? The read command causes Bash to expect input and
process that input as part of the script.
Here is a simple example you might find in a script:
$ echo "What is your name?"
$ read username
The exec and source Commands
The exec command is used to execute another command, replacing the current
shell process with this new program’s process (no new process is created). This can
be useful when you want to prevent the user from returning to the parent process
if an error is encountered. For example, you may want to terminate a privileged
shell if a command fails.

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You can also use the exec command without another command as an argument
to redirect all output in the shell to a file. This is commonly used in scripts to
suppress stdout at the CLI and instead send it only to one or more files. For
example:
#!/bin/bash
exec > out.txt
pwd
ls -al
The current working directory and directory listing will output to out.txt and not
the CLI.
The source command is used to execute another command within the current
shell process. In this sense, it performs the opposite functionality of the exec
command. This is useful when you’d like to stay within your current shell while
executing a script. One example is sourcing a script that performs a change of
directory (cd). After the script executes, your location will be whatever the directory
was changed to, whereas executing the script normally would keep you where
you are.
Another situation where you might want to source a script is when your script
changes or defines environment variables. For example, the following script (export.
sh) exports a custom environment variable named MYVAR:
#!/bin/bash
export MYVAR=1
If you execute this script normally and issue the env command, you’ll see that
MYVAR is not listed. This is because the script spawned a new shell process, and
once it terminated, its changes to the shell environment were destroyed. However,
if you enter the command source export.sh, then the environment variable
will be maintained because the script executes in your current shell.

Identify Script Components

Scripts contain a great deal of functionality and take advantage of many
programming techniques. For example, scripts encourage reusing existing code
rather than writing the same code repeatedly. There are many ways of calling
values and using code blocks, including arrays and functions.
In addition, you may need to explicitly state values that normally have a meaning
in Bash. For example, sometimes you may actually mean the asterisk character (*)
rather than the wildcard expression *. String literals and escape characters make
this possible.

String Literals
A string literal is any fixed value that represents a string of text within the source code.
String literals are enclosed in single (') or double (") quotation marks. As long as
you are using them consistently, either type of mark is acceptable for basic string
output. However, there are circumstances where double quotes won’t preserve the
literal value of all characters within the quotes.
For example, say you’ve defined the my_str variable mentioned previously. You then
want to substitute this variable into a larger string literal:
echo "My variable is $my_str"
echo 'My variable is $my_str'

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The first line, because it is using double quotes, will print “My variable is Hello,
World!” The second line, because it uses single quotes, will literally print “My
variable is $my_str”. Therefore, you must be careful to use the correct type of
quotation mark depending on your intent.
It’s not always necessary to use a string literal. If you don’t wrap the previous echo
example in any quotation marks, then it will by default produce the same output
as if you had wrapped it in double quotes. However, it’s still good practice to wrap
strings of text in quotes just to be sure. When you assign values with spaces in them
to variables, you are required to use quotes.

Escape Characters
In any language, Bash included, certain characters have special meaning. An escape
character is used to remove that special meaning so the character can be used
literally rather than interpreted as something else by the system. This is similar to
using a string literal, but in the case of an escape character, you’re only removing
the special meaning from one character at a time.
In Bash, the escape character is a single backslash (\). For example, let’s say you
want to print a string to the command-line that contains a dollar sign. The dollar
sign has a special meaning—it is used in variable substitution. You can handle this
by using single quotation marks:
echo 'This $var is escaped'
Alternatively, if you wanted to use double quotes or no quotes at all, you could
enter either of the following:
echo "This \$var is escaped"
echo This \$var is escaped
Notice how the backslash escape character precedes the dollar sign, which is the
character you want to be interpreted literally.

Arrays
An array is a collection of values. In other words, an array enables you to store
multiple values in a single variable. This can make your code much easier to read
and maintain. For example, you might want to perform a single mathematical
operation on dozens of different values. Instead of creating a variable for each
value, you can create an array to simplify your code. Another benefit of arrays is
that you can easily update their values throughout the code.
Arrays are ordered based on their indices. Most languages start an array with
an index of 0. When you assign values to an array, you can usually perform a
compound assignment to assign all values at once. The order you place each value
in the compound assignment will determine its index—i.e., the first value will be
at index 0, the second at index 1, and so on. Languages like Bash can also use
individual assignments to assign specific values to each index.
Compound assignment in Bash arrays uses parentheses with each value separated
by a space:
my_arr=(1 "Hello" 3.1)

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Individual assignment adds a value to a specific index in brackets:

my_arr[0]=1
my_arr[1]="Hello"
my_arr[2]=3.1
You can reference an array by wrapping it in curly braces. You can reference a
specific index of the array as follows:
echo ${my_arr[0]}
This will print “1”. You can also reference all of the values in an array by using the
asterisk (*) or at symbol (@) in place of the index:
echo ${my_arr[*]}
Functions
A function is a block of code that you can reuse to perform a specific task. Calling a
function is efficient because it means you do not need to repeatedly write the same
or similar code. You can define your own functions that you can call in other parts
of the script, or even call from other scripts.
Like variables, you define a function with a unique identifier. You use this identifier
to reference the reusable code within the function.
In Bash, there are two ways of writing functions. Both involve placing the desired
code in between curly braces. The first method is:
function my_func {
code...
}
If you’re familiar with object-oriented programming languages like C, you might be
more comfortable with the second method:
my_func() {
code...
}
However, note that the open and closed parentheses are just there for visual
clarity. In Bash, you don’t pass in arguments to a function like you would with other
programming languages. Instead, you pass in arguments similar to how you would
at the command-line.

Understand Exit Codes

An exit code, or exit status, is a value that a child process passes back to its parent
process when the child process terminates. In the Linux world, a status code of
0 indicates that the process was executed successfully. The exit code 1 or any
number higher indicates that the process encountered errors while executing. The
precise codes and their meanings vary by command. Use the command’s man page
to see its exit values.

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Display the exit code for the most recent command by using the following
command:
# echo $?

Attempting to add a new user resulting in the error message "Permission denied.” The CLI output,
when queried with echo $?, shows the error code 1. All failures will result in an exit code that
is a nonzero number.

Many Bash scripts call upon other scripts or enable the user to leverage system
commands with the script. Exit codes are useful because they can help these
external entities detect whether initial script execution was successful and then
potentially change their behavior based on this exit code.
By default, a Bash script will generate an exit code of the last command that was
run. You can also specify exit code behavior yourself. The exit code of the last run
command is represented by the $? special variable. You can, for example, redirect
the exit code to standard output (stdout) and/or standard error (stderr). For
example:
#!/bin/bash
chmod 888 file
echo $? >&2
The script contains an error (there is no permission 888 value). These instructions
will redirect the exit code 1 to stderr. Likewise, you can use input redirection to take
an exit code from standard input (stdin) into a Bash script.

Exit codes are discussed again in greater detail in Topic 13C.

The exit Command

You can use the exit command in a script to force the shell to terminate with
whatever exit code you provide. For example, exit 1 will cause the script to
terminate with a failure status. If you don’t provide a number, exit will terminate
with the exit code of the last command that was run.
Add the exit command to if/then in scripts to cause the script to react to success
or failure.

Common Script Utilities

Scripts use many of the same basic Linux commands as do users. Scripts can search
for files, display file content, sort information, extract data, and perform basically
any other file manipulation function you might do at the command prompt.

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Regular Expressions
Regular expressions (or “regex” for short) are designated characters that make
pattern-matching and searching easier by representing different types of data.
Tools such as grep, sed, tr, and others use regular expressions as part of their
pattern-matching function.

Regular Expression Function

. Replace any character.
^ Match the start of a string of characters.
$ Match the end of a string of characters.
? Match any one character.

Here are a few simple examples of using regex. Regex is capable of providing very
complex pattern-matching to find exactly the information requested.
To search for strings that begin with the character d, type:
$ cat textfile | grep ^d
To search for strings that end with the character z, type:
$ cat textfile | grep z$
The xargs Command
The xargs command reads from standard input and executes a command for
each argument provided. Each argument must be separated by blanks. The pipe
operator is used to make the output of the first command the input for the second
command. The xargs command is commonly used with the find command to
operate on each result that is found within the file or directory search.

Changing the permissions for all files that match a given pattern.

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The general syntax of the xargs command is command

[options]
[arguments] | xargs [options] {command}
Let’s say you want to delete all of the files in the /foo directory that have a .pdf
extension. You can use xargs to automate the process:
# find /foo -type f -name ".pdf" | xargs rm
The find command searches for all files in /foo that have a .pdf extension, then
pipes the result to the xargs command. Because the results are delimited by
a space, the xargs command will execute the rm command for each file in the
results— removing all PDF files in the directory.
The xargs command includes the options listed in this table.

Option for the xargs Command Purpose

-I {replacement string} Consider each line in the standard input
as a single argument.
-L {number of lines}    Read a specified number of lines from
the standard input, and concatenate
them into one long string.
-p     Prompt the user before each command.

-n {number of arguments} Read the maximum number of arguments

from the standard input, and insert them
at the end of the command template.
-E {end of string}   Represent the end of the standard input.

-t Write each command to the standard

error output before executing the
command.
-s {max size} Set the maximum allowable size of an
argument list to a specified number of
characters.

The tee Command

The tee command reads the standard input, sends the output to the default
output device (the CLI), and copies the output to each specified file. This command
enables you to verify the output of a command immediately as well as store that
output in a file for later reference. Like xargs, tee typically accepts input from
another command using the pipe operator.
When used with the -a option, tee appends the output to each output file instead
of overwriting it.
The general syntax of the tee command is command [options]
[arguments] | tee [options] {file-names}
Let’s say you want to check the contents of a directory and output those contents
to a file to process later. You could issue separate commands to do this, or you can
use the tee command:
$ ls -l | tee listing.txt
The output appears on the screen but is also written to the file.

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File Manipulation Commands in Scripting

Commands such as sed, awk, find, grep, wc, and cut have already been
introduced as tools to manage files. Here, the spotlight is on their use in automated
scripts.
The sed command modifies text files in several ways, one of which is with its
search-replace capability.
For example, to search for and replace a value in the usernames.txt file, use the
s (substitute) command and the g (global replace) action. To replace the string
’identity’ with the string ’username’ in a file named users.txt, type:
$ sed 'a/identity/username/g' users.txt
The syntax of the sed command is sed {'options/address/action'}
{file-names}
The awk command is a powerful pattern-matching utility. The command searches
for the specified information and can take action when the string is found.
The syntax of the awk command is awk [options] ['patterns
{actions}'] | {file-names}
It may be difficult for users to find files they’ve created, or you may need to search
for files based on criteria other than filename. For example, in a security audit, you
might want to search for files that don’t match a particular permissions assignment.
The syntax for the find command is find {where to search} {search
criteria}
As an example, to search the /etc directory for any files with the 777 (rwx for all
users) permission, type:
# find /etc -perm 777
Some of the search criteria for the find command include -name, -type f, -type d,
and -perm.
The grep utility is a pattern matcher. It can be used on its own, but it’s very
common to find it used in conjunction with other commands. Sysadmins will run a
command and then use the | character to direct the output into grep to search
for specific information. Administrators might use the cat command to display the
contents of the /etc/groups file and then use grep to search the results for a
group named sales:
# cat /etc/groups | grep -i sales
The -i option causes grep to ignore case.
The egrep utility is deprecated. It offers the same functionality as grep -E,
which is to allow extended regex values to be used. Rely on the grep -E
command instead.
What if you need to count words (or other values) in a file? The wc command
provides this functionality. It can also count lines, characters, or bytes.
# wc /etc/passwd displays the total number of words in the /etc/
passwd file.

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# wc -l /etc/passwd displays the number of lines in the file.

Counting the number of lines in the /etc/passwd file.

The cut command extracts the specified lines of text from a file. Cut is another
example of a command you might find in a file manipulation script.

Standard Stream Redirection

Redirection permits data to flow into or out of the computer by a means other
than the default. The system expects information to enter via the keyboard, and
it typically returns information via the monitor. However, these abilities can be
changed, allowing data to be pulled in from sources such as text files or for data to
be written out to text files.

Standard Redirectors
The standard way of inputting data to the computer is the keyboard, and the
standard way for the computer to output data back to you is the monitor. These
mechanisms are called stdin and stdout. In addition, error messages are also
output to the monitor by default.
It’s possible, however, to change these standard methods by redirecting the
output of commands elsewhere. You can also change where the system gets its
information. For example, the system can use a text file as a source of input instead
of the keyboard. Changing these mechanisms is called redirection.

Redirection
Operator Action Example Result
> Redirect the ls > file1.txt The output of the
standard output ls command is
to a file. redirected to a file
named file1.txt
>> Append the ls >> file1.txt The output of the
standard output ls command is
to the end of the appended to a file
destination file. named file1.txt
2> Redirect the ls file3.txt 2> The output will not
standard error errorfile.txt be displayed on
message to a file. the screen but is
redirected to a file
named errorfile.txt
2>> Append the ls file3.txt 2>> The output will not
standard error errorfile.txt be displayed on
message to the end the screen but is
of the destination appended to a file
file. named errorfile.txt

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Redirection
Operator Action Example Result
&> Redirect both the ls file1.txt file3.txt The output will not
standard output &> errorfile.txt be displayed on
and the standard the screen but is
error message to redirected to a file
a file. named errorfile.txt
< Read the input mail user@address The myletter.txt
from a file rather < myletter.txt file is taken as the
than from the input and attached
keyboard or to the email
mouse. message.
<<{string} Provide input data cat <<EOF The cat command
from the current This is a here will use the rest of
source, stopping document. the lines in this file
when a line EOF as input. It will stop
containing the accepting that input
provided string when it reaches
occurs. When the string EOF.
placed in a script, This string can be
this is called a here named anything
document. you want. The
output of the cat
command would
therefore be: This is
a here document.

This table is provided for reference and was covered previously in Lesson 4.

Use Redirection with Here Documents

One common automation technique is to use a script to connect to a remote
computer and then run multiple commands. The technique is called a “here
document” and is accomplished via a special redirector:
<< {string}
For example, a script connects to a remote system by using SSH. Once connected,
several commands must be run. This portion of the script might look like the
following:
COMMAND << remote-cmds
tar -cf tarball *.txt
date > datefile.txt
ip addr > IP.txt
remote-cmds
Observe that the string “remote-cmds” bookends the rest of the content. This string
represents the start and end of the redirection. The string can be anything you wish,
but it must be the same in both positions.

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Review Activity:
Script Elements
4

Answer the following questions:

1. How might you combine the echo and read commands in a script to
guide users through a process?

2. You’ve created a script that includes the string dev=web server. The
script throws an error indicating too many arguments for the dev
variable. How could you set the dev variable to see the words web and
server as a single value?

3. You need to use the sed command to find a value ’server’ and replace it
with the value ’system’ in a file named inventory.txt. What is the syntax
to accomplish this?

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Topic 13C
Implement Scripts with
Logical Controls
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to automate common tasks.

Scripts have an incredible amount of potential. Values may be declared as variables

and then used throughout a script. Scripts may loop through processes multiple
times until conditions are met or a specified number of executions are run. Scripts
may even perform arithmetic functions and make comparisons between values.
From simple to complex, scripts enable an immense amount of automation.

Understand Variables
Variables refer to entities whose values change from time to time. Most variables
are set either by the operating system when you log in or by the shell when it
is initially invoked. Variables are the key components that comprise the shell
environment. When you want to change the details of an environment, you change
its variables and their values.
Variable assignment is the act of defining a variable as having a certain value. In
code, you assign values to variable names. The values in a variable may change
throughout the script’s execution, but this is not required. The purpose of variables
is to store values for later use and to enable you to reference these values without
explicitly writing them out in the code.
In Linux, variables can be categorized as shell variables or environment variables. Shell
variables, by default, do not have their values passed on to any child processes that
spawn after them. Environment variables, on the other hand, do get passed on.

Set Variables
To set a shell variable, simply enter VAR=value such as MYVAR=123
In order to reference a variable, you must type it in this format:
${VARIABLE NAME}
Bash variables are assigned as follows:
my_str='Hello, World!'

Note the lack of white space around the equal sign (=) in these commands—this is a
strict rule in Bash.

Retrieve Variables
To retrieve the value of a variable, you can enter echo ${VARIABLE NAME} at
the CLI. For example, echo $SHELL will print your default shell (e.g., /bin/bash).

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The act of referencing or retrieving the value of a variable is called substitution or

parameter expansion. After you assign a value to a variable, you reference that variable
later in the code so that you don’t need to hard-code values into the script’s logic.

Environment Variables
An environment variable is a variable that is inherited from parent shell processes and
is subsequently passed on to any child processes. An environment variable consists of a
name, usually written in uppercase letters, and a value, such as a path name.
Within the environment, variables are referenced as key–value pairs in the format
KEY=value and KEY=value1:value2 for variables with multiple values.
Some of the default environment variables and their functions are provided in the
following table.

Environment Variable Specifies

HOSTNAME={hostname} The hostname of the system.

SHELL={shell path} The shell path for the system.

MAIL={mail path} The path where mail is stored.

HOME={home directory} The home directory of the user.

PATH={user path} The search path.

HISTSIZE={number} The number of entries stored in the

command history.
USER={user name} The name of the user.

Environment variables can also be used to configure localization options, typically by

editing the /etc/locale.conf file and assigning the appropriate locale to the
variable. Some of these localization variables are described in the following table.

Localization Environment Variable Specifies

LC_*={locale} A collection of localization environment
variables, including (but not limited to):
• LC_ADDRESS to set the postal
address format.

• LC_MONETARY to set the format of

monetary values.

• LC_MEASUREMENT to set the

measurement system (e.g., metric
vs. imperial).
LANG={locale] The locale to use for all LC_* variables
that aren’t explicitly defined.
LC_ALL={locale} The locale to use for all options, overriding
any LANG and LC_* values. Typically
used for troubleshooting purposes.
TZ={time zone} The system time zone. This is an alternative
to using commands such as date or
timedatectl to set the time zone.

Linux localization features were covered in an earlier section

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Modify Variables
The export Command
You can effectively change a shell variable into an environment variable by using
the export command. For example, if you have a shell variable SHL_VAR, you can
enter export SHL_VAR to make it an environment variable.
You can also change the value of a variable while exporting it, including existing
environment variables. You can do this by entering something similar to export
SHL_VAR="New value" at the CLI. This will set the value for all child
processes spawned from this shell.

Changing the value of a shell variable.

To set the value of an environment variable for all future Bash sessions, you can add
an export statement to your .bash_profile file. To automate this process for new
users, and to ensure those with similar job roles have the same environment variable
settings, you can modify the .bash_profile file in the /etc/skel/ directory. To
set the value of an environment variable system-wide, add an export statement to
the appropriate file in the /etc/profile.d/ directory.
The syntax of the export command is export [options]
[NAME[=value]]
Use the env Command
The env command is used to run a command with modified environment variables.
By supplying the name of a variable and a value in the key–value pair format, as well
as supplying a command to run, you can change the value of the specified variable for
that particular command session. If the variable does not exist, it will be added to the
environment. Likewise, you can use the -u option to remove the specified variable
from the environment in which the specified command runs. Consider using env if you
want to override values in child processes or add new ones.

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Issuing the command without any arguments will display all variables in the
environment as well as their corresponding values.
The syntax of the env command is env [options] [NAME=value]
[command]

Listing environment variables and their values.

Print the Variables

You can use the set command without any arguments to print all shell variables,
environment variables, and shell functions. This command can also enable the use
of options in a shell script to change its behavior.
The following is a summary of the difference between these three commands:
export changes the value of a variable for all child processes, env displays
environment variables or changes the value of a variable for a specified command,
and set displays shell variables or changes the value of shell attributes.

Use Search Paths

A search path is a sequence of various directory paths that is used by the shell to
locate files. Paths can be assigned to the PATH environment variable. The PATH
variable comprises a list of directory names separated by colons. You can add a
new path to an existing group of path names, modify a path, or delete a path.
Usually, directories that contain executable files are assigned to the PATH variable.
This enables you to enter the name of an executable at the CLI without needing
to specify its full directory path. This is because the PATH variable searches its
directories for the name of the executable.

Use HISTFILESIZE
HISTFILESIZE is an example of a shell variable that enables you to set the
maximum number of lines contained in the command history file. It also enables
you to specify the number of lines to be displayed on running the history
command. For example, by assigning a value of 20 to this variable, the history
file gets truncated to contain just 20 lines. The default value of this variable
is 1,000.

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The alias Command

The alias command is used to customize the shell environment by generating
command-line aliases. Aliases are shorthand for longer expressions. Using aliases,
you can create a short string that represents a longer command with various
options and arguments. For example, you can create an alias called myls that
executes the ls - al command.
The Bash shell maintains a list of aliases that you can view by using the alias
command by itself. You can also remove aliases using the unalias command.
By default, aliases are only maintained for the current shell and for the user who
created them. To have them persist, add the appropriate alias command to .bashrc
or .bash_aliases, which is called by .bashrc.
The syntax of the alias command is alias [alias name[='command
with options']]

Creating an alias for a command expression.

Troubleshoot Shell and Environment Variables

You may encounter some issues when using or customizing the Bash shell
environment. The following are some troubleshooting tips.
When adding an alias, check the syntax. For example: ls='ls -la'
If, when executing scripts or other programs, they are not stored in the normal
locations for executable files, then add their locations to the PATH variable or
execute them with a ./ preceding the command.
Use the export command to set a variable for all shell child processes.
Configure environment variables in the ~/.bash_profile file to make the variable
available to all shells. For example, if a service account requires certain environment
variables, you can set them in the ~/.bash_profile for that account.
Edit the ~/.bash_profile file to change default variables.

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Ensure values are set for any environment variables that a software package has
a dependency on. For example, if a Java application relies on the Java runtime
environment, it may only be able to find and access that runtime environment if it is
referenced in the PATH variable.

Conditionals
Some scripts can remain simple, but the true power of scripting comes from being
able to control the flow of logic as it executes. In this topic, you’ll augment your
scripting skills through the use of conditional statements and loops.
A script’s logic determines how it will process written code during execution. In
Bash, as in most languages, there are various ways to design the logic of the code to
essentially accomplish the same results in execution. Logic is therefore important in
maximizing the efficiency and readability of code.
One of the most important components for implementing programming logic is a
control statement. A control statement begins a section of code that will define
the order in which instructions are executed. By controlling the flow of these
instructions, you can write scripts to follow one or more paths based on certain
circumstances.
A conditional statement is a control statement that tells the program it must make
a decision based on various factors. If the program evaluates these factors as true,
it continues to execute the code in the conditional statement. If false, the program
does not execute this code.

Operation of a conditional statement, executing the code only if the condition is true.

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Conditional statements are fundamental to most programs and scripts because

they help control the flow of executed code. For example, if a user enters some
input, you might want to process that input differently based on a number of
factors. The user might supply one argument and not another. Rather than
executing the script as if all possible arguments were intended, you’d only execute
the script with the argument the user supplied.

Use the if Conditional

In most languages, including Bash, the primary conditional statement is the if
statement. An if statement contains a condition to be evaluated and one or more
actions to be performed if the condition is satisfied. If the condition is not satisfied,
the actions are skipped and the next statement in the script is executed. In Bash,
the end of the set of instructions is indicated by the fi statement.
The following is an example of a simple if statement:
var=5
if [ $var -gt 1 ]
then
echo "$var is greater than 1!"
fi
The if statement includes, between two square brackets, a condition to be
evaluated. In this case, it’s whether the $var variable is greater than 1. On the next
line is the then statement, within which is the code that will be executed if the
prior condition is true. Lastly, the fi statement indicates the end of the entire if
statement. Because 5 is greater than 1, the message will echo to the screen. If it
were not true, then nothing would happen.
The basic syntax of an if statement follows:
if [ <condition to be evaluated> ]
then
<code to execute if condition is true>
fi
Use the if...else Conditional
The if...else statement enables a choice between two actions based on the
evaluation of a condition. If the condition is satisfied, the first action is performed;
otherwise, the action following the else segment is performed. If there are more
than two sets of instructions, one or more elif statements may be used to specify
alternative sequences of action.
The following is an example of a simple if...else statement:
var=1
if [ $var -gt 1 ]
then
echo "$var is greater than 1!"
else
echo "$var is less than or equal to 1!"
fi

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The value of $var has changed since the previous example, which means that the
first echo command won’t execute. Rather than nothing happening, the else
statement specifies what will happen if the condition is false: in this case, it is to
print a different message to the screen.
The basic syntax of an if...else statement follows:
if [ <condition to be evaluated> ]
then
<code to execute if condition is true>
else
<code to execute if condition is false>
fi
The basic syntax of an if...elif statement follows:
if [ <condition to be evaluated> ]
then
<code to execute if condition is true>
elif [ <other condition to be evaluated> ]
then
<code to execute if other condition is true>
fi
Use Exit Codes with Conditional Statements
Conditional statements like if...else are good at handling process exit codes.
For example:
chmod 888 file 2> /dev/null
if [ $? -eq 0 ]
then
echo "Permissions set successfully."
exit 0 else
echo "Could not set permissions."
exit 1 fi
If the chmod command exits with a code of 0, then the success message is echoed
to the screen, and any other process that executes this script will receive that exit
code because of the exit command. Likewise, if the exit code is 1, then a custom
error message is echoed to the screen. The default error message is suppressed
because it is being redirected to the null device.

The case Statement

There might be times when you want to evaluate numerous conditions, such as
when a variable that can hold many different values, and each value requires its
own action. You could define multiple elif branches in an overall if statement,
but this can make your code difficult for a human to parse. The case statement
helps you avoid this issue.

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The following is an example of a simple case statement:

var=blue
       case $var in
     red)
   echo "Your color is red."
;; green)
   echo "Your color is green."
;; blue)
   echo "Your color is blue."
;; *)
   
echo "Your color is neither red,
green, nor blue."
;; esac

The first line in the case statement defines what variable it is that you’re
evaluating. Below that is the first condition, red, which has a closing parenthesis
to indicate the end of the condition. On the next line is the action that will be
performed if the color is indeed red—a message will display on the screen saying as
much. The double semicolons (;;) indicate the end of the action.
This pattern is repeated and can go on for as many conditions as you’d like. In this
case, the last condition uses a wildcard (*) to indicate that if the variable doesn’t
match any of the conditions above, then the following action will execute. The
esac statement ends the case statement.
The basic syntax of a case statement is as follows:
case <variable> in
<first condition>)
<code to execute if first condition is true>
;;
<second condition>)
<code to execute if second condition is true>
;; esac

The Bash case statement varies from the C or JavaScript language switch
conditional. While case stops searching for matches once a match is found,
switch continues checking. This is a good example of slightly different
functionality between languages. However, the terminology is sometimes used
interchangeably.

The test Command

The test command is used to check conditional logic and perform comparisons.
You can use the test command in your shell scripts to validate the status of
files and perform relevant tasks. It evaluates a conditional expression or logical
operation and displays an exit status. The exit status is 0 if the expression is true
and 1 if the expression is false.

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These codes are different from the exit codes generated upon process termination.

For example:
var=/etc
if test -d $var;
then
echo "The $var directory exists!"
fi
This example uses the -d option to test whether a directory exists. There are
many such conditional options you can use. Consult the man page for the test
command to see them all.

Loops
Aside from conditional statements, another useful way to control the flow of logic
in a script’s code is by implementing loops. A loop is any control statement that
executes code repeatedly based on a certain condition. In general, loops are a
great way to keep a certain block of code active until it is no longer needed. There
are three types of loops supported by Bash: the while loop, the until loop,
and the for loop. All three types of loops are enclosed within the do and done
statements.

This loop will repeat a series of commands or instructions as long as the conditions on which it
depends are true.

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The while Loop

The while loop enables you to repeat a set of instructions while a specific
condition is met. The expression is evaluated, and if the expression is true, the
actions in the loop are performed. The execution returns to the beginning of the
loop, and the expression is evaluated again. If the expression becomes false at any
point, the execution breaks out of the loop and continues to the next block of code
in the script.
The following is an example of a simple while loop:
var=1
while [ $var -le 5 ]
do
echo "The current number is $var."
((var++))
done
In this case, the condition being tested is whether the variable $var is less than or
equal to 5. As long as the expression is true, then the code under “do” will execute.
Below the echo command is an iterator, which simply adds 1 to the variable. This
is common in any kind of loop. Without it, $var will always equal 1 and will therefore
never break out of the loop.
The basic syntax of a while loop follows:
while [ <condition to be evaluated> ]
do
<code to execute while condition is true>
done
The until Loop
The until loop is similar to the while loop except that the code is executed
when the control expression is false. For example:
var=1
until [ $var -ge 5 ]
do
echo "The current number is $var."
((var++))
done
The condition in this loop is whether $var is greater than or equal to 5. So, the code
will execute until $var becomes 5, at which point it will break out of the loop.
The basic syntax of an until loop is as follows:
while [ <condition to be evaluated> ]
do
<code to execute while condition is false>
done

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The for Loop

The for loop executes a block of code as many times as specified by a numerical
variable that is within the conditional part of the statement. Unlike a while or
until loop, a for loop does not depend upon a condition being evaluated
as false or true for it to stop or never begin in the first place. So, for loops are
meant to always execute code a given number of times. This makes them ideal for
processing iterable objects like arrays.
The following is an example of a simple for loop:
var=("Kai" "Ali" "Joseph")
for i in ${var[*]}
do
echo "$i is a member of the team."
done
The for statement evaluates every value in the $var array. In this case, each value
is represented by the iterator i, though you can call this whatever you want. It’s
common to name it something similar to the variable you’re looping through or to
simply call it i for iterator.
Then, the loop itself will execute three times—once for each value in the array. So,
each person’s name will be echoed to the screen.
The basic syntax of a for loop follows:
for i in <variable to loop through>
do
<code to execute a specific number of times>
done
Looping Through Ranges with for
The for loop is also used to step through a range of numbers. These ranges are
enclosed in curly braces, with the range itself indicated by two periods (..). For
example:
for i in {1..5}
do
echo "The current number is $i."
done
So, this loop will iterate exactly five times.

Shell Parameter Expansion

When creating more complex scripts, it may be useful to substitute or bring in data.
This data may be the output of commands within the script or variables called when
the script is executed. One of the strengths of Bash scripting is its ability to bring
information into the script and process it.

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Shell Expansion
When a command is issued at the Bash shell, it is split into tokens or words. Shell
expansion is the process by which the shell identifies special tokens for which
it substitutes values. Variable substitution is a type of shell expansion by which
the shell identifies the $ special character and then expands a variable into its
actual value. In other words, in echo $var, the echo command doesn’t “see” a
variable; it sees whatever the value of that variable is when Bash expands it.
There are actually several more types of expansions—eight in total. Bash performs
these expansions in a defined order, similar to an order of operations in a
mathematical expression.
1. Brace expansion

2. Tilde expansion

3. Concurrently:

a) Parameter expansion/variable substitution

b) Arithmetic expansion

c) Command substitution

d) Process substitution

4. Word splitting

5. File/path name expansion

For the four expansions that happen at the same time, the expansion is done in
left-to-right order as each appears.

Variable Substitution with Braces

As you’ve seen, the format $var is an expansion that will substitute a variable with
its value. However, let’s say you have the following code:
word=computer
echo "The plural of $word is $words."
This will print: “The plural of computer is.” This is because Bash expects a variable
that is exactly named $words even though you just intended to add a letter to the
actual value. You can get around this by enclosing the variable in braces:
word=computer
echo "The plural of $word is ${word}s."
This syntax will print: “The plural of computer is computers.”

Command Substitution
Command substitution is a method of shell expansion in which the output of a
command replaces the command itself. This is useful when you want to include a
command’s output within an existing string of text. For example:
$ echo "The current directory is ’pwd’."
Notice that the command pwd is enclosed within backticks (’). Depending on what
the current directory actually is, the output might be something like: The current
directory is /root.
You can also use the format $(command) to perform command substitution:
$ echo "The current directory is $(pwd)."
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The second format is preferred in Bash because using backticks requires escaping
certain characters (including nested backticks).

Globbing
Globbing is another name for file/path name expansion. This method of shell
expansion is used to replace a specific wildcard pattern with values that match the
pattern. There are three special characters used in globbing: the asterisk (*), which
is used to match any number of characters; the question mark (?), which is used to
match a single character; and characters within square brackets ([ ]), which are
used to match any of the characters listed.
The following are three examples of globbing.
$ cp *.txt ~/dest
This example with an asterisk (*) copies any and all files with a .txt extension.
This is because the wildcard character appears before the period, indicating
that Bash should expand any possible combination of characters.

$ cp ?.txt ~/dest
Using a question mark (?) in the syntax will only copy .txt files with a single
character as a name, like a.txt and b.txt, but not ab.txt.

$ cp [abc].txt ~/dest
The brackets ([ ]) example will only copy files named a.txt, b.txt, or c.txt.

Positional Parameters
A positional parameter is a variable within a shell script that is assigned to an argument
when the script is invoked. For example, you can invoke the script myscript.sh:
$ ./myscript.sh arg1 arg2 arg3
The arg1 argument corresponds to the positional parameter $1, arg2
corresponds to $2, arg3 corresponds to $3, and so on. Note that the space
between arguments is used to separate positional parameters.
You can reference positional parameters directly in your scripts as you would for
any other variable:
#!/bin/bash
echo "The first argument is $1"
echo "The second argument is $2"
echo "The third argument is $3"
This is useful because your script can perform various operations on any arguments
that are passed to it, as most scripts and commands do.
You can also set positional parameters directly in your scripts by using the set
command. For example:
#!/bin/bash
set -- arg1 arg2 arg3
echo "The first argument is $1"
echo "The second argument is $2"
echo "The third argument is $3"

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When this script is invoked without any arguments provided by the user, it will still
have positional parameters $1, $2, and $3 because they were set manually.

Operators
Operations enable you to perform tasks on the variables and values that you
specify in your code. In most cases, this task is the evaluation of an expression.
Operators are objects that evaluate expressions in a variety of ways, while operands
are the values being operated on.
There are many different kinds of operators that apply to most languages.
Arithmetic operators include addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and
more advanced mathematical operations. Comparison operators include checking
whether operands are equal, whether one operand is less than or greater than
another operand, and more. Boolean (logical) operators connect multiple values
together so they can be evaluated, and they include AND, OR, and NOT. Finally,
string operators are used in operations that manipulate strings in various ways,
including concatenating strings, returning a specific character in a string (slicing),
verifying whether a specific character exists in a string, and more.

Some Arithmetic Operators Description

+ Addition

- Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division

Some Boolean Operators Description

&& Logical AND (this and that)

| | Logical OR (this or that)

! Logical negation (not this)

Some Comparison and String

Operators Description
-eq Equal to

-ne Not equal to

-gt Greater than

-ge Greater than or equal to

-lt Less than

-le Less than or equal to

Many programming languages find common ground when it comes to representing

operators in code. For example, in many languages the == comparison operator
evaluates whether the operands have equal values. Therefore, the expression
1 == 2 outputs to false. Note that this particular operator is distinct from a
single equal sign (=), which is used in assigning values to variables. However,
some languages do not use the traditional symbols for comparison operators.
Instead, they use a letter-based syntax. For example, consider that the >= operator
evaluates whether the left operand is greater than or equal to the right operand. In
letter-based syntax, the operator is -ge. So, 1 -ge 2 outputs to false.

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Bash Operations Examples

The following is an example of an arithmetic operation in Bash. Note that
expressions are evaluated when wrapped in double parentheses:
$((var1 + var2))
An example of a comparison operation in Bash follows. Note the use of square
brackets and a letter-based operator:
[ $var1 -ge $var2 ]
An example of a logical operation (AND) in Bash:
[ $var1 -ge $var2 ] && [ $var3 -le $var4 ]
An example of a string operation (concatenation) in Bash:
$var1$var2

Schedule a Script
One of the biggest benefits of scripting is the ability to schedule tasks. By creating
a script and then telling the system to execute the script (and everything in it),
administrators can automate anything from backups to software updates to system
configurations.
Both the cron utility and systemd .timer files give administrators many options for
scheduling tasks.
Edit the crontab file with the following information to schedule the backup.sh script
to run at 2 a.m. daily:
0 2 * * * /scripts/backup.sh

Scheduling tasks was covered in an earlier section of the course.

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Review Activity:
Logical Controls
5

Answer the following questions:

1. You are exploring your local (shell) variables on each system that you
manage. The first variable you check is the SHELL variable. How can you
check the SHELL variable, and what do you expect it to display?

2. Differentiate between for and while loops.

3. What is the purpose of file globbing in scripts?

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Lesson 13
Summary
4

You are encouraged to use the many scripts that are available on the Internet.
Apply the content of this lesson to those scripts to understand how the script
functions before running it. You can also create your own scripts. Start simple,
and then add complexity and features as you master each technique.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

awk awk [options] Search for specified Lesson 13,
['patterns information, and take Topic B
{actions}'] | action when that
{file-names} information is found.

sed sed {'options/ Modify text files, Lesson 13,

address/action'} especially by searching Topic B
{file-names} and replacing.

find find {where to Search for files based Lesson 13,

search} {search on criteria other than Topic B
criteria} filename.

tee command [options] Verify the output of a Lesson 13,

[arguments] | tee command immediately, Topic B
[options] and store that output in
{file-names} a file for later reference.

xargs command [options] Commonly used with the Lesson 13,

[arguments] | find  command to Topic B
xargs [options] operate on each result
{command} that is found within the
file or directory search.
export export [options] Set the value of an Lesson 13,
[NAME[=value]] environment variable for Topic C
all future Bash sessions.
env env [options] Run a command with Lesson 13,
[NAME=value] modified environment Topic C
[command] variables.

alias alias [alias Customize the shell Lesson 13,

name[='command environment by Topic C
with options']] generating
command-line aliases.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 14
Using Infrastructure as Code
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
DevOps informs the use of Infrastructure as Code, a sysadmin approach to
managing system deployments and configuration. By treating configuration files
as code and enforcing version control and change tracking on them, organizations
seek to bring greater stability, security, and automation to their environments.
The combination of orchestration tools, such as Ansible, and file management
tools, such as Git, brings Infrastructure as Code to the forefront of administrator
responsibilities.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand infrastructure as code.

• Implement orchestration.

• Manage version control with Git.

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Topic 14A
Understand Infrastructure as Code
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.4 Summarize common infrastructure as code technologies.

A new way of managing coding and system administration projects is becoming

more prevalent. This new approach—DevOps—introduces a quicker software life
cycle with an emphasis on automation. Sysadmins implement this to manage Linux
servers via Infrastructure as Code (IaC). IaC allows version control and centralized
management of server provisioning and configuration. While standard Linux text-
based configuration files may still be used, other configurations formatted as JSON
or YAML files may also be used.

DevOps Concepts
DevOps is an amalgamation of software development and systems operations. It is
characterized by a shorter development life cycle, reducing the time between product
changes and the integration of those changes in the production environment.
With this shorter turnaround time, DevOps provides continuous integration and
continuous deployment (CI/CD) within a faster and more reliable workflow.
Many organizations are changing their culture to shift IT staff to a DevOps structure.
This impacts Linux sysadmins immensely. You can expect to work more closely with
developers, deploy incremental changes quickly and often, and experience greater
use of automation tools. The shared ownership between dev teams and ops teams
provides robust support, along with rapid feedback to identify and correct issues.

DevSecOps integrates security practices to the entire development life cycle instead
of treating security as a separate component. DevSecOps was discussed in an earlier
section.

Linux administrators may immediately begin working with DevOps practices while
using automation and orchestration tools, such as Ansible and Chef, or by using
version control and repository software, such as Git.

Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment and

its Use Cases
Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment (CI/CD) is a process for
managing the software-development life cycle that automates feature integration
and testing. It is a method used in DevOps to ensure quick and reliable changes to
software.
While the CI portion of the acronym is Continuous Integration, the CD portion may
be defined as Continuous Delivery or Continuous Deployment. The two steps differ
slightly—Continuous Delivery pertains to uploading complete code to a repository,
and Continuous Deployment pertains to deployment of that code from the
repository to projection. For the most part, the two terms are synonymous.

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The CI/CD loop. Software development can be viewed as always in motion with no set ending, only
moving on to the next phase of the process.

Once the appropriate DevOps tools are in place, how might an organization use
CI/CD, and what is the role of a Linux administrator? You might be involved in
the deployment of container images to a cloud service provider or the in-house
development and deployment of a Python application. Your organization might use
CI/CD to publish websites to internal webservers.
Linux administrators are traditionally part of the “operations” team denoted in the
DevOps phrase. You’re responsible for ensuring resource availability, performance,
and configuration and overseeing any tasks related to the infrastructure. However,
with the advent of DevOps, you’ll work more closely with developers on these tasks,
supporting some of the dev team’s functions while handing off control of some ops
roles to programmers.
To fulfill this role successfully, you’ll need to familiarize yourself with automation
and orchestration tools, as well as with version control.

Automation, orchestration, and version control are covered in the remaining sections of
this Lesson.

Infrastructure as Code Concepts

Infrastructure as Code (IaC) refers to the idea of centrally managing configuration
files with strict version control. IaC also automates the deployment of configuration
file changes. Because Linux relies on text-based configuration files, it is perfectly
suited to Infrastructure as Code management.
IaC replaces manual configurations with automated practices. When configuration
changes need to be implemented, such as updating the package manager
repositories on a group of servers, a single configuration file is written, verified,
and then automatically sent to each server, ensuring all targeted servers receive
the same settings. This automation, which can work with both on-premises and
cloud-based infrastructures, provides several benefits. Settings are consistent, with
less configuration drift, which is especially welcome with security configurations.
Automation allows changes to be rapidly implemented, addressing zero-day
vulnerabilities or agile service management.
IaC management tools operate in either declarative or iterative modes.
• Declarative: DevOps team defines the desired configuration, and the tool
accomplishes the settings.

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• Iterative: DevOps team defines the specific commands necessary to implement

the desired configuration.

Relate IaC and Orchestration to DevOps

It may be useful to think of DevOps as managing the software development
process, while IaC uses similar concepts to manage system configuration tasks.
Both are similar in that they rely on version control, establish testing and validation
processes, and implement changes quickly and consistently.
IaC is often used by Linux administrators to provide the infrastructure required by
DevOps deployments, making it part of the development life cycle.
While IaC configuration management can be used for nearly any Linux deployment,
several use cases stand out:
• Quickly and consistently creating test environments for new software, patching,
and learning labs.

• Deploying fresh development environments free of artifacts or leftover

configurations from previous projects.

• Rapid scaling of VMs in cloud environments.

Bootstrapping
Once the installation process is complete, the system is ready for its first boot.
In the past, administrators would begin to manually configure security settings,
install patches and software, create local user accounts, set the root password, and
complete other post-install tasks. With the DevOps emphasis on automation, these
settings and others are now typically managed by cloud-init scripts.
As the name suggests, one common use of these scripts is the deployment of cloud-
based virtual machines. These deployments are often part of a larger orchestrated
process that does not leave time for administrators to perform specific tasks on
each VM. The cloud-init scripts automate such tasks, placing each VM in a
repeatable, well-known baseline state.

File Types in IaC

Many DevOps and IaC tools rely on specific files to accomplish their goals. The two
most common file types are YAML and JSON. The two file types implement similar
solutions, though YAML is often preferred for its simplicity and flexibility. As a Linux
administrator, you will likely work with both files at some point.
JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) files are characterized by being easy for both
humans and machines to process, making them ideal for passing instructions.
JSON files use the .json file extension, and they use two structures. The first, name/
value pairs, associates a name with one or more values, while the second, value list,
outlines specific values to be used. There are many name types, including object,
record, or array. Values may be a list or sequence.
YAML (YAML Ain’t Markup Language) is another language commonly used for
configuration files. Like JSON, it is easily read by both humans and machines. YAML
files are organized by list or map. YAML is very strict on syntax, including the careful
use of white space (spaces). YAML files use the .yaml file extension.
Many automation tools can consume YAML files, including Ansible and Kubernetes.

Kubernetes manages container clusters. Ansible is a robust orchestration solution.

Ansible is discussed later in this lesson; Kubernetes is covered in the next lesson.

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Review Activity:
Infrastructure as Code
3

Answer the following questions:

1. How would an organization’s change to DevOps management impact

Linux administrators?

2. How does IaC contribute to increased system security?

3. Differentiate between declarative and iterative IaC management tools.

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Topic 14B
Implement Orchestration
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.4 Summarize common infrastructure as code technologies.

One of the tenets of DevOps is reducing human intervention. By automating

tasks, DevOps hopes to reduce errors and ensure consistency. Individual tasks are
automated, and combinations of automated tasks are orchestrated into pipelines
that quickly respond to scalability requirements. Tied to orchestration, which is
usually used for provisioning, is configuration management, which is primarily
establishing the desired settings on the system. Many tools exist to do this,
including Ansible, Chef, Puppet, and others.

Orchestration Concepts
DevOps emphasizes task completion without human intervention. Like scripting,
orchestration and automation offer benefits that include consistent configurations,
repeatable deployments, greater efficiency, fewer errors, and nonmanual scalability
based on thresholds.
Orchestration enables the deployment of Infrastructure as Code configuration files.
In the previous section, the example of a software-package-repository configuration
was given. Once the configuration file (for example, a YAML, JSON, or plaintext
file) is written, it can be integrated into an orchestration process that ensures the
settings are enforced.

Compare Automation versus Orchestration

Orchestration includes two parts: automation and orchestration itself.
Automation uses a script or other engine to accomplish a single task without
human intervention. One example of an automated task is the scheduled execution
of a backup script. Another example is the deployment of a fully configured virtual
machine (on-premises or in the cloud).
The important aspect of automation is that one task is completed.

“Human intervention” might mean that an administrator initiates the process via a
command (such as running a script) or that a particular environment threshold is met,
causing the system to kick off the automated process.

Orchestration refers to a series of automated tasks that, when combined, result in

a complete solution.

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For example, here are five common administrative tasks. Each of these is
individually automated:
1. Recognize the need for an additional database server.

2. Deploy a VM.

3. Install and replicate a MariaDB database application.

4. Enable all necessary services, and configure the firewall.

5. Make the database VM available to consumers.

However, as automated tasks, they are still initiated individually, resulting in five
distinct processes. Orchestration takes the five individual tasks and consolidates
them into a single event—the deployment of a fully-configured database server
ready for consumers.
The important aspect of orchestration is that a series of tasks are combined into a
single event that executes without human intervention.

Configuration Management
Automation and orchestration tasks are also related to configuration management,
or the process of ensuring systems are configured to match security and
performance requirements. IT departments have long attempted to maintain
standardized settings across servers, but configuration management takes that goal
to a new level through integration automation.
It’s worth pointing out that configuration management via orchestration is different
from provisioning via orchestration. Provisioning refers to deployment tasks,
while configuration relates to defining settings after the deployment process is
complete. Some organizations select one tool for provisioning and a different tool
for configuration management.
Consistent configuration management is essential to avoid undocumented or
unapproved changes that may result in security breaches or downtime.

Understand Agent and Agentless Solutions

There are many configuration management tools available to Linux administrators.
One differentiating factor is whether those tools rely on pre- or post-installed
agent software. There are advantages and disadvantages to both implementations.
Sysadmins should investigate which type of software is best suited to an
organization’s needs.

Compare Orchestration Utilities

Common orchestration tools include Ansible, Puppet, Chef, SaltStack, and
Terraform. Each has its own attributes and benefits. Organizations select
orchestration tools based on criteria such as comfort with particular languages
(for example, many teams are more familiar with Python than Ruby), agent versus
agentless topologies, container support, and cross-platform support for Windows
and macOS.

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Ansible
Attributes of Ansible Benefits of Ansible
Common for Red Hat Enterprise Linux Cross-platform configuration (though
deployments Ansible itself runs on Linux)
Many orchestration management tools Configuration files are relatively easy to
read and author
Agentless Can configure containers, physical or
virtual servers, and those servers may
be on-premises or cloud-based
Can use declarative or imperative
methods
Stores configurations in reusable
modules
Relies on Python
YAML configuration files

Ansible's management platform is hosted on Linux. However, Ansible can manage the
configuration of Windows target systems.

Puppet
Attributes of Puppet Benefits of Puppet
Enables orchestration and DevOps Cross-platform configuration
processes
Enterprise and open-source versions Only applies a configuration if the
settings would change the system
(idempotency)
Uses reusable/shareable modules to Can configure containers and physical
contain specific automation tasks or virtual servers, and those servers
may be on-premises or cloud-based
Agentless
Declarative language
Recognizes configuration files in Bash,
Python, Ruby, YAML, and PowerShell

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Chef
Attributes of Chef Benefits of Chef
Three components: Cross-platform configuration
• Chef Workstation for management
instructions

• Chef Server for distribution

• Chef Nodes (target systems)

Uses recipes to store execution instructions Reusable configurations
and cookbooks to maintain recipe
combinations for reuse
Chef uses both declarative and imperative Can configure physical or virtual
methods servers, either on-premises or
cloud-based
Agent
Uses the Ruby programming language

SaltStack
Attributes of SaltStack Benefits of SaltStack
Event-driven automation Cross-platform configuration
Agent and agentless options Can configure containers and physical
or virtual servers, and those servers
may be on-premises or cloud-based
Python and YAML
Reusable configuration template called
a state
Imperative ordering and declarative
configuration

Terraform
Attributes of Terraform Benefits of Terraform
Agentless Cross-platform
Declarative language Incremental execution to only update
changed items
Uses Terraform configuration language Focused on configuration more than
provisioning
Primary/secondary topology

Note that Terraform's own term for their topology design has been deprecated.

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Review Activity:
Orchestration
5

Answer the following questions:

1. How does orchestration provide scalability?

2. Differentiate between orchestration and automation.

3. Why might an organization select one orchestration tool over another?

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Topic 14C
Manage Version Control with Git
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.3 Given a scenario, perform basic version control using Git.
3.4 Summarize common infrastructure as code technologies.

If automation and configuration management relies on files that store settings and
provisioning details, then it becomes important to manage those files carefully.
This is another example of sysadmins borrowing a developer standard by using
the Git service for version control. The files relied upon by Linux itself, or Ansible,
Chef, Puppet, and other provisioning tools, may be stored in central repositories
accessed, edited, and updated by many people. Git allows the tracking of changes
and version control by using a simple but robust set of commands.

Git Concepts
Open-source software development, script management, and IaC are all file-based
solutions. As such, proper management of files is critical. Many proprietary version-
control methods exist, but in 2005, Linux Torvalds (the creator of Linux) released
Git, a free and open-source version-control system. Since then, Git has become the
de facto standard for version control.
Git excels at tracking and integrating changes, especially in the context of large,
distributed software-development projects where many programmers work on
different aspects of the same application. In addition to increased speed and
higher levels of file integrity, Git offers support for nonlinear and collaborative
development, making it useful across a number of different fields.

While Git is aimed at developers, it works for other version-control scenarios, including
authoring books and articles, outlining tutorials, developing recipes, creating music
sheets, and more.

There are many uses for Git, and those uses are not just for developers. Here are
four use cases, three of which apply directly to Linux sysadmins.

Git Use Case: Standardized Configuration Files

You manage 15 identical Linux servers. Each server is remotely administered via
SSH connections, and you must ensure the SSH daemon’s configuration is identical
on each server. You can maintain a copy of this (and other) configuration files in a
Git repository. If you make changes to the file, the changes are stored in Git and can
easily be copied to all 15 servers.

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Git Use Case: Infrastructure as Code

You can use Git as a repository for standardized automation and orchestration files
to manage server and network device configurations.
Ansible Server can pull configuration files from a Git repository. This enables you
to ensure valid files are available to all Ansible servers, even if they exist in isolated
sections of the network.

Git Use Case: Scripts

You can create a centralized script repository available to all sysadmins.
Systems administrators typically have a large library of custom scripts carefully
developed over time. A single script repository provides a place to share, update,
and manage these scripts, enabling significantly more collaboration.

Git Use Case: Development Projects

You can centrally manage collaborative and distributed development projects, and
you can implement robust version control.
The original design of Git was targeted to groups of developers working
collaboratively on projects that needed to track changes and maintain correct
versions of source code. However, in-house development teams benefit from Git as
much as teams distributed around the world.

Git recently renamed a key concept in code management. The ”master” branch is now
called the ”main” branch.

Use Git to Manage Code

To get started with Git, use an available package manager to install the git
package. You will need a directory to serve as the local storage location for your
project. Initialize a Git repository, and begin working with the Git subcommands.

Git Repositories
The core component of Git is the Git repository. This is a storage area where
versions of code and related files are stored. Version control is managed within this
local directory. The repository may be stored on a single developer’s workstation,
or this repository may be centrally stored and then cloned to the developer’s
workstation. Organizations may choose to have a centralized Git repository on-
premises or to use an online solution like GitHub. A centralized repository is not
required, however.

The git Command

The git command is used to manage Git repositories. Using git, you can create a
repository, add files to the repository, commit changes to the repository, pull down
files from another repository, and much more. You can perform these tasks by
issuing various subcommands within the larger git command.
The syntax of the git command is git [options] {subcommand}

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There are a number of subcommands used with git, and the most often-used are
listed in the table below.

Subcommand for the git Command Purpose

config Set options for a repository or Git users,
as well as other global options.

init Create a Git repository, or reinitialize an

existing one.

clone Create a working copy of an existing

repository.

add Add files to be tracked by the Git

repository.

commit Update the Git repository with your

changes, creating a “snapshot” of that
repository.

status Display the status of the repository.

branch Manage branches, or pointers to specific

repository snapshots after committing
changes.

merge Integrate changes from one branch into

a “main” branch.

rebase Rewrite Git history for a cleaner, more

linear merge history.

pull Acquire and merge changes made to

other repositories and branches into the
local working copy.

push Upload a local working copy of a

repository to a remote repository, such
as a centralized repository.

log Display the changes made to a local

repository.

checkout Switch to a specific branch to work with.

tag Add a label to a repository’s history,

often to mark significant versions or
releases.

show Display information on the current

branch’s status.

Many of these subcommands are used in context in the following examples.

You’re probably most likely to use clone, add, commit, pull, push, and
status the most often.

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The merge and rebase subcommands are slightly different. The merge
subcommand integrates changes into the main branch, and these changes are
tracked in the Git history. The rebase subcommand accomplishes the same task,
but it rewrites the Git history to make it appear all changes took place in a serial
fashion, when in reality they may have occurred in parallel by multiple developers.
The goal is a more streamlined history that is easier to review and understand.

Git in Practice
Here are three common scenarios for using Git. The first scenario creates a
local Git repository and adds files to manage. The second scenario builds on the
initial design by adding branching. The final scenario covers a more collaborative
situation.

Local Git Repository

In this example, you will establish a local Git repository for your code or
configuration files and begin a project. Finally, you’ll make an initial commit.
1. Configure global settings, including a user name and email address:
$ git config --global user.name 'User'
$ git config --global user.email 'user@domain.
tld'
2. Create a directory where your project will reside. Change into that directory,
and then initialize it with the git init command to designate it as a Git
repository:
$ mkdir /dev-project
$ git init /dev-project
3. Add project files to the repository. These are the files that make up the actual
development project you are storing and controlling with Git. Just as you have
seen with Linux configuration files, in development projects you want to work
with copies of the project, not the original file itself. That makes it far easier to
roll back to the original project in the event of a mistake.

In Git, you create a working copy by using the clone subcommand:

$ git clone /dev-project
4. Add project files to the Git tracking system. This causes Git to begin tracking
changes to the file. Use the add subcommand and the name of the file(s) to
track:
$ git add {file name}
5. Consider tagging commits at major release points by using the tag
subcommand and the -a option:
$ git tag -a v1.1 -m "Version 1.1"
6. Commit the changes to take a snapshot of your project. At this stage, you
should also enter a message that summarizes what changes you made. Make
sure these messages are clear:
$ git commit -m 'Initial commit'

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7. Retrieve the current status of changed files. If three files were being
worked on for a particular step in the project but only two were ready to
be committed at this time, they would show up here as “added” but not yet
committed. The commit process could be executed once edits to all three files
are complete:
$ git status
Continue working with your files, making commits whenever you want to
differentiate the updated version against the most recent previous commit.

Branching
Optionally, you can work with Git branches. In this example, you’ll work with an
existing repository that another Git user has established. You’ll create a new branch
to work with and merge changes into the original main branch. The goal is to create
a new code branch, make modifications, and then merge the code branch back into
the main branch.
1. Create a branch of the main copy of the code:
$ git branch newbranch
2. Make changes, and then integrate (merge) those changes back into the main
branch. This integrates the changes, creating a new-and-improved version
of the original. At this point, the branch that was being used to create the
changes can be removed. The changes are now a part of the main branch:
$ git merge newbranch

Collaboration
In this example, you’ll pull another Git user’s branch and push changes to the
remote repository. You can also view what other changes have been made by using
the git log command. This is an example process flow for collaborating with other
developers using Git.
1. Pull other developers’ proposed changes and merge them into the local
repository (the local working copy):
$ git pull otherbranch
2. Push your own changes to a remote repository. A development or IaC
environment will usually include a central repository, perhaps in the cloud,
and each developer has their own local copy of the repository. Changes made
locally can then be uploaded to the central repository using the git push
command:
$ git push <remote repository> mybranch
3. See what changes were merged and what other actions were taken on the
repository. Run the git log command inside the project directory. For
example, to see all of the commits in the last 10 days, type:
$ git log --since=10.days
You can use this information to troubleshoot any issues introduced in
configuration files, scripts, or any other data tracked by the repository.

4. Navigate or switch between branches of a project by using the git

checkout command. This enables developers to focus their attention on
different branches of the same project:
$ git checkout specificbranch

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An example Git process flow. Users operate within the working directory, the staging area, the local
repository, and a remote repository with various git commands. (Images © 123RF.com.)

Submit a git pull Request

Recall that an important part of Git is collaboration. Contributors to a project can
make a git pull request that asks project maintainers to review suggested
code modifications and merge them if approved. For example, a developer
might be working on an open-source project that uses Git to maintain code. The
developer has created a few components for the project and is ready to integrate
one component with the existing code. The developer makes a git pull request
to the project maintainers, who may then elect to merge the suggested changes.

The .gitignore File

You can create a .gitignore file in the Git repository. The file’s purpose is to identify
files that should be ignored during a commit action. For example, you may have a
README.txt file or a project To-Do.txt list that does not need to be committed as
part of the project but does reside in the project directory for convenience. These
files are identified in the project’s .gitignore file.
The *.git/ directory contains all the files Git uses to manage version control
for your project. It is a single location where Git stores all of its information. The
directory resides in the project directory and is created with the git init
command.

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Review Activity:
Git
5

Answer the following questions:

1. If an IT department stored all scripts written by sysadmin in a Git

repository, what benefits might the department realize?

2. What is the purpose of tagging in Git?

3. Where might Git repositories be stored?

4. In what circumstances might you submit a Git pull request?

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Lesson 14
Summary
5

Linux administrators are often deeply immersed in DevOps practices and

Infrastructure as Code configuration-management projects. Linux benefits greatly
from these approaches and lends itself to supporting and receiving configurations
from tools such as Ansible and Git.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

git git [options] Manage Git repositories. Lesson 14, Topic C
{subcommand}

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 15
Managing Containers in Linux
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Containers provide fast, scalable deployments of applications on-premises and
in the cloud. Administrators often orchestrate container deployments to provide
consistency and agility. Containers virtualize at a higher layer than traditional
virtualization solutions that support virtual machines do. Container solutions begin
with a container engine that provides virtualization functionality. Next are the files
that make up containers, followed by the running containers.
For all the focus on container deployments, it’s important to recognize that more
traditional hardware virtualization still has its place, and Linux administrators will
frequently support virtualized devices.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand container basics.

• Deploy containers.

• Understand virtualization concepts.

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Topic 15A
Understand Containers
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.2 Given a scenario, perform basic container operations.
3.5 Summarize container, cloud, and orchestration concepts.

Containerization is a form of virtualization, but it is significantly different from

VMs. Container engines virtualize at the OS layer rather than the hardware layer.
A container holds a single application and everything it needs to run. This narrow
focus allows containers to excel with technologies such as microservices.

Basic Container Concepts

Containers offer a different form of virtualization than the one offered by virtual
machines (VM). A container is a complete, portable solution. It contains the application
code, runtime, libraries, settings, and other components—everything needed for the
software to run. This complete package is portable and will run on any platform hosting
a container solution. Containerized software developed on a Linux workstation runs the
same way on a Windows cloud-based VM. Containers are typically quick, reliable, and
lightweight. They share a single OS (usually Linux) and provide a single function.

Hardware virtualization and virtual machines are covered later in this lesson.

Containers may be deployed on physical, on-premises servers or in a cloud

infrastructure. They can even be used on individual workstations. Hosting
containers in the cloud provides all the usual cloud benefits: scalability, high
availability, and quick deployments.

Comparing virtual machines and containers.

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Identify Container Engines

Container engines are pieces of software that process user requests and run one
or more containers on top of a single operating system. Selecting and installing a
container engine is the first step in container deployment. Container engines use
the Open Container Initiative (OCI) standard for container-image formats.

The Open Container Initiative (OCI) is a governance body managing open-container

formats among developers of container technologies.

Common container engines for Linux include Docker, rkt, runc, and containerd.

Images versus Containers

There are three components to a container solution. The first is a configuration file,
the second is an image, and the final piece is a running container.
Using the Docker container engine as an example, the process begins with a
Dockerfile, the configuration file for Docker images. The Docker container engine
processes this text file. The file contains everything necessary for the container
to function: source code, libraries, tools, and dependencies. Think of this file as a
specifications sheet or a set of instructions.
Next, those instructions are turned into a container image. The image is a
template for how containers should look when running. The image is built from the
instructions provided in the Dockerfile. For a Docker container image, you would
use the docker build command.
Finally, containers are run, executing instances of a container image. Many identical
containers can be spawned from a single image. For a Docker container, you would
use the docker run command. Note that this only constructs the container, it
does not run it.
Containers cannot run without an image defining their configuration, and images
must be built from the configuration file (a Dockerfile in the above example).
Containers are stateless, meaning that any changes to the container or applications
running in it are not preserved. Persistent changes to the container occur via
configuration file updates.

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Review Activity:
Containers
3

Answer the following questions:

1. What are three advantages of containers?

2. Differentiate between an image and a container.

3. What makes a container stateless?

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Topic 15B
Deploy Containers
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.2 Given a scenario, perform basic container operations.
3.5 Summarize container, cloud, and orchestration concepts.

Getting started with containers only requires a container engine and one or
more images. Images can be pulled from container registries or created fresh on
your Linux system. Container engines have many commands to create, destroy,
start, stop, and otherwise manage containers to create robust, networked, and
interlinked environments.
The first portion of this section looks at container operations, such as building and
starting containers. The next part covers management tasks and commands. The
topic finishes by examining container registries.

Basic Container Operations

Operating a container starts with an image, and the docker command handles
basic image-related tasks. Using docker, you can gather information about
available images housed in a given repository, retrieve (pull) or upload (push)
images to a repository, or run containers from image files.

Use the docker Command

The docker command is the primary management command for Docker
containers. The command has many subcommands to focus its functionality.
The syntax of the docker command is docker subcommand {options}
{arguments}
Here are some common subcommands used for container operations.

Subcommand for the docker Command Purpose

info Display system-wide information.

port List port mappings for the specified

container.
pull Pull an image from a registry.

push Upload an image to a registry.

ps List containers.

rm Remove containers.

rmi Remove images.

run Run a command in a container.

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Configure Container Image Operations

The following steps cover the major deployment steps, using Docker as the example
container engine and the docker command.
First, create a storage location to house the files used for containers and change
into the directory:
$ mkdir containers
$ cd containers
To pull an image from a registry such as Docker Hub, the syntax is:
docker pull {image-name}
For example, to pull the Alpine Linux image, type:
$ sudo docker pull alpinelinux/docker-alpine

Pulling an Alpine Linux image from a registry.

This scenario has you using a very lightweight Linux distribution named Alpine. This is a
very common container image to start with.

Display the image to confirm it was pulled:

$ sudo docker images

Confirm the image is in place, and view some image details.

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Recall that the image is a static template, and the container is a running instance of
that image. Run a container from the image:
$ sudo docker run {image-name}
However, if you need to work within the container itself, start it interactively by
adding the -it options. In this case, you will have a Bash shell:
$ sudo docker run -it {image-name} bash
You now have a running container. The Alpine image doesn’t do a lot, but it serves
as a starting point. It can be further customized with additional applications.
Check the status of containers on the system by typing:
$ sudo docker ps -a

Review the status of containers present on the system.

Create a Customized Image

The Alpine Linux image is a good place to start, but what about customizing images?
You can write a Dockerfile that specifies what additional commands should be
executed when building the image. It’s very common to install software into the
image this way. Create a new Dockerfile, and specify a package to install.
First, open a text editor and create a Dockerfile containing the following lines:
FROM alpinelinux/docker-alpine
RUN apt-get install -y nano

Create a customized image.

Alpine Linux relies on the APT package manager.

The FROM line indicates which initial image will be used. The RUN line defines any
commands that will be executed. In this example, RUN indicates that the nano text
editor will be installed via the apt-get command.
Next, build the image. For Docker images, use the docker build command to
build the image from the Dockerfile. You can add the --tag option to provide the
image with a descriptive name.
$ sudo docker build --tag alpine

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Verify the image was created by displaying all container images:

$ sudo docker images

Output of the images command, displaying two container images—one in an Ubuntu

repository and one in an Alpine repository.

Administer Containers
The docker container command manages attributes for specified
containers. The syntax for the docker container command is:
docker container subcommand {options} {arguments}
Some of the more common subcommands for docker container are listed
in the table below.

Subommand for the docker

Purpose
container Command

start Start a stopped container.

stop Stop a started container.

restart Restart a container.

attach Attach local STDIN, STDOUT, STDERR to a

container.

inspect Display detailed information on a container.

logs Display container logs.

ls List existing containers.

One of the first items you must know to manage running containers is the container
ID. This value is assigned to the container when it starts. To display running
containers, including their container ID, type:
$ sudo docker container ls
It may be necessary to restart the container. Now that you have the container ID,
type:
$ sudo docker restart {container-ID}
To stop a running container, type:
$ sudo docker stop {container-ID}
Container Registries
Container images are usually centrally stored in repositories known as registries.
Registries are an easy way to share images within a community, whether that
community is a single organization or the entire world. Registries are either public,
meaning that they are available on the Internet to anyone, or private and available
on a restricted network only to authorized users.

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Many public registries exist. Docker Hub is very common, but Google, AWS, Microsoft,
and many other organizations also host registries.

Container administrators upload images to a registry via a push command, while

downloads from a registry use a pull command. The exact syntax depends on the
container engine.
Container registries are a critical part of the DevOps infrastructure, enabling CI/CD
by providing a standardized and accessible location from which automation and
orchestration tools can pull images without human intervention.

Container Persistent Storage

Containers are stateless, meaning that their settings and data are not preserved
when the container is destroyed. The settings and data are not available when
the container is next run, either. All container configuration is stored in the
configuration file (for example, the Dockerfile).
Depending on the application running in a container, it may be necessary to
provide the application with access to stored data. It could also be useful to allow
the containerized application to persist or store data for other services to utilize.
Either way, container persistent storage refers to providing the container access
to data not built into it by the build process. This may be especially important in
orchestrated environments that automatically scale up the number of available
containers depending on demand.

Container Networks
Containers receive network access via network drivers. These drivers are configured
to match network- and container-communication requirements.
The various container network drivers provide different functions for administering
containers:
• host: Networking between the container and host with the use of the host’s
network access.

• overlay: Connectivity between containers run by different daemons.

• bridge: Standard configuration for standalone containers that need network

access.

• none: Disables networking for the container, providing isolation.

Network drivers such as overlay and bridge rely on Network Address Translation
(NAT) to track IP addresses between the containers, hosts, and remote services.

Orchestration Concepts
Initial container deployments tend to be straightforward. A container engine is
selected and installed, and a few new containers are deployed via images. Over
time, however, as the containers host more complex applications and as the
container topology scales, the environment needs more advanced features.
Tools such as Kubernetes provide orchestration and management features that
increase the reliability and features of the simpler container environments.

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Kubernetes Benefits and Use Cases

Kubernetes is a container orchestration solution. It’s used to support dynamic,
scalable, and intertwined container environments. The main component of a
Kubernetes deployment is a pod. A pod consists of one or more containers;
however, Kubernetes manages the pods rather than the individual containers
within them.
The two types of pods are singlenode, housing only one container, and
multicontainer, which houses more than one. Single-container pods usually house a
simple application or microservice, with little reliance on external resources.
Multicontainer pods may have basic microservice application containers that also
require specialized or complex network connectivity. Different types of containers
playing specific roles may exist in the same pod. These specialized containers
that facilitate communications are called sidecars (proxies), and they are part of a
service mesh topology.
Some organizations will grow beyond the multicontainer environments provided
by Docker. Docker builds multicontainer clusters by using a tool named Compose.
Compose files can be translated into something Kubernetes can understand,
allowing for an easy transition into a larger orchestrated-container environment.

Container Service Mesh

A service mesh is a dedicated infrastructure layer managed by code that provides
service-to-service interaction in a container environment. It includes a sidecar proxy
for each microservice that enables communication as the environment scales. The
sidecar exists in the pod along with the application container.
Service meshes provide load balancing and traffic control benefits, as well as service
monitoring and discovery.
Service mesh proxies rely on sidecar containers that work alongside container
applications to enable monitoring, service discovery, and service communication.
The sidecar containers support the containers that actually run the application.
The pod may house multiple containers and access various services outside
the pod. To facilitate this, a special container can be configured to handle
communications on behalf of the rest of the containers in the pod. This is known as
an ambassador container, and it is a specific type of service mesh proxy.

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Review Activity:
Container Deployment
5

Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between running a container with the docker run {image-

name} command versus with the docker run -it {image-name} bash
command option.

2. What are some advantages of a private image registry?

3. How does a container registry enable CI/CD?

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Topic 15C
Understand Virtualization Concepts
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

3.5 Summarize container, cloud, and orchestration concepts.

Virtual machines rely on a layer that virtualizes hardware, whereas containers

rely on a virtualized operating system. A hypervisor application provides this
virtualization. VMs are an essential part of today’s IT deployments because they
provide better resource utilization, easier scalability, and high availability. They are
commonly found in both on-premises and cloud environments in production and
development servers, test environments, and learning labs.
Cloud environments are built on virtualization and can host VMs in their datacenters
rather than on your organization’s local hardware. This can be an attractive benefit as
it offloads hardware support to the cloud service provider. This section looks at a few
virtualization tools and commands a Linux sysadmin may encounter.

Virtual Machines
Virtual machines are configured much like standard physical systems. An amount
of memory is allocated, storage is defined, processor access is granted, and
networking is configured—all of these attributes enable the VM to participate on a
network just like a traditional Linux server or workstation.
Virtual machines can host applications and services.

Diagram of a virtual machine configuration including a hardware layer, a hypervisor, guest VMs,
and a virtual machine manager.

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Virtualization Tools
Many virtualization host servers will run Linux without a graphical user interface.
Such a configuration enables more hardware resources to be available to the virtual
machines. Management of the virtual machines must then occur at the command-
line. The common Linux virtualization engine is the Kernel-based Virtual Machine
(KVM).
The virsh command is an interactive shell to KVM virtual machines and includes
the following subcommands.

Subcommand for the virsh

Command Purpose

help Get help with the virsh command.

list Display a list of recognized virtual machines.

shutdown {VM} Gracefully shut down a virtual machine.

start {VM} Start a virtual machine.

reboot {VM} Reboot a virtual machine.

create {XML file-name} Create a virtual machine from an XML file.

save {VM} {file-name} Save the state of a virtual machine with the
given file name.

console {VM} Open a console to a virtual machine.

Other virtualization commands exist, including virt-install, which sysadmins

can use to build virtual machines. The following example depicts the creation of
a CentOS7 virtual machine from the command line using the virt-install
command:

$ sudo virt-install --name=centos7-install

--vcpus=1 --memory=2048 --cdrom=/opt/CentOS-
7-x86_64-DVD-1804.iso --disk size=12 --os-
variant=rhel7

Recall that one interesting aspect of command-line commands is the ability to add them
to a script. You could script the above VM deployment to automate the process, making
the VM deployment fast and consistent.

Using the virt-install command.

Linux virtualization solutions are built on top of libvirt, an application programming

interface (API) that provides the software building blocks for developers to write
their own virtualization solutions. Solutions can also be composed of a daemon
and a management interface. Several hypervisors, including VMware ESXi, KVM,
and QEMU, are all built using libvirt. It provides a solid foundation for Linux-based
virtualization. For example, the virsh tool is a part of the libvirt API.

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GNOME Virtual Machine Manager

The GNOME Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) utility can be used for managing
connectivity to virtual machines. It enables the deployment, management, and
removal of virtual machines using an intuitive graphical interface. Download and
install the virt-manager package to begin using VMM.

Example output of the GNOME VMM utility.

Virtual Networks
Virtualization also takes place at the network layer. Virtual machines (VMs) may
have one or more virtual network interface cards (vNICs). These vNICs are
configured like physical NICs and are attached to virtual switches. Each virtual
NIC has its own MAC address and IP address to permit the VM to participate on a
physical or virtual network as an independent node. In addition, the VM can join a
Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN). Virtual switches are used to better manage
network traffic.
Virtual machines can share a virtual bridge with the host device, which enables
network access for the virtual machines. Virtual machines typically have four
options for network access, each of which provides different operational
functionality.
• None: As if the virtual machine has no NIC installed.

• Local: Network access only to other virtual machines on the same host.

• Host-only: Access only to the host computer but not to the physical network or
Internet.

• Bridged: Access to both the physical network and the Internet.

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Review Activity:
Virtualization
5

Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between virtualization layers for VM virtualization versus

container virtualization.

2. How might you automate a virtual machine deployment, and what

command is used?

3. What is the purpose of the virtual bridge?

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Lesson 15
Summary
4

Containerization supports DevOps goals and provides an entirely new way of

developing and supporting applications. Linux is the standard host for container
engines, whether in the cloud or on-premises. Linux administrators need to
understand the differences between containers and virtual machines and what
software is necessary to support each.

Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

docker docker The primary Lesson 15, Topic B
subcommand management
{options} command for
{arguments} Docker containers.

docker pull docker pull Pull an image from Lesson 15, Topic B
{image-name} a registry.
docker docker Manage Lesson 15, Topic B
container container attributes
subcommand for specified
{options} containers.
{arguments}
push Exact syntax Upload images to Lesson 15, Topic B
depends on the a registry.
specific container
engine.
pull Exact syntax Download images Lesson 15, Topic B
depends on the from a registry.
specific container
engine.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Lesson 16
Installing Linux
1

LESSON INTRODUCTION
Most operating systems follow the same boot path; it’s the utilities involved that
vary. For Linux, the primary boot loader that manages the startup process is
GRUB2. Once the system starts and the boot loader launches, it handles the process
until the Linux kernel starts and takes over. GRUB2 has specific configuration
requirements that involve assembling the main configuration file from a series of
supporting configuration files.
When deploying Linux, you must first decide on a physical or virtual machine
platform and then walk through a series of installation tasks that involve selecting
source files, hardware configurations such as partitioning, and software. Once the
installation is complete, you will manage post-installation tasks. These tasks consist
of final security settings and updates.

Lesson Objectives
In this lesson, you will:
• Understand the Linux boot process.

• Modify boot settings.

• Deploy Linux.

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Topic 16A
The Linux Boot Process
2

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals.
2.1 Summarize the purpose and use of security best practices in a Linux environment.

The boot process consists of many steps, which begin with the hardware layer and
move up through the BIOS, boot loader, Linux kernel, and authentication layers.
Understanding this process is helpful for troubleshooting and performance tuning.
The process requires many components, which this Topic covers.

Boot Sources
Installation files may be stored on various media and available from several
sources. Most organizations will have a standard Linux distribution for deployment
on internal systems.

Storage Disk
Typically the system BIOS/UEFI is configured to boot from the internal storage disk.
Source files may have been copied to the disk from a remote source or from a
currently installed operating system that you will replace.

USB
In this configuration, Linux would boot from a removable USB flash drive or storage
disk that contains the Linux source files. The system BIOS may need to be adjusted
to boot from USB storage rather than an internal storage disk or DVD drive.
Typically, you must configure USB disks to be bootable.

Virtual Machine File

You can also boot from a preconfigured virtual machine configuration file specifying
CPU, memory, storage, and network configurations. The hypervisor virtualization
layer constructs the VM and boots it, initiating the installation from the storage
media.

ISO Image
An ISO image is a system image, originally that of an optical disc. Today, it is a
common file format for packaging and distributing images of operating systems
that users can boot from to install the OS. Typically, you write the ISO image to an
optical disc or USB thumb drive, insert the media into the computer, and instruct a
boot environment like UEFI to boot from that media. ISOs are also commonly used
to construct virtual machines.

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PXE
Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) is a part of the UEFI standard that enables
a client to retrieve the necessary boot loader and system files from a server over
the network. The client configures UEFI to boot from PXE, and during the startup
process, it will search for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers that
also act as PXE servers. Once the proper server is found, it transfers the necessary
boot files to the client over the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP).

HTTP and FTP

Clients can also acquire boot data over a network from content delivery protocols
like Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer Protocol (FTP). These
are typically faster, more reliable, and more secure than the standard TFTP protocol
used in PXE. Open-source implementations of PXE, like iPXE, extend PXE support to
include these protocols.

Network File System

This is another network boot option. Rather than store system files on a local
storage drive, a client will mount a Network File System (NFS) share as its root file
system. The share must be prepared ahead of time and stored on an NFS server
that the client can retrieve the files from. Therefore, the client does not store data
locally, but rather stores it on the NFS server. DHCP, TFTP, and other network
protocols communicate the necessary boot data in such an environment.

Begin the Boot Process

The boot process begins with the BIOS or UEFI configuration on the system’s
motherboard. Next, the bootloader starts and manages the next phase of the boot
process, including the launch of the initrd. Finally, the operating system kernel loads
along with drivers and modules. The kernel takes over the remaining steps of the
boot process.
This section covers those steps in more detail.

BIOS/UEFI
The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) is a standard for firmware interfaces
stored on a computer motherboard’s ROM chip. The BIOS firmware runs when
the computer powers on, enabling it to test the various hardware components
in a computer and run the boot loader to start the operating system. The BIOS
has access to the ports used by basic hardware input devices like a mouse and
keyboard. Users can also load up a BIOS interface instead of an operating system to
make various hardware-level changes. BIOS was the dominant standard for home
and enterprise computers for several decades.

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Example of a BIOS interface.

Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is newer firmware technology that

has largely replaced BIOS by bringing with it several key advantages. UEFI runs
faster than BIOS, can operate within a greater amount of memory, can access
storage drives of currently unattainable sizes, can access more hardware types, and
has improved security protections. Most modern motherboards, as well as the pre-
assembled PCs that use them, ship with UEFI. The secure boot features of UEFI are
critical.
Like BIOS, UEFI provides an environment to execute a boot loader and ultimately
start up the operating system.
One secure boot feature that both BIOS and UEFI include is the ability to set a
password. If this password is not provided at boot time, the system will not start.
Since BIOS/UEFI firmware differs between hardware manufacturers, the process
of setting this password is not consistent. However, most firmware places this
password protection option in a “Security” or “Password” section.

The Boot Loader

Booting is starting or restarting a computer and loading an operating system
for the user to access. A booting environment reads a small program stored in
read-only memory (ROM). This program then executes various operations
in RAM that bootstrap the operating system and make it available for use.
A boot loader is a small program stored in ROM that loads the kernel from a
storage device and then starts the operating system. A boot environment like BIOS
reads the boot loader from ROM so that the boot loader can execute the necessary
operations to begin the process.
Boot loaders can protect the boot process with a password to prevent unauthorized
system startups. In addition, boot loaders can load more than one operating system
into the computer’s memory, but the user needs to select the desired operating
system to use during boot.

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The boot loader uses three main components that work together to load the
operating system in stages.
1. The boot sector program is loaded by a boot environment on startup and has
a fixed size of 512 bytes. Its main function is to load the second-stage boot
loader; however, it can also load another sector or a kernel.

2. The second-stage boot loader loads the operating system and contains a
kernel loader.

3. Finally, the boot loader installer controls the installation of drive sectors and
can only be run when booting from a drive. It coordinates the activities of the
boot sector and the boot loader.

The most common Linux boot loader is GRUB2. Details and modifications to the GRUB2
boot loader are covered in a later section.

Load the Kernel

The initial ramdisk (initrd) refers to the root file system that is temporarily loaded
into memory upon system boot. The initrd loads along with the kernel, which
controls its functionality. The initrd enables the system to start in two phases. In the
first phase, the system boots with the minimal set of modules required to load the
main or the permanent root file system. In the second phase, when the main root
file system is mounted, the previously mounted initrd file system is removed and
the user-space boot process continues.
The initrd is useful because many potential variables can complicate the boot
process. For example, the kernel needs to find and load the necessary device driver
modules and the actual root file system itself. There’s also the possibility that the
root file system uses one of several advanced storage methods, like LVM or NFS,
which has different mount requirements than a standard partition has. Rather
than hardcode all of this behavior in the kernel and introduce bloat, the initrd’s
temporary root file system can handle these tasks.
The Linux initrd image is an archive file containing all the essential files required
for booting the operating system. It can be built or customized to include additional
modules, remove unnecessary modules, or update existing modules. Typically,
the /boot directory stores this image.

Creating a new initrd image.

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The mkinitrd command creates the initrd image for preloading the kernel
modules.
The syntax of the mkinitrd command is mkinitrd [options]
{initrd image name} {kernel version}
The mkinitrd command uses several different options, collected in the table
below.

Option for the mkinitrd Command Purpose

--preload+{module-name} Load a module in the initrd image

before the loading of other modules.

--with+{module-name} Load a module in the initrd image after

the loading of other modules.

-f Overwrite an existing initrd image file.

--nocompress Disable the compression of the initrd

image.

The following example creates an initrd image from the current kernel version and
names the image initrd-<kernel version>.img
# mkinitrd /boot/initrd-$(uname -r).img
$(uname -r)
The dracut command can also generate an initramfs image, similar to how
mkinitrd generates an initrd image. In fact, on some distributions, mkinitrd
is a compatibility wrapper that calls the dracut command.
The following is an example of using the dracut command to create an initramfs
image:
# dracut /boot/initramfs-$(uname -r).img
$(uname -r)
The /boot Directory
As defined by the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS), the /boot/ directory
contains files that facilitate the Linux boot process.

The /boot directory contents.

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The /boot/grub directory contains configuration files for a type of boot loader
called GRUB2. The /boot/grub2/ directory does likewise, but it does so for
GRUB 2, which is an improved version.
The /boot/efi directory contains boot files for an EFI system partition (ESP),
which is a required partition for systems that boot from UEFI. It contains boot
loader, device driver, and system application files that are executed by UEFI. Boot
loader files are typically named with an .efi extension.
The /boot/initramfs<kernel-version>.img file is an initramfs
image, which is an alternative to initrd that uses different methods to do the same
basic thing: initialize a temporary root file system on boot. Whereas initrd requires
a special driver to be compiled into the kernel, initramfs does not. In addition,
the initrd image is a block device formatted with a fixed-size file system, while the
initramfs image is an archive file that can be sized dynamically.
/boot/vmlinuz-<kernel-version> is a compressed executable file that
contains the Linux kernel itself. The boot loader loads this file into memory during
the boot process to initialize the operating system. A related file is vmlinux,
which is essentially the non-compressed version of the kernel used for debugging.

The Boot Process Summarized

The boot process is repeated each time your computer starts by loading the
operating system from a storage device. It involves a series of sequential steps,
including: BIOS/UEFI initialization, boot loader, kernel and initrd/initramfs
initialization, and boot scripts.
The following is an example boot process that uses an initrd image.

A high-level look at the components involved in the Linux boot process.

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1. The processor checks for the BIOS/UEFI firmware and executes it.

2. BIOS/UEFI checks for bootable media from internal storage devices or peripherals
like USB flash drives and DVD-ROMs. It locates a valid device to boot the system.

3. BIOS/UEFI loads the primary boot loader (probably GRUB2) from the MBR/GPT
partition into memory. It also loads the partition table along with it.

4. GRUB2 prompts the user to select an operating system to boot. If the user
does not respond, then the default operating system is booted.

5. The boot loader determines the kernel and locates the corresponding kernel
binary. It then uploads the respective initrd image into memory and transfers
control of the boot process to the kernel.

6. The kernel configures the available hardware drivers, including processors,

I/O subsystems, and storage devices. It decompresses the initrd image and
mounts it to load the necessary drivers. If the system implemented any virtual
devices, such as LVM or software RAID, then they are initialized.

7. The kernel mounts the main root partition and releases unused memory.
The systemd program runs to set up the user environment. It becomes
process ID 1.

8. The systemd program searches for the default.target file, which

contains details about the services to start. It mounts the file system based
on the /etc/fstab file or .mount files and begins the process of starting
services. On most systems, the selection is either multi-user.target
or graphical.target.

9. If graphical mode is selected, then a display manager starts and the login
window is displayed on the screen.

10. The user enters a user name and password to log in to the system.

11. The system authenticates the user. If the user is valid, then various profile files
are executed.

12. The shell starts, and the system is ready for the user.

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Review Activity:
3

Linux Boot Process

Answer the following questions:

1. Differentiate between the older system BIOS and the modern UEFI
standards.

2. What is the role of the initrd?

3. What is the /boot/vmlinuz<kernel-version> file?

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Topic 16B
Modify Boot Settings
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals.
4.5 Given a scenario, use systemd to diagnose and resolve common problems with a
Linux system.

The boot loader program manages the startup process. It offers OS selection
choices, loads the initrd file, and loads the kernel. The GRUB2 boot loader is found
on most modern Linux distributions and is highly configurable. The configuration
process is different from that of other services, so this section covers that process
and the tools needed.

Identify GRUB2
The GNU GRand Unified Bootloader (GNU GRUB) is a boot loader developed
by the GNU Project that became popular on Unix-like systems. It enables users
to choose which operating system or kernel version to boot in a multi-platform
environment. Although the original version of GRUB was the primary boot loader
for Linux distributions, it had several limitations and was eventually phased out in
favor of a newer version of GRUB. This original version is sometimes referred to as
GRUB legacy.
GRUB2 is more than simply a newer version of GRUB; it is a complete redesign and
rewrite of the legacy GRUB system. GRUB2 offers administrators more control over
the boot process, boot devices, and boot behavior. In addition, it comes with several
improvements, including:
• Support for non-x86 architecture platforms.

• Support for live booting (booting an OS from storage media and running the OS
entirely in memory, without installation).

• Support for partition universally unique identifiers (UUID).

• Support for dynamically loading modules that extend GRUB’s functionality.

• The ability to configure the boot loader through scripts.

• Rescue mode, which attempts to fix boot issues like corrupted or missing
configurations.

• Support for custom graphical boot menus and themes.

Because of these improvements, GRUB2 has become the default boot loader on
almost all modern Linux distributions.

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The grub2-install Command

The grub2-install command installs the GRUB2 boot loader on a storage
device. It copies GRUB2 files into the /boot/grub2 directory and, on some
platforms, installs GRUB2 into the boot sector. However, grub2-install
applies to BIOS systems, not UEFI. To install GRUB2 on a UEFI system, use a package
manager to install the grub2-efi package. Installing this package copies GRUB2 files
onto the EFI system partition (ESP) in the /boot/efi directory.
The syntax of the grub2-install command is grub2-install
[options] [device name]
You can use these options with the grub2-install command.

Option for the grub2-install Command Purpose

--modules {module-names} Preload the specified kernel modules
with the GRUB2 boot loader.
--install-modules Install only the specified modules and
{module-names} their dependencies rather than the
default of installing all available
modules.
--directory Install files from the specified directory
{directory-name} rather than from the default.

--target Specify the target platform to install

{target platform} GRUB2 for rather than the platform
that is currently running.
--boot-directory Specify the boot directory to install
{directory-name} GRUB2 files to rather than the default
/boot/ directory.
--force Install GRUB2 regardless of detected
issues.

You will rarely need to actually install GRUB2; it's usually part of the operating system
installation process.

Configure GRUB2
The GRUB2 boot loader is highly configurable. The grub.cfg file stores the
configurations, though administrators don’t edit this file directly. Instead, the
grub2-mkconfig command is executed to reference multiple configuration files
and assemble a correct grub.cfg file. Any mistakes to this file can cause boot errors
on the system.

The grub.cfg File

The grub.cfg file is the main configuration file for the GRUB2 boot loader. On
BIOS systems, it is located in the /boot/grub2/ directory. On UEFI systems, it is
located in the /boot/efi/EFI/<distro>/ directory.

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The grub.cfg file.

This file is an executable shell script. Don’t edit this file directly, as it is generated
using the grub2-mkconfig command that leverages configuration scripts stored
elsewhere on the file system. This command is covered later in this section.
The /etc/grub.d/ directory contains scripts used to build the main grub.
cfg file. Each script provides various functions to GRUB2 and is numbered so that
the scripts can execute in a sequence. It’s usually not a good idea to edit the existing
scripts in this directory. If you want to add a custom script, you can place it in this
directory with a ##_ file name prefix, depending on the order you want the script to
be executed. You can also add your script to the existing 40_custom file so that it
executes last by default.

Observe that the /etc/grub.d directory is stored in /etc, which normally stores system
configurations. However, the grub.cfg file is stored in the /boot directory. Some portions
of GRUB2 are stored in each location.

Customize the GRUB2 Boot Menu

The /etc/grub.d/40_custom file enables the customization of the menu
presented to the user during the boot process. GRUB2 offers the user a menu of
installed operating systems to choose from. This choice is useful for multi-boot
scenarios (more than one operating system available on the computer), booting to
different Linux kernels, or booting into a rescue mode.
You can customize the menu contents by editing the /etc/grub.d/
40_custom file, enabling an administrator to specify the order of the menu
choices, provide user-friendly names, and password-protect menu entries.

The /etc/default/grub File

The /etc/default/grub file contains GRUB2 display menu settings that are
read by the /etc/grub.d/ scripts and built into the grub.cfg file. /etc/
default/grub enables you to change options such as how many seconds
GRUB2 will wait before automatically selecting the default boot option, whether
GRUB2 will order kernel versions in a sub-menu, whether GRUB2 will display the
menu in a graphical terminal, and more.

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The /etc/default/grub file.

Use the grub2-mkconfig Command

The grub2-mkconfig command generates a new grub.cfg configuration file
or updates an existing one. The grub2-mkconfig command combines the
configuration file templates in the /etc/grub.d/ directory with the settings in
/etc/default/grub to generate the grub.cfg configuration file. This is
the proper way to update GRUB2. Do not edit the configuration file directly.

This command is simply grub-mkconfig on some distributions. This is a legacy

command from the original GRUB program. If GRUB2 is installed, the command
updates GRUB2 files.

The syntax of the grub2-mkconfig command is grub2-mkconfig

[-o {file name}]
So what does the process look like if you modify the timeout period (the amount
of time the boot loader waits for an OS selection from the menu)? To update the
GRUB2 configuration with a customized timeout value, the process is:
1. Edit /etc/default/grub to the desired timeout and save changes.

2. Run grub2-mkconfig -o /boot/grub2/grub.cfg

On an EFI-based system, the path to the grub.cfg file is different, depending
on the distribution. The path will resemble the following one: /boot/efi/
EFI/<distro>/grub.cfg
Some distributions provide a shortcut command for grub2-mkconfig. The
command is update-grub (or sometimes update-grub2), and it’s a
substitute for grub2-mkconfig -o /boot/grub/grub.cfg

Troubleshoot Common Boot Problems

Boot problems may arise from multiple issues. Consider whether there have been
recent changes to the GRUB2 configuration, BIOS, or hardware.

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GRUB2 Configuration Problems

Common GRUB2 configuration problems include typographical errors in the menus,
kernel paths, or other settings. Run grub2-mkconfig after changes to ensure
the grub.cfg file reflects the most recent updates or configuration changes.
Use update-grub as a substitute for grub2-mkconfig -o /boot/
grub/grub.cfg
BIOS Problems
Common BIOS problems include typographical errors in any manually defined
storage devices and unanticipated boot device order.

Hardware Problems
Boot problems could also be due to a failed or missing storage device as a result of
a hardware failure.
Swap potentially failed hardware with a known good device, or check for updated
device drivers.

Switched System
During the boot process, it’s possible that users may inadvertently switch from the
GUI target to the CLI target. In those instances, it’s helpful to be able to display your
current environment and be able to change to a different one if needed.
To display the current boot environment, type:
# systemctl get-default
To change the default boot target from CLI to GUI, type:
# systemctl set-default graphical.target
To change the default boot target from GUI to CLI, type:
# systemctl set-default multi-user.target

These commands were covered earlier in the course.

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Review Activity:
Boot Settings
5

Answer the following questions:

1. Why don’t you usually need to install GRUB2 on most Linux systems?

2. How is working with the grub.cfg file different from working with most
Linux configuration files?

3. What is the role of the grub2-mkconfig command?

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Topic 16C
Deploy Linux
4

EXAM OBJECTIVES COVERED

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals.

Manual Linux deployments usually guide users through the process of selecting
installation media, defining partitions, selecting software, and configuring post-
installation settings. While there are thousands of available Linux distributions (and
you can even create your own!), the installation steps are usually the same. It’s the
software that guides you through the process that differs.
Break the installation process into three steps:
• Prepare the platform.

• Install Linux.

• Complete post-deployment tasks.

This section covers all three steps.

Compare Physical and Virtual Deployments

The first deployment decision is to select a platform. In many cases, virtualization
is the best option. A single computer of moderate power can host and run multiple
Linux virtual machines. This is usually more cost-effective than purchasing a
dedicated system. New users can experiment with multiple distributions easily by
using virtualization.
Common virtualization options include KVM, VirtualBox, HyperV, and VMware
Workstation. Pair these with well-supported Linux distros such as Ubuntu Desktop
(Debian-based), Fedora Workstation (Red Hat–based), and Linux Mint (Debian-based
and very user friendly).
It’s a good idea to install at least one Red Hat–derived and one Debian-derived
distribution to compare package managers, included software, graphical interfaces,
and other features. With so many Linux distributions there is a lot of variety, and it’s
worthwhile to find a distribution you’re comfortable with.

Recall that since Linux is FOSS, it is easy to try out many different distributions.

Raspberry Pi
One inexpensive option for Linux is the Raspberry Pi hardware platform. These
small powerful systems easily run Linux and are very affordable. While Raspberry
Pi was originally created to introduce young people to development projects, many
production environments use Pi today.

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Linux distributions that are available for Raspberry Pi hardware include:

• Raspberry Pi OS

• Ubuntu for Raspberry Pi

• Kali Linux for Raspberry Pi

Begin the Installation Process

The details of the Linux installation process vary by distribution, but in general,
you will need to select an installation source, choose software installation options,
configure networking, and define system settings. Once the installation completes,
it’s important to update both the operating system and applications. Finally,
configure any custom software or other settings required for your environment.

Distinguish Install Methods

Most Linux distributions are downloaded as ISO images and either burned to a
DVD or used as startup media for a VM. A more advanced technique is to access
source files from across the network. Once the installation method is selected and
available, you are ready to begin the installation.

You are strongly urged to use the most current version of whatever Linux distribution
you select. These versions have the most up-to-date security patches and features.

A sample Linux installation screen. Most distros start with similar-looking configuration options.

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Basic Installation Steps

Each distribution has a slightly different deployment process, but all Linux
installations have some features in common. The first step is to boot to the
installation media. Next, you will probably need to address the following
configuration areas in any Linux installation:
• Set the correct date/time for your locale.

• Select a language and keyboard for your locale.

• Select an installation source.

• Create or select a partition to install Linux to.

• Select the Linux system’s role and appropriate software packages.

• Set the root password.

• Create a non-root administrative user account.

• Configure network settings.

• Complete post-installation tasks.

Non-root administrative accounts are more restricted than root user accounts.
However, they are still given the authority to complete common sysadmin tasks,
such as user and group maintenance, filesystem mounting, system service
configuration, and system reboots and shutdowns. The root account has more
privileges than are necessary for most tasks.

Post-Deployment Steps
Most installation programs prompt you to update software, set the firewall, and
complete other tasks. Not all of them do, however, and there may be additional
settings required for your environment, too.
System and application updates provide the most current security fixes, application
features, and drivers to help ensure security and stability. It’s critical to update the
system upon deployment and maintain updates throughout its life cycle.

Recall that the security concept of hardening specifies that the system should be kept up
to date.

Here are a few common post-installation tasks:

• Configure software updates (automatic updates are recommended).

• Configure network and firewall settings appropriate to your organization.

• Create any additional user accounts and groups.

• Connect to network storage and other network services.

• Execute any additional configuration scripts.

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Confirmation message after bringing software up to date.

The deployment may be automated and cloud-init scripts may execute to complete
some or all of the installation steps.

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Review Activity:
Linux Deployment
5

Answer the following questions:

1. What are some reasons for updating the system immediately after
installation?

2. Why is a non-root administrative account often created as part of the

installation process?

3. Why is it a good idea to deploy a Red Hat–derived and a Debian-derived

distribution at least once?

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Lesson 16
Summary
4

The early phase of the boot process is managed by the GRUB2 boot loader, which
acquires its configuration from the grub.cfg file. This file is constructed by the
grub2-mkconfig command from several supporting files. Sysadmins edit these
files rather than the main grub.cfg file.
The Linux installation process is usually menu-driven with options that include
selecting source files, defining partitions, choosing software based on the server’s
role in the organization, and completing post-installation configurations. It’s worth
noting that a password for root is set and most modern Linux distributions also
create a non-root administrator account.

Guidelines
These best practices and guidelines are provided as revision tools or as quick
references in your job role.
Deploying a standalone Linux system is straightforward, and the installation is
typically easy. If you use a physical computer, confirm device driver compatibility
before beginning.
• Select an installation platform (either a physical or a virtual computer).

• Check driver availability.

• Select a distribution that supports the role the system will play in your
organization.

• Understand which package manager will be used.

• Check software compatibility.

• Select an install method.

• Plan for updates after installation.

• Create a non-root admin account.

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Command Reference Table

This list of commands and their associated syntax can also be found in Appendix B.

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

mkinitrd mkinitrd Create the initrd Lesson 16, Topic A
[options] image for preloading
{initrd image the kernel modules.
name} {kernel
version}
grub2- grub2- Install the GRUB2 Lesson 16, Topic B
install install boot loader on a
[options] storage device.
[device name]
grub2- grub2-mkconfig Generate a new Lesson 16, Topic B
mkconfig [-o {file grub.cfg configuration
name}] file, or update an
existing one.

Practice Questions: Additional practice questions are available on the CompTIA

Learning Center.

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 Appendix A
Mapping Course Content to
CompTIA Linux+ (Exam XK0-005)
Objectives
1

Achieving CompTIA Linux+ certification requires candidates to pass Exam XK0-005.

This table describes where the exam objectives for Exam XK0-005 are covered in
this course.

1.0 System Management

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals. Covered in
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) Lesson 4, Topic A
/boot
/proc
/sys
/var
/usr
/lib
/dev
/etc
/opt
/bin
/sbin
/home
/media
/mnt
/root
/tmp
Basic boot process Lesson 16, Topic B
Basic input/output system (BIOS) Lesson 16, Topic A
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)
Commands
mkinitrd
grub2-install
grub2-mkconfig
grub2-update
dracut
initrd.img
vmlinuz
Grand Unified Bootloader version 2 (GRUB2)

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 A-2 | Appendix A

1.1 Summarize Linux fundamentals. Covered in

Boot sources
Preboot eXecution Environment (PXE)
Booting from Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Booting from ISO
Kernel panic Lesson 8, Topic D
Device types in /dev Lesson 8, Topic A
Block devices
Character devices
Special character devices
/dev/null
/dev/zero
/dev/urandom
Basic package compilation from source Lesson 6, Topic D
./configure
make
make install
Storage concepts Lesson 7, Topic A
File storage
Block storage
Object storage
Partition type
Master boot record (MBR)
GUID [globally unique identifier]
Partition Table (GPT)
Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE)
Redundant Array of Independent (or Inexpensive)
Disks (RAID) levels
Striping
Mirroring
Parity
Listing hardware information Lesson 8, Topic A
lspci
lsusb
dmidecode

1.2 Given a scenario, manage files and directories. Covered in

File editing Lesson 4, Topic C
sed Lesson 4, Topic C
Lesson 5, Topic A
awk
printf
nano
vi(m)

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 Appendix A | A-3

1.2 Given a scenario, manage files and directories. Covered in

File compression, archiving, and backup Lesson 5, Topic B
gzip Lesson 6, Topic E
bzip2
zip
tar
xz
cpio
dd
File metadata Lesson 4, Topic A
stat
file
Soft and hard links Lesson 4, Topic A
Copying files between systems Lesson 10, Topic C
rsync
scp
nc
File and directory operations Lesson 4, Topic B
mv
cp
mkdir
rmdir
ls
pwd
rm
cd
.
..
~
tree
cat
touch

1.3 Given a scenario, configure and manage storage

using the appropriate tools. Covered in
Disk partitioning Lesson 7, Topic B
Commands
fdisk
parted
partprobe

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 A-4 | Appendix A

1.3 Given a scenario, configure and manage storage

using the appropriate tools. Covered in
Mounting local and remote devices Lesson 7, Topic B
systemd.mount
/etc/fstab
mount
Linux Unified Key Setup (LUKS)
External devices
Filesystem management Lesson 7, Topic B
XFS tools
Ext4 tools
Btrfs tools
Monitoring storage space and disk usage Lesson 7, Topic B
df
du
Creating and modifying volumes using Logical Lesson 7, Topic B
Volume Manager (LVM)
Commands
pvs
vgs
lvs
lvchange
lvcreate
vgcreate
lvresize
pvcreate
vgextend
Inspecting RAID implementations Lesson 7, Topic C
mdadm
/proc/mdstat
Storage area network (SAN)/network-attached Lesson 7, Topic C
storage (NAS)
multipathd
Network filesystems
Network File System (NFS)
Server Message Block (SMB)/Common Internet
File System (CIFS)
Storage hardware Lesson 7, Topic B
lsscsi
lsblk
blkid
fcstat

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 Appendix A | A-5

1.4 Given a scenario, configure and use the

appropriate processes and services. Covered in
System services Lesson 9, Topic A
systemctl
stop
start
restart
status
enable
disable
mask
Scheduling services Lesson 9, Topic B
cron
crontab
at
Process management Lesson 8, Topic B
Kill signals
SIGTERM
SIGKILL
SIGHUP
Listing processes and open files
top
ps
lsof
htop
Setting priorities
nice
renice
Process states
Zombie
Sleeping
Running
Stopped
Job control
bg
fg
jobs
Ctrl+Z
Ctrl+C
Ctrl+D
pgrep
pkill
pidof

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 A-6 | Appendix A

1.5 Given a scenario, use the appropriate networking

tools or configuration files. Covered in
Interface management Lesson 10, Topic B
iproute2 tools
ip
ss
NetworkManager
nmcli
net-tools
ifconfig
ifcfg
hostname
arp
route
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/
Name resolution Lesson 10, Topic B
nsswitch
/etc/resolv.conf
systemd
hostnamectl
resolvectl
Bind-utils
dig
nslookup
host
WHOIS
Network monitoring Lesson 11, Topic B
tcpdump
wireshark/tshark
netstat
traceroute
ping
mtr
Remote networking tools Lesson 6, Topic E
Secure Shell (SSH) Lesson 10, Topic C
cURL
wget
nc
rsync
Secure Copy Protocol (SCP)
SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP)

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 Appendix A | A-7

1.6 Given a scenario, build and install software. Covered in

Package management Lesson 6, Topic B
DNF Lesson 6, Topic C
Lesson 6, Topic A
YUM
APT
RPM
dpkg
ZYpp
Sandboxed applications Lesson 6, Topic F
snapd
Flatpak
AppImage
System updates Lesson 8, Topic D
Kernel updates Lesson 6, Topic B
Lesson 6, Topic C
Package updates

1.7 Exam Objective Covered in

Updating configuration files Lesson 9, Topic B
Procedures Lesson 6, Topic B
Lesson 6, Topic C
Restart service
Reload service
.rpmnew
.rpmsave
Repository configuration files
/etc/apt.conf
/etc/yum.conf
/etc/dnf/dnf.conf
/etc/yum.repo.d
/etc/apt/sources.list.d
Configure kernel options Lesson 8, Topic D
Parameters
sysctl
/etc/sysctl.conf
Modules
lsmod
imsmod
rmmod
insmod
modprobe
modinfo
Configure common system services Lesson 9, Topic B
SSH
Network Time Protocol (NTP)
Syslog
chrony

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1.7 Exam Objective Covered in

Localization Lesson 9, Topic C
timedatectl
localectl

2.0 Security
2.1 Summarize the purpose and use of security best
practices in a Linux environment. Covered in
Managing public key infrastructure (PKI) certificates Lesson 12, Topic B
Public key
Private key
Self-signed certificate
Digital signature
Wildcard certificate
Hashing
Certificate authorities
Certificate use cases Lesson 12, Topic B
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)/Transport Layer
Security (TLS)
Certificate authentication
Encryption
Authentication Lesson 12, Topic C
Tokens
Multifactor authentication (MFA)
Pluggable authentication modules (PAM)
System Security Services Daemon (SSSD)
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
Single sign-on (SSO)
Linux hardening Lesson 12, Topic A
Security scanning Lesson 8, Topic D
Secure boot
UEFI
System logging configurations
Setting default mask
Disabling/removing insecure services
Enforcing password strength
Removing unused packages
Tuning kernel parameters
Securing service accounts
Configuring the host firewall

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 Appendix A | A-9

2.2 Given a scenario, implement identity

management. Covered in
Account creation and deletion Lesson 2, Topic B
Utilities Lesson 2, Topic A
useradd
groupadd
userdel
groupdel
usermod
groupmod
id
who
w
Default shell
Configuration files
/etc/passwd
/etc/group
/etc/shadow
/etc/profile
/etc/skel
.bash_profile
.bashrc
Account management Lesson 2, Topic A
passwd
chage
pam_tally2
faillock
/etc/login.defs

2.3 Given a scenario, implement and configure

firewalls. Covered in
Firewall use cases Lesson 11, Topic A
Open and close ports
Check current configuration
Enable/Disable internet protocol (IP) forwarding
Common firewall technologies Lesson 11, Topic A
firewalld
iptables
nftables
Uncomplicated firewall (UFW)
Key firewall features Lesson 11, Topic A
Zones
Services
Stateful
Stateless

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2.4 Given a scenario, configure and execute remote

connectivity for system management. Covered in
SSH Lesson 10, Topic C
Configuration files
/etc/ssh/sshd_config
/etc/ssh/ssh_config
~/.ssh/known_hosts
~/.ssh/authorized_keys
~/.ssh/ssh_config
Commands
ssh-keygen
ssh-copy-id
ssh-add
Tunneling
X11 forwarding
Port forwarding
Dynamic forwarding
Executing commands as another user Lesson 2, Topic C
/etc/sudoers
PolicyKit rules
Commands
sudo
visudo
su -
pkexec

2.5 Given a scenario, apply the appropriate

access controls. Covered in
File permissions Lesson 3, Topic B
Access control list (ACL) Lesson 3, Topic C
Set user ID (SUID)
Set group ID (SGID)
Sticky bit
Security-enhanced Linux (SELinux) Lesson 12, Topic D
Content permissions
Labels
Autorelabel
System booleans
States
Enforcing
Permissive
Disabled
Policy types
Targeted
Minimum

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 Appendix A | A-11

2.5 Given a scenario, apply the appropriate

access controls. Covered in
AppArmor Lesson 12, Topic D
Application permissions
Command-line utilities Lesson 3, Topic A
chown Lesson 3, Topic C
Lesson 12, Topic D
umask
chmod
getfacl
setfacl
ls
setenforce
getenforce
chattr
lsattr
chgrp
setsebool
getsebool
chcon
restorecon
semanage
audit2allow

3.0 Scripting, Containers, and Automation

3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to
automate common tasks. Covered in
Shell script elements Lesson 13, Topic B
Loops Lesson 4, Topic B
Lesson 4, Topic C
while
for
until
Conditionals
if
switch/case
Shell parameter expansion
Globbing
Brace expansions
Comparisons
Arithmetic
String
Boolean
Variables
Search and replace
Regular expressions

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3.1 Given a scenario, create simple shell scripts to

automate common tasks. Covered in
Standard stream redirection
|
||
>
>>
<
<<
&
&&
Redirecting
stderr
stdout
Here documents
Exit documents
Shell built-in commands
read
echo
source
Common script utilities Lesson 13, Topic B
awk Lesson 4, Topic B
Lesson 4, Topic C
sed
find
xargs
grep
egrep
tee
wc
cut
tr
head
tail
Environmental variables Lesson 13, Topic B
$PATH
$SHELL
$?
Relative and absolute paths Lesson 4, Topic A

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3.2 Given a scenario, perform basic container

operations. Covered in
Container management Lesson 15, Topic B
Starting/stopping
Inspecting
Listing
Deploying existing images
Connecting to containers
Logging
Exposing ports
Container image operations Lesson 15, Topic B
build
push
pull
list
rmi

3.3 Given a scenario, perform basic version control

using Git. Covered in
clone Lesson 14, Topic C
push Lesson 14, Topic C
pull Lesson 14, Topic C
commit Lesson 14, Topic C
add Lesson 14, Topic C
checkout Lesson 14, Topic C
branch Lesson 14, Topic C
tag Lesson 14, Topic C
gitignore Lesson 14, Topic C

3.4 Summarize common infrastructure as code

technologies. Covered in
File formats Lesson 14, Topic A
YAML Ain't Markup Language (YAML)
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
Utilities Lesson 14, Topic B
Ansible
Puppet
Chef
SaltStack
Terraform
Continuous integration/continuous deployment (CI/CD) Lesson 14, Topic A
Use cases

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 A-14 | Appendix A

3.4 Summarize common infrastructure as code

technologies. Covered in
Advanced Git topics Lesson 14, Topic C
merge
rebase
Pull requests

3.5 Summarize container, cloud, and orchestration

concepts. Covered in
Kubernetes benefits and application use cases Lesson 15, Topic B
Pods
Sidecars
Ambassador containers
Single-node, multicontainer use cases Lesson 15, Topic B
Compose
Container persistent storage Lesson 15, Topic B
Container Networks Lesson 15, Topic B
Overlay networks
Bridging
Network address translation (NAT)
Host
Service mesh Lesson 15, Topic B
Bootstrapping Lesson 15, Topic B
Cloud-init
Container registries Lesson 15, Topic B

4.0 Troubleshooting
4.1 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot
storage issues. Covered in
High latency Lesson 7, Topic D
Input/output (I/O) wait
Low throughput Lesson 7, Topic D
Input/output operations per second (IOPS) scenarios Lesson 7, Topic D
Low IOPS
Capacity issues Lesson 7, Topic D
Low disk space
Inode exhaustion
Filesystem issues Lesson 7, Topic D
Corruption
Mismatch
I/O scheduler Lesson 7, Topic D

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4.1 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot

storage issues. Covered in
Device issues Lesson 7, Topic D
Non-volatile memory express (NVMe)
Solid-state drive (SSD)
SSD trim
RAID
LVM
I/O errors
Mount option problems Lesson 7, Topic D

4.2 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot

network resource issues. Covered in
Network configuration issues Lesson 10, Topic A
Subnet Lesson 10, Topic D
Routing
Firewall issues Lesson 11, Topic A
Interface errors Lesson 10, Topic D
Dropped packets
Collisions
Link status
Bandwidth limitations Lesson 10, Topic D
High latency
Name resolution issues Lesson 10, Topic D
Domain Name System (DNS)
Testing remote systems Lesson 11, Topic B
Nmap Lesson 10, Topic D
openssl s_client

4.3 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot central

processing unit (CPU) and memory issues. Covered in
Runaway processes Lesson 8, Topic B
Zombie processes Lesson 8, Topic B
High CPU utilization Lesson 8, Topic B
High load average Lesson 8, Topic B
High run queues Lesson 8, Topic B
CPU times Lesson 8, Topic B
steal
user
system
idle
iowait

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 A-16 | Appendix A

4.3 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot central

processing unit (CPU) and memory issues. Covered in
CPU process priorities Lesson 8, Topic B
nice Lesson 8, Topic C
renice
Memory exhaustion Lesson 8, Topic C
Free memory vs. file cache
Out of memory (OOM) Lesson 8, Topic C
Memory leaks
Process killer
Swapping Lesson 8, Topic C
Hardware Lesson 8, Topic A
lscpu
lsmem
/proc/cpuinfo
/proc/meminfo

4.4 Given a scenario, analyze and troubleshoot

user access and file permissions. Covered in
User login issues Lesson 2, Topic D
User file access issues Lesson 3, Topic A
Group Lesson 3, Topic B
Lesson 3, Topic C
Context
Permission
ACL
Attribute
Policy/non-policy
Password issues Lesson 2, Topic D
Privilege elevation Lesson 1, Topic B
Lesson 2, Topic C
Quota issues Lesson 7, Topic A

4.5 Given a scenario, use systemd to diagnose and

resolve common problems with a Linux system. Covered in
Unit files Lesson 9, Topic A
Service
Networking services
ExecStart/ExecStop
Before/after
Type
User
Requires/wants

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4.5 Given a scenario, use systemd to diagnose and

resolve common problems with a Linux system. Covered in
Timer
OnCalendar
OnBootSec
Unit
Time Expressions
Mount
Naming conventions
What
Where
Type
Options
Target
Default
Multiuser
Network-online
Graphical
Common problems Lesson 9, Topic C
Name resolution failure Lesson 9, Topic A
Application crash
Time-zone configuration
Boot issues
Journal issues
Services not starting on time

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 Appendix B
Command Reference
1

Understanding Linux commands, the syntax and purpose is critical to being a

successful Linux administrator. Appendix B is a helpful reference tool with all the
Linux commands that are discussed in the course, grouped by lesson and topic
order.

Basic Linux Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
ls ls [option] List the contents of the Lesson 1, Topic B
current directory.
cat cat Display the contents of Lesson 1, Topic B
[file-name] a text file on the screen.

cd cd /etc Change from one Lesson 1, Topic B

directory to another.
pwd pwd Displays the present Lesson 1, Topic B
working directory.
whoami whoami Displays the username Lesson 1, Topic B
of the current user.
touch touch Create a new empty file Lesson 1, Topic B
[file-name] or update the timestamp
on an existing file.
man man Display manual, or help, Lesson 1, Topic C
[command] pages for a specific
command.
whatis whatis Provides a brief Lesson 1, Topic C
[command] description of the
specified command.

Commands Related to Administering Users and Groups

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
passwd passwd Manage user Lesson 2, Topic A
[user-name] passwords.

chage chage -options Manage password Lesson 2, Topic A

settings.
w w Display current Lesson 2, Topic A
users on the
system.
who who Display current Lesson 2, Topic A
users on the
system.
useradd useradd Add a user. Lesson 2, Topic A
-options
argument

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 B-2 | Appendix B

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

usermod usermod Modify a user. Lesson 2, Topic A
-options
argument
userdel userdel Delete a user. Lesson 2, Topic A
[user-name]
id id [user-name] Gather and display Lesson 2, Topic A
account
information.
groupadd groupadd Create a new Lesson 2, Topic B
[group-name] group.

groupmod groupmod Modify an existing Lesson 2, Topic B

-options group.
argument
groupdel groupdel Remove an Lesson 2, Topic B
[group-name] existing group.

su su - [user- Switch user to the Lesson 2, Topic C

name] specified user or
account name.
sudo sudo -options Exercise delegated Lesson 2, Topic C
[command] privileges.

pkexec pkexec program Allows an Lesson 2, Topic C

argument authorized user
to execute an
action.

Permissions Configuration Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
umask umask {number} Alter the default Lesson 3,
permissions on Topic A
newly created files
and directories.
chmod chmod [options] Modify the Lesson 3,
{mode} {file/directory permissions of a Topic A
name} file or directory.

chown Varies based on desired outcome: Change the owner, Lesson 3,

the group, or both Topic A
• Change the owner but not the
for a file or
group: chown {newowner}
directory.
{filename}
• Change both the owner
and the group: chown
{newowner}:{newgroup}
{filename}
• Change the group but
not the owner: chown
:{newgroup} {filename}

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 Appendix B | B-3

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

chgrp chgrp {group name} Change the group Lesson 3,
{file/directory name} ownership of a file Topic A
or directory.
lsattr lsattr [options] List attributes Lesson 3,
{file/directory names} of a file or a Topic A
directory.
chattr chattr [-R] Change attributes Lesson 3,
[-v {version}] of a file or a Topic A
[+- {attributes}] directory.
{file/directory
names}
getfacl getfacl {filename} Retrieve the ACLs Lesson 3,
of files and Topic C
directories.
setfacl setfacl [-bR] Change the Lesson 3,
[-mx {acl_spec}] permissions Topic C
{file/directory associated with
names} the ACL of a file
or directory.

File Management Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
stat stat {file-name} Display file metadata in Lesson 4,
a relatively user-friendly Topic A
structure.
file file {file-name} Display file information Lesson 4,
based on the file type. Topic A
ln ln [options] Create links, either hard Lesson 4,
{target-name} or symbolic. Topic A
{link-name}
cd cd {path} Move your present Lesson 4,
working directory to Topic B
another directory.
tree tree {directory- Display the filesystem in Lesson 4,
name} a hierarchical structure, Topic B
perhaps making it
easier to understand
a directory’s location
relative to other
directories.
mkdir mkdir {new- Create directories along Lesson 4,
directory-name} the specified path. Topic B

cp cp {source-file} Copy a file into a new Lesson 4,

{new-file} location while retaining Topic B
the source file in its
original location.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 B-4 | Appendix B

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

mv mv {source- Place the file elsewhere Lesson 4,
location} in the filesystem. Topic B
{destination-
location}
mv mv {original- The rename command Lesson 4,
filename} in Bash. Topic B
{new-filename}
rmdir rmdir Remove (delete) a Lesson 4,
{directory- directory with no files Topic B
name} in it.

rm rm [options] Remove (delete) a file or Lesson 4,

{file-name} a non-empty directory. Topic B

head head {file-name} Display the first 10 lines Lesson 4,

of a file. Topic B
tail tail {file-name} Display the last 10 lines Lesson 4,
of a file. Topic B
grep grep {character- Search for strings of Lesson 4,
string] characters within a data Topic B
stream. Grep is case-
sensitive unless the -i
option is used.
xargs command Read from standard Lesson 4,
[options] input and executes a Topic B
[arguments] | command for each
xargs [options] argument provided.
{command}
tee command Read the standard input, Lesson 4,
[options] sends the output to the Topic B
[arguments] | default output device
tee [options] (the CLI), and also copies
{file names} the output to each
specified file.
find find {where to Search the filesystem for Lesson 4,
search} {search files that match the given Topic C
criteria} parameters.

locate locate [options] Search for files and Lesson 4,

{string} directories along a Topic C
specified path.
updatedb updatedb Build and update a Lesson 4,
database of files based Topic C
on the /etc/updatedb.
conf file.
which which {command} Display complete path of Lesson 4,
a specified command. Topic C

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 Appendix B | B-5

Commands for Authoring Text Files

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
tar tar Bundle files for Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] easier transfer.
{file1,
file2 ...}
gzip gzip Reduce size of Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] files.
[file-names]
xz xz [options] Reduce size of Lesson 5, Topic B
[file-names] files.
bzip2 bzip2 Manage file Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] compression.
{file-names}
zip zip Reduce size of Lesson 5, Topic B
[options] files with archiving
[file-names] functionality.

Software Management Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
rpm rpm [options] Package management Lesson 6, Topic B
{package-name} in Red Hat distros.

yum yum [options] Software package Lesson 6, Topic B

[subcommand] management in Red
{package-name} Hat distros.

apt apt Package management Lesson 6, Topic C

[subcommands] in Debian-based
{package-name} distros.

dpkg dpkg [options] Manage software Lesson 6, Topic C

{package-name} packages in older
Debian-based
distros.

wget wget [options] Download package Lesson 6, Topic E

{URL} files housed on
websites from the
command line.

curl curl [options] Download package Lesson 6, Topic E

{URL} files housed on
websites from the
command line.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 B-6 | Appendix B

Commands for Administering Storage

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
lsblk lsblk Display Lesson 7, Topic B
{drive-path} information
about storage
devices
recognized by
the system.
lsscsi lsscsi Display Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] information
about SCSI
devices.
fdisk fdisk Create, modify, or Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] delete partitions
{device-name} on a storage
drive.
parted parted Create, destroy, Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] and resize
{device-name} partitions.

mkfs mkfs [options] Format new Lesson 7, Topic B

{filesystem-name} partitions.
{partition-name}
mount mount Attach storage to Lesson 7, Topic B
{filesystem-name} the FHS.
{directory-name}
umount umount Detach storage Lesson 7, Topic B
{filesystem-name} from the FHS.
{directory-name}
df df [options] Display device Lesson 7, Topic B
{directory-name} storage
information.
du du [options] Display device Lesson 7, Topic B
{directory-name} usage
information.
e2label e2label /dev/ Display or modify Lesson 7, Topic B
{device name} file system labels.
{partition
number} {label
name}
resize2fs resize2fs Change the size Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] of an ext2/3/4
{device/file file system on a
system name} device.
[desired size]
tune2fs tune2fs Configure Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] parameters
{device/ file associated with
system name} an ext2/3/4 file
system.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 Appendix B | B-7

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

dumpe2fs dumpe2fs Dump ext2, ext3, Lesson 7, Topic B
[options] and ext4 file
{device/ file system
system name} information.

cryptsetup cryptsetup Encrypt data Lesson 7, Topic C

[options] before it is
{action} written to disk.
[action
arguments]
shred shred [options] Securely wipe a Lesson 7, Topic C
{file-name} storage device
by overwriting
contents with
random data or
all zeros.
iostat iostat Display reports Lesson 7, Topic D
[options] on CPU and
[device names] device
storage.
ioping ioping Generate a Lesson 7, Topic D
[options] report of device
{file/ directory/ I/O latency in real
device name} time.

Commands for Managing Devices, Processes, Memory and

the Kernel
Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
hwinfo hwinfo Display detailed Lesson 8,
[options] information about Topic A
{device} hardware
resources.
dmidecode dmidecode Display system Lesson 8,
[options] information for Topic A
{device} current devices.

lspci lspci Display Lesson 8,

[options] information about Topic A
devices attached to
specific busses.
lsusb lsusb Display information Lesson 8,
[options] about devices Topic A
attached to
specific busses.
lscpu lscpu Display CPU Lesson 8,
[options] information. Topic A

lsmem lsmem Display information Lesson 8,

[options] about memory blocks. Topic A

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 B-8 | Appendix B

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

ps The ps command Display process Lesson 8,
supports multiple status. Topic B
command syntax
formats.
sar sar Display system usage Lesson 8,
[options] reports. Topic B

nohup nohup Prevent a process Lesson 8,

{command/ from ending when Topic B
script} the user logs off.

mkswap mkswap Create swap space on Lesson 8,

[options] a storage partition. Topic C

swapon swapon Activate the swap Lesson 8,

[options] partition on a specific Topic C
device.
swapoff swapoff Deactivate the swap Lesson 8,
[options] partition on a specific Topic C
device.
free free Display the quantity Lesson 8,
[options] of free or unused Topic C
memory.
vmstat vmstat Display the virtual Lesson 8,
[options] memory usage. Topic C

modinfo modinfo Display information Lesson 8,

[options] about a particular Topic D
{module-name} kernel module.

insmod insmod Install a module into Lesson 8,

{module-name} the currently running Topic D
kernel.
rmmod rmmod Remove a module Lesson 8,
{module-name} from the currently Topic D
running kernel.
modprobe modprobe Add or remove Lesson 8,
[options] modules from a Topic D
{module-names} kernel.

depmod depmod Build the modules. Lesson 8,

[options] dep file by Topic D
aggregating all
instances of symbols
being exported and
used.
sysctl sysctl View or set kernel Lesson 8,
[options] parameters at Topic D
runtime.
dmesg dmesg Print any messages Lesson 8,
[options] that have been sent to Topic D
the kernel’s message
buffer during and
after system boot.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 Appendix B | B-9

Service Management Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
systemctl systemctl Manage startup Lesson 9,
[subcommand] options. Topic A
[argument]
service service Manage enabling and Lesson 9,
[options] starting services under Topic A
[service] SysVinit.
[subcommand]
chkconfig chkconfig • Control services in Lesson 9,
[options] each runlevel. Topic A
[service]
• Start or stop services
[subcommand]
during system
startup.
crontab crontab Schedule an event by Lesson 9,
[options] editing the crontab file. Topic B

at at [options] Run a task once at a Lesson 9,

{time} specified time. Topic B

lpr lpr [options] Submit files for printing. Lesson 9,

[file names] Topic B

date date [options] Print the date in a Lesson 9,

[format] specified format. Topic C

timedatectl timedatectl Set the system date and Lesson 9,

[options] time information. Topic C
[subcommand]
localectl localectl View and configure Lesson 9,
[options] the system locale and Topic C
[subcommand] keyboard layout
settings.

Network Setting Configuration Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
ip ip [options] Display IP address, Lesson 10,
{object} subnet mask, and Topic B
[subcommand] MAC address settings.

ifconfig ifconfig Display current Lesson 10,

[options] IP address Topic B
[interface] information for each
NIC recognized by
the system.
iwconfig iwconfig Provide wireless NIC Lesson 10,
[options] configurations and Topic B
[interface] settings.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 B-10 | Appendix B

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

nmcli nmcli [options] View and manage Lesson 10,
[subcommand] network settings. Topic B
[arguments]
ethtool ethtool Manage NIC driver Lesson 10,
[options] and network Topic B
{device name} configurations.

hostnamectl hostnamectl View system’s Lesson 10,

[options] network hostname. Topic B
[subcommand]
[arguments]
netcat netcat Test connectivity and Lesson 10,
[options] send data across Topic C
network connections.
iftop iftop [options] Display bandwidth Lesson 10,
[-i {interface}] usage information. Topic C

traceroute traceroute Report the network Lesson 10,

[options] path between the Topic C
{destination} source and
destination
computers.
tracepath tracepath Report the network Lesson 10,
[options] path between the Topic C
{destination} source and
destination
computers.
resolvectl resolvectl query Manually query Lesson 10,
{domain-name} name resolution Topic D
services.
dig dig {domain Test name Lesson 10,
name} resolution. Topic D

nslookup nslookup {domain Gather information Lesson 10,

name} about and test name Topic D
resolution.
host host {domain Gather information Lesson 10,
name} about and test name Topic D
resolution.
whois whois [options] Display hostname, Lesson 10,
{domain name} FQDN, IP address, Topic D
and other
information about
a given host.
arp arp [options] Discover information Lesson 10,
about known MAC Topic D
addresses.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 Appendix B | B-11

Network Security Configuration Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

iptables iptables Manage packet Lesson 11,

[options] filtering and stateful Topic A
[-t table] firewall functions.
[commands]
{chain/rule
specification}
firewall-cmd firewall-cmd Configure firewalld Lesson 11,
[options] by querying and Topic A
modifying zones or
services as desired.

ufw ufw Configure nftables Lesson 11,

[options] or iptables. Topic A
{action}
ping ping Generate a response Lesson 11,
[options] request from the Topic B
{destination} sending computer,
which should receive
a reply from the
destination
computer.

traceroute traceroute Display each hop Lesson 11,

[options] along the network Topic B
{destination} path.

tracepath tracepath Display each hop Lesson 11,

[options] along the network Topic B
{destination} path.

mtr mtr [options] Test network Lesson 11,

[hostname] connection quality Topic B
and packet loss.

netstat netstat Gather information Lesson 11,

[options] about TCP Topic B
connections to the
system.

ss ss [options] Gather information Lesson 11,

about TCP Topic B
connections and
display in a simple
output.

tcpdump tcpdump Determine traffic Lesson 11,

[options] [-i type and content. Topic B
{interface}]
[host {IP
address}]
nmap nmap [options] Report extremely Lesson 11,
[target] detailed information Topic B
about a network.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 B-12 | Appendix B

Security Management Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
md5sum md5sum Calculate the hash value Lesson 12,
options] of a file with the MD5 Topic B
[file name] hash function.

sha#sum sha#sum Calculate the hash value Lesson 12,

options] of a file with the SHA Topic B
[file name] hash function.

chcon chcon Temporarily change the Lesson 12,

{-u|-r|-t} SELinux context of a Topic D
{context resource.
value} {file
or directory
name}
apparmor_ No additional Display the current Lesson 12,
status options or status of AppArmor Topic D
subcommands. profiles.
aa-complain aa- complain Place an AppArmor Lesson 12,
{path to profile in complain Topic D
profile} mode.

aa-enforce aa- enforce Place an AppArmor Lesson 12,

{path to profile in enforce Topic D
profile} mode.

aa-disable aa-disable Disable an AppArmor Lesson 12,

{path to profile, unloading it Topic D
profile} from the kernel.

aa-unconfined No additional List processes with open Lesson 12,

options or network sockets that Topic D
subcommands. don’t have an AppArmor
profile loaded.

Script Implementation Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
awk awk [options] Search for specified Lesson 13,
['patterns information, and take Topic B
{actions}'] | action when that
{file-names} information is found.

sed sed {'options/ Modify text files, Lesson 13,

address/action'} especially by searching Topic B
{file-names} and replacing.

find find {where to Search for files based Lesson 13,

search} {search on criteria other than Topic B
criteria} filename.

tee command [options] Verify the output of a Lesson 13,

[arguments] | tee command immediately, Topic B
[options] and store that output in
{file-names} a file for later reference.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 Appendix B | B-13

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in

xargs command [options] Commonly used with Lesson 13,
[arguments] | the find   command to Topic B
xargs [options] operate on each result
{command} that is found within the
file or directory search.
export export [options] Set the value of an Lesson 13,
[NAME[=value]] environment variable for Topic C
all future Bash sessions.
env env [options] Run a command with Lesson 13,
[NAME=value] modified environment Topic C
[command] variables.

alias alias [alias Customize the shell Lesson 13,

name[='command environment by Topic C
with options']] generating
command-line aliases.

IaC Commands
Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
git git [options] Manage Git repositories. Lesson 14, Topic C
{subcommand}

Commands for Managing Containers

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
docker docker The primary Lesson 15, Topic B
subcommand management
{options} command for
{arguments} Docker containers.

docker pull docker pull Pull an image from Lesson 15, Topic B
{image-name} a registry.
docker docker Manage Lesson 15, Topic B
container container attributes
subcommand for specified
{options} containers.
{arguments}
push Exact syntax Upload images to Lesson 15, Topic B
depends on the a registry.
specific container
engine.
pull Exact syntax Download images Lesson 15, Topic B
depends on the from a registry.
specific container
engine.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 B-14 | Appendix B

Linux Installation Commands

Command Syntax Purpose Covered in
mkinitrd mkinitrd Create the initrd Lesson 16, Topic A
[options] image for preloading
{initrd image the kernel modules.
name} {kernel
version}
grub2- grub2- Install the GRUB2 Lesson 16, Topic B
install install boot loader on a
[options] storage device.
[device name]
grub2- grub2-mkconfig Generate a new Lesson 16, Topic B
mkconfig [-o {file grub.cfg configuration
name}] file, or update an
existing one.

Appendix B: Command Reference

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 Solutions
1
Review Activity: Linux Characteristics
1. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of GUI and CLI environments.

CLI may be faster to work with and consume fewer resources. GUI is usually easier to work with and
supports graphics-based applications.

2. Explain how distributions differ from each other.

Distributions tend to focus on addressing particular needs, such as an end-user workstation, multimedia
editing, and high-performance service hosting.

3. Why do servers tend to rely on CLI administration and desktops rely on GUI environments?

Servers attempt to dedicate all possible resources to the provided services and do not usually run end-user
applications that often require a GUI. Desktop systems often run user applications that benefit from or
require a graphical component.

4. How might anyone contribute improvements to a piece of free and open-source software?

Anyone might notice a need or requirement in software, create a solution to the problem, and then release
the modified software. As the cycle is repeated, the software continues to improve.

Review Activity: Interact with Linux

1. An administrator asks you to make a change to the system’s configuration. Why would you need
to use Vim or Nano to accomplish this task?

Most Linux configurations are stored in text files, so changing the configuration requires editing the text files.

2. What types of files will be found in the /etc directory?

Configuration files.

3. Explain the difference between the su and sudo commands.

The su command switches to a different user account (usually root). The user can exercise all privileges
associated with that account. The sudo command allows a user to run only specific, delegated commands
that normally require administrative privileges.

2
Review Activity: Help in Linux
1. Name three things a man page might provide a user.

Man pages provide a summary of the command’s function, examples of using the command, explanation of
options.

2. Why might vendor websites be the best source of information about an application or service?

The vendor site probably contains the most current information to configure the application or service,
provides the version history, and supplies examples of use.

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3
Review Activity: Troubleshoot in Linux
1. A user contacts you to find out why they cannot access a directory. Using the troubleshooting
methodology, how would you narrow the scope of the problem?

Checking with another user in the same group who has the same level of access to the directory will allow
you to determine whether the problem is widespread.

2. When should you escalate a problem?

Escalate a problem when you cannot solve it yourself (although it won’t be good for your career if you give
up too easily). You might also escalate if you do not have authorization to perform the necessary changes or
if the system is under some sort of warranty.

3. True or False? Documentation should be created only at the end of the troubleshooting process.

False. The last step of the methodology is to ensure that findings, actions, and outcomes are documented,
but you cannot do this effectively without existing notes. Most troubleshooting takes place within a ticket
system. Ideally, a documented job ticket would be opened at the start of recording the incident.

4
Review Activity: User Account Management
1. Why are user passwords stored in the /etc/shadow file and not the /etc/passwd file?

The /etc/passwd file can be read by all processes and therefore isn’t as secure. The /etc/shadow file
can only be read by root.

2. What is the purpose of the /etc/skel directory?

Any files stored in this directory are automatically copied to the home directory of new user accounts. Profile
files and other configurations can be easily set using /etc/skel.

3. Why might an administrator change a user’s default shell?

The user may be more comfortable with a different shell than Bash, such as the Zsh or Ksh.

5
Review Activity: Group Account Management
1. Suggest at least two ways to display group membership information.

View the /etc/group file, id command, group command.

2. What command adds a user to a group?

The usermod command (usually with the -aG options).

3. What is the result if an administrator forgets to add the -a option when adding a user to a
group?

The user is added to the specified group but removed from all other groups.

4. Why might a user be a member of multiple groups?

Membership in multiple groups provides access to different resources. For example, a user who is a member
of both the sales group and the marketing group can be granted access to both types of resources.

Solutions

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6
Review Activity: Privilege Escalation
1. A developer at your organization needs the ability to reboot a test server, but their account’s
standard privileges do not permit this. The developer requests the system’s root user password
in order to use su to reboot the server. Is there a more secure option that aligns with the
principle of least privilege?

A better option is sudo, which allows the administrator to delegate only the necessary task (in this case,
rebooting the server). The root password combined with su would grant more than just the reboot privilege.

2. How are the su root and su - root commands different?

The su root command switches the user identity to that of root within the user profile settings of the original
user. The su - root command switches the user identity to that of root with the root user’s own profile
settings.

3. You must delegate the shutdown -h privilege to SOMEUSER. What tool is used to modify the /etc/
sudoers file, and what line must be added to that file?

The visudo command is run to edit the file. The following line is added to the file: SOMEUSER ALL=(ALL)
NOPASSWD: SHUTDOWN_CMDS

4. Whose password must be entered with sudo? Whose password must be entered with su?

The user’s own password must be entered with sudo. The destination user’s password must be entered
with su.

7
Review Activity: User and Group Troubleshooting
1. List at least three scenarios where you might need records of who logged in to a Linux system.

security incident response, security audit, troubleshooting account access

2. Another administrator asks you to explain the value of editing the /etc/sudoer’s file with visudo
rather than a traditional text editor. What is your response?

The visudo editor confirms the syntax of the /etc/sudoers file. The file is very sensitive, and misconfiguration
could prevent administrative access to the system.

3. List at least three reasons a user account might be locked.

An administrator locked the account while the user was on a leave of absence, an incorrect password was
entered too many times, and password settings are misconfigured.

4. During a security audit it is discovered that a user does not have a password set. When you
check the /etc/passwd file, the password field is properly populated with the x character. What
file would actually display whether a password has been set for the user?

/etc/shadow

5. A user places sudo before a command, but the command still fails to run. What might be the
cause?

The /etc/sudoers file is not configured for the user or for the command.

6. An administrator asks you how to delegate Linux administrative privileges to a specific user.
What group is used for such delegation?

the wheel group

Solutions

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8
Review Activity: Standard Linux Permissions
1. How does the principle of least privilege help mitigate threats and mistakes?

It mitigates threats and mistakes by providing users with only the level of access required and no more. By
not having more access than needed, mistakes such as accidental or malicious changes or deletions may be
avoided.

2. What octal value is used in absolute mode to set permissions at all access for all identities?

777

3. Write the command by using symbolic mode that removes the read permission from others for
fileA without impacting other permissions.

chmod o-r fileA

4. Interpret the results of the following command: chown -R USERA:sales dirA

Sets the dirA directory owner to USERA and the associated group to sales. The -R option causes the owner
and group change to apply to all existing files and directories in dirA.

9
Review Activity: Special Linux Permissions
1. How would SGID benefit users when set on the /projects directory where multiple users are
members of the associated group and need access to each other’s files in the directory?

SGID assigned the group association to files created in the /projects directory, allowing group members to
have access to each other’s files.

2. Why might a sysadmin set the sticky bit on a configuration file?

A sysadmin might do this to keep the configuration file from being accidentally deleted by another user or by
the system (for example, during an upgrade).

10
Review Activity: ACL Configuration
1. Explain the benefit offered by ACLs compared to standard Linux permissions.

ACLs provide additional flexibility by permitting multiple users and/or multiple groups to have different
levels of access.

2. What commands are used to set ACL entries for USERA with rwx and USERB with r-- for fileA?

Run these two commands:

setfacl -m u:USERA:rwx fileA

setfacl -m u:USERB:r fileA

3. Does the ACL structure replace standard permissions?

No, ACLs enhance the existing standard permissions structure.

Solutions

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1
Review Activity: The Linux File System
1. You are installing a new application on your Linux system. The documentation states that
configuration files and log files will be added to your system. Where will these files likely be
stored, and how does the FHS make such installations easier?

Configuration files will likely be stored in the /etc directory, and log files will likely be stored in /var/log. The
FHS makes it easier for developers to automate installations since directories such as /etc and /var/log are
consistent across distributions. The FHS also makes it easier for administrators to understand where such
files are likely to be stored.

2. You are in the new-projects directory, which is stored in the projects directory within your home
directory. What is the absolute path to the new-projects directory?

/home/USERNAME/projects/new-projects

3. A user submits a ticket regarding a file access issue. The first file, projectA.txt, had a second
hard link named my-project.txt. The same data was available via either link. The user deleted
the my-project.txt file, and the data was still available via projectA.txt. The second file, projectB.
txt, had a sym link that pointed to the projectB.txt link. When the projectB.txt link was deleted,
the data was no longer available via the sym link. The user wants to know why the first file is
still available after a link deletion but the second is not.

The first file still exists, and one hard link pointing to its content remains after the other hard link was
deleted. Hard links point to the actual data stored on the drive. Data always has at least one hard link. When
the only hard link to the second file was deleted, the sym link was broken because sym links do not point to
data, they point to hard links (that then point to data).

12
Review Activity: File Management Commands
1. You have been assigned a helpdesk ticket to answer a user question. The user is attempting to
rename files but cannot find the rename command. What command do you teach the user?

The mv command, and the syntax is mv {oldname} {newname}

2. A user asks how to delete a directory named /projects containing 100 directories. The user
does not want to delete the files individually and does not want to be prompted to confirm the
deletion of each file. What is the appropriate command expression, and why?

rm -fR /projects

Most Linux distributions ask for confirmation when removing files. This is tedious when many files are
involved, though it’s an important safety check. The -f option forces the removal without confirmation.

3. A user complains that they redirected the output from several commands into a text file, but
the only content that appears in the file is the output from the most recent command. How
would you explain to the user what happened and how to correct the problem?

The > redirector overwrites any existing content in the target file. In the future, the user should use the >>
redirector to append new content to existing content in the target file.

Solutions

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13
Review Activity: File Location
1. You are conducting a security audit and need to document user access to log files—specifically
whether any files are world-readable or whether any allow rwx access to all users. How can the
find command be used in such a project, and what specific command might you use?

find /var/log -perm 400 (for world-readable access) and find /var/log -perm 777 (for
rwx to all users)

2. A coworker on the helpdesk team is troubleshooting an issue where a user is attempting to

run a command, but the command is not executing. Your coworker needs to discover where
the command executes from as part of the troubleshooting process. What command(s) can you
suggest?

The where command would be useful.

3. A senior sysadmin suggests that commands such as sed, awk, and sort are just as useful
in automation as at the command-line. How might commands such as these be used in
automation?

File management commands such as sed, awk, sort, cut, paste, tr, wc, printf, echo, and
diff can be integrated into automation scripts to find, organize, and display information or provide
configurations.

14
Review Activity: Text Files
1. A user contacts you and wants an easier text editor to use than Vim. There is no GUI installed on
the system in question. What text editor do you suggest and why?

Suggest the Nano editor. It is less confusing because it does not use modes and the common commands are
displayed in the interface.

2. Explain how the keyboard responds depending on which mode Vim is currently in. How do
modes add to Vim’s functionality?

The keyboard issues commands to Vim in some modes (Command and Execute) and manages content in
Insert mode. By allowing Vim to respond differently to keystrokes, many actions and features are possible
within the editor.

3. Why are text editors more important on Linux systems than on other systems?

System settings and service configurations are stored in text files. For a sysadmin to change the server’s
configuration, these files must be edited. Many Linux servers do not have a GUI and therefore do not have
mouse-driven, menu-based interfaces. CLI text editors are the tools sysadmins use to reconfigure systems.

15
Review Activity: Text File Management
1. Why is it a good practice to back up a configuration file before making changes?

The original file can be put back in place if the updated file causes issues.

2. Why should the integrity of a file downloaded from the Internet be checked by tools such as SHA
or MD5?

Files may be corrupted or changed during the download process. Checking file integrity with hashing tools
identifies whether any changes have occurred.

Solutions

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16
Review Activity: Software Management
1. What are the software-management phases?

The phases are install, update/maintain, remove, inventory, or query information.

2. Why should administrators control software repository locations?

They should do this to ensure the availability of proper software versions, authorized software, and
legitimate software.

3. Why is compiling software more common with Linux systems than with other operating
systems?

The open-source nature of Linux software means there is access to the source code for customization and
understanding of the software.

Review Activity: RPM Software Packages and

17
Repositories
1. What information might sysadmins query the RPM database to retrieve?

Package version, install date, description, vendor, file locations

2. Why might sysadmins restrict certain software repositories?

Version and software control, access to approved software, maintain network efficiency by only downloading
software once to the network and then distributing it

3. Why are .rpmnew files important during an upgrade?

These files maintain existing configuration file settings rather than overwriting them with vendor defaults.

Review Activity: Debian Software Packages

18
and Repositories
1. What are the two steps for upgrading software with apt?

Use the apt update command, and then use the apt upgrade command.

2. Explain the difference between the two steps in upgrading software with apt.

The apt update command updates the database of available packages, and the apt upgrade command
upgrades the actual packages.

19
Review Activity: Source Code
1. What is the effect of using ./ before an executable file?

The ./ causes Bash to check the current directory for the executable instead of the normal command path.

Solutions

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2. Why is it more common to compile software with Linux than with other operating systems?

The source code is readily available in open-source environments and can be modified before compiling. In
proprietary environments, the source code is not available and software is almost always precompiled.

20
Review Activity: Software Acquisition
1. How can wget or curl be used to download files from the Internet in a way that a web browser
can not be used?

They can be used in an automated file download script and a browser cannot.

2. How might tar be used to distribute an application?

The application source code and supporting files may be bundled into a tar archive and compressed for a
more efficient download.

21
Review Activity: Software in Sandbox
1. What is the advantage of sandboxing?

Isolating a piece of software from any other software, the operating system, and system resources decreases
its ability to damage the system.

2. True or False? The original practice, known as chroot, that predates the current method of
sandboxing, is deprecated and no longer used.

False. The practice of chroot is still appropriate in many settings.

2
Review Activity: Storage Concepts
1. Explain the key differences between MBR and GPT partition tables.

MBR is limited to four partitions and a maximum drive size of 2 TB, while GPT does not have such limitations.

2. How might quotas help sysadmins manage storage capacity on a server?

Quotas help by better controlling how much data users are allowed to store on the system.

3. Do all RAID array designs provide fault tolerance?

No, RAID 0 Disk striping does not provide fault tolerance.

23
Review Activity: Storage Deployment
1. What does /dev/sdc3 specify?

It specifies the third partition (3) on the third storage disk (c).

2. What role does the partprobe command play in the process of adding storage?

The partprobe command checks for changes to the partition table, updating the system with any new or
removed partitions.

Solutions

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3. What command adds the XFS filesystem to /dev/sdb2?

mkfs.xfs /dev/sdb2

4. What is a mount point?

A mount point is a directory where storage capacity is attached to the filesystem and made accessible to
users.

5. What are the three layers of an LVM deployment?

The three layers are physical volumes, volume groups, and logical volumes.

24
Review Activity: Storage Options
1. Why is RAID 5 fault tolerant and RAID 0 not?

RAID 5 maintains parity information about stored data that can be used to recreate data missing from any
one failed disk. RAID 0 does not store parity information.

2. You purchase two 100 GB storage disks to use in a RAID 1 mirror. Assuming the entire storage
capacity of both disks is at your disposal, what is the maximum amount of data your RAID 1
array can store?

100 GB

3. What do the Fibre Channel and iSCSI standards provide?

They send SCSI commands to storage over network connections.

25
Review Activity: Storage Troubleshooting
1. What command reports real-time disk latency information?

ioping

2. List the commands necessary to show configuration information for each of the three layers
of LVM.

pvdisplay, vgdisplay, lvdisplay

3. When trying to save a file to a storage disk, you receive a message stating the drive is out of
space. The df command indicates there is plenty of free space. What might be the issue?

inode exhaustion

4. You have added a partition to an existing disk by using fdisk. The partition is not displayed by
the cat /proc/partitions command. What other command do you need to run?

partprobe

26
Review Activity: Processes
1. Differentiate between stopped processes and zombie processes.

Stopped processes are terminating and releasing their resources. Zombie processes are child processes
awaiting parent-process acceptance of their termination.

Solutions

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2. Differentiate between -15 and -9 kill signals.

The kill signal -15 asks a process to gracefully exit. The kill signal -9 terminates the process ungracefully.

3. What keys are used to cause top to display resources by memory consumption or by CPU
consumption?

Use M to display memory and P to display processor consumption.

4. Differentiate between the nice and renice commands.

The nice command is used to launch new processes at a specified priority, and the renice command is used
to re-prioritize running processes.

27
Review Activity: Memory
1. Explain the concept of virtual memory.

Because both RAM and storage drives are storage locations, if the RAM fills additional storage, space can be
borrowed from storage devices and information can be swapped between the two.

2. What is a swap partition?

A swap partition is a dedicated partition on a storage device that is used as virtual memory space.

3. Differentiate between the free and vmstat commands.

The free command displays physical memory use. The vmstat command displays virtual memory use.

28
Review Activity: The Linux Kernel
1. What is a kernel module?

A kernel module is a prewritten piece of code that adds functionality beyond what’s built into the kernel.

2. What does the output of the dmesg command display?

The output contains kernel messages covering drivers, modules, parameters, and other functions, including
status and error information.

3. Where else is dmesg output found?

/var/log/dmesg

29
Review Activity: System Services
1. When using the systemctl command, how does enabling a service differ from starting a service?

Answers will vary. Enabling a service causes it to start when the system starts. Starting the service launches
the service for the current runtime.

2. What command restarts the sshd service after a configuration change?

systemctl restart sshd

3. What are the target names for the GUI and CLI startup options?

GUI = graphical.target and CLI = multi-user.target

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30
Review Activity: System Service Configuration
1. A sysadmin has several virtual machines that are frequently on and off the development
network. The administrator complains of time synchronization problems with applications on
the VMs. What time service can you suggest to help?

chrony

2. Define some reasons to forward Linux log files to a central server.

Forwarding log files makes it easier to archive logs and easier to search or parse logs.

3. Differentiate between the at command scheduler and the cron scheduler.

The at command is most useful for one-time commands, and cron is most useful for commands that are
repeated.

4. When would a script run if it were configured in cron with the following settings? 30 1 * * *

It would run every day at 1:30 a.m.

31
Review Activity: Localization Settings
1. Where are regional time-zone files stored on Red Hat–derived systems? And Debian-derived
systems?

On Red Hat–derived systems, see /user/share/zoneinfo. On Debian-derived systems, see /etc/timezone.

2. True or false? The localectl command configures the system locale and keyboard settings as one
collective setting that is aligned with the locale’s specific cultural elements.

False. The keyboard layout can be configured separately and independently of the locale, allowing the wide
variety of keyboard layouts to be used with different locale settings.

32
Review Activity: Network Fundamentals
1. Differentiate between MAC addresses, IP addresses, and hostnames.

MAC addresses are physical addresses encoded on NICs, IP addresses are logical addresses configured by
administrators or DHCP, and hostnames are logical human-friendly names assigned by administrators.

2. Explain the difference between the Network ID and the Host ID portions of an IP address.

The Network ID is assigned to a network segment, and all nodes on the segment have the same Network ID,
making them local to each other. The Host ID is unique to each node within the Network ID to differentiate
hosts from each other.

3. List three advantages of IPv6 over IPv4.

IPv6 has more addresses, native encryption, and more efficient routing.

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3
Review Activity: Network Settings
1. Why would an administrator need to use the ip link set eth0 up command?

The link was configured as disabled but is now needed.

2. Describe the dynamic and static IP address assignment processes, and list the types of devices
that likely rely on each process.

The dynamic process relies on a DHCP server with a range of available addresses. Clients lease addresses
automatically, requiring no user intervention. Common devices are workstations, laptops, phones, and
tablets. The static process relies on an administrator manually configuring the IP address settings, and
common devices are servers, routers, switches, and other network devices.

3. What commands are needed to refresh dynamically assigned IP settings?

dhclient -r and dhclient

4. What is the purpose of the /etc/resolv.conf and /etc/nsswitch.conf files?

The /etc/resolv.conf file lists available nameservers, and the /etc/nsswitch.conf file defines the order for
name resolution between the local /etc/hosts file and the nameservers listed in /etc/resolv.conf.

34
Review Activity: Remote Administrative Access
1. A developer wants to integrate an SSH connection to a remote server into a script. The
developer needs to avoid a password challenge for the SSH connection. What solution can you
recommend?

Key-based authentication can be fully automated, avoiding the password challenge.

2. Why might a sysadmin use the curl or wget commands?

These commands allow for a command-line-based download from a web server and can therefore be scripted.

3. What advantage does the rsync utility have over SCP and SFTP?
What disadvantage does it have?

Advantage - It only copies changes across the network.

Disadvantage - It does not provide encryption.

35
Review Activity: Network Troubleshooting
1. A helpdesk technician approaches you for help with a network troubleshooting challenge.
The tech states that the workstation shows two IP addresses, neither of which matches the
expected configuration. The first IP address is 127.0.0.1 and the second is 169.2540.99.42. What
can you explain about each address?

The 127.0.0.1 address is the loopback address, assigned to each host to reference itself. The 169.254.99.42
address is from Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA) and indicates the client attempted to lease an IP
configuration from a DHCP server but failed to do so.

2. A helpdesk technician approaches you for help with a network troubleshooting challenge. The
tech states that a workstation can ping a remote server by IP address but cannot ping it by
name. What type of problem is this?

This is a name resolution problem.

Solutions

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36
Review Activity: Firewall Configuration
1. How does a firewall help mitigate threats between two network segments?

The firewall only permits allowed traffic to move between the segments, blocking unallowed traffic. For
example, FTP file transfers might be blocked between the segments, or any connections at all might be
blocked.

2. What commands are necessary to persistently permit custom TCP port 9876 through the local
firewalld configuration on the public zone?

firewall-cmd --permanent --zone=public --add-port=9876/tcp

and

firewall-cmd --reload

3. Explain the purpose of a firewall’s default deny rule.

Any traffic not matching an explicit permit rule will be blocked.

37
Review Activity: Network Traffic
1. An administrator wants to better understand the structure of TCP/IP packets, including
addressing, transport layer protocols, and the data payload. How would the Wireshark utility
help with this understanding?

Wireshark shows the packet headers, including source and destination MAC addresses, source and
destination IP addresses, transport layer protocols and any synchronization information used, and the
payload (actual data being sent). If the payload is not encrypted, it is readable by humans.

2. A developer is working on a custom application that sends data to three different remote
servers. The developer wants to see, at the network level, what data is sent to each server.
What tools can you suggest to help with this, and what selection criteria might you suggest for
those tools?

Select either the tcpdump or Wireshark protocol analyzers. Wireshark has an easy-to-use GUI that can filter
results, while tcpdump is easily scriptable.

3. A junior administrator needs to generate a report displaying the operating systems running on
all nodes on the 192.168.1.0/24 network segment. What command might you suggest?

sudo nmap -O 192.168.1.0/24

38
Review Activity: System Hardening
1. Explain the principle of least privilege, and provide at least two examples of its use.

The principle of least privilege states that users and services should be given as little access to resources as
possible. Examples include limiting the resources that services can access and setting file permissions for users.

2. Explain the three components of the CIA Triad.

Confidentiality: only authorized users can access data.

Integrity: data has not changed unexpectedly.

Availability: resources are available when needed.

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3. Explain the three goals of encryption.

Confidentiality: only authorized users can access data.

Integrity: data has not changed unexpectedly.

Non-repudiation: the sending party cannot deny where data originated.

4. Differentiate between symmetric and asymmetric encryption, and explain the rule associated
with asymmetric encryption.

Symmetric encryption uses one key to both encrypt and decrypt. Asymmetric encryption uses two keys
(public and private). The rule is if data is encrypted with one key, only the other key can decrypt it.

39
Review Activity: Certificates
1. What are some of the contents of a digital certificate?

issuer, holder, purpose, expiration, public key

2. Differentiate between self-signed certificates and third-party certificates.

Self-signed certificates are created by your organization to show trust within the organization and are not
trusted by outside entities. Third-party certificates are created by Certificate Authorities that are trusted by
your organization and outside entities.

3. When might checking file integrity with hashing tools be useful?

This might be useful when performing file downloads from the Internet, file transfers on the local network,
and backups.

40
Review Activity: Authentication
1. What is the purpose of sssd?

The purpose of sssd is to direct login attempts to central authenticate services.

2. What is the relationship between PAM modules and PAM control flags?

Modules specify an action such as an authentication attempt, and control flags manage how that action is
enforced (such as whether it is required or optional).

41
Review Activity: SELinux and AppArmor
1. What command displays the SELinux context for files?

ls -Z

2. You’re troubleshooting a file-access issue and wish to see whether SELinux is to blame. What is
one way you could test this by using the Permissive and Enforcing modes?

Assuming the system is properly configured with Enforcing mode, set the system to Permissive mode with
the setenforce 0 command and attempt the access again. If access is successful in Permissive mode but
unsuccessful in Enforcing mode, SELinux is likely the culprit. Be sure to use setenforce 1 to return the system
to Enforcing mode.

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3. Differentiate between targeted and strict policy types in SELinux.

Targeted enforces SELinux settings only on specific resources, leaving all other resources unconfined. Strict
enforces SELinux settings on all resources unless the administrator deliberately excludes specific resources.

42
Review Activity: Script Basics
1. What is the purpose of sh-bang, and how would you configure the value for Bash?

sh-bang lets Linux know what shell the script is written for and should execute in. Many shells have their
own syntax. The sh-bang value for Bash is #!/bin/bash

2. How does Bash handle lines that begin with the # character?

Bash ignores them, allowing script authors to insert comments, instructions, and examples.

43
Review Activity: Script Elements
1. How might you combine the echo and read commands in a script to guide users through a
process?

Combining the two allows the script and the user to communicate. The echo command displays instructions
and questions from the script while the read command accepts user input in response to the questions.

2. You’ve created a script that includes the string dev=web server. The script throws an error
indicating too many arguments for the dev variable. How could you set the dev variable to see
the words web and server as a single value?

You could enclose "web server" in double quotes.

3. You need to use the sed command to find a value ’server’ and replace it with the value ’system’
in a file named inventory.txt. What is the syntax to accomplish this?

sed ’a/server/system/g’ inventory.txt

4
Review Activity: Logical Controls
1. You are exploring your local (shell) variables on each system that you manage. The first variable
you check is the SHELL variable. How can you check the SHELL variable, and what do you expect
it to display?

The SHELL variable can be checked with echo $SHELL and /bin/bash can be expected as the output.

2. Differentiate between for and while loops.

for loops execute a given number of times, no more and no less. while loops execute as long as a given
condition is met, whether that’s zero, one, or more times.

3. What is the purpose of file globbing in scripts?

File globbing, such as defining a list of files as *.sh, is a shorthand method of defining a list of files with a
common name attribute.

Solutions

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45
Review Activity: Infrastructure as Code
1. How would an organization’s change to DevOps management impact Linux administrators?

Linux administrators would work more closely with developers, use a CI/CD pipeline to manage servers, and
integrate more automation and orchestration.

2. How does IaC contribute to increased system security?

IaC provides standardized security configurations that are easy to change to adapt to new threats.

3. Differentiate between declarative and iterative IaC management tools.

Declarative defines both the configuration and the tools needed to set the configuration. Iterative defines
the specific commands to achieve the desired configuration.

46
Review Activity: Orchestration
1. How does orchestration provide scalability?

Orchestration allows administrators or automated systems to quickly provision new resources in response
to spikes in demand.

2. Differentiate between orchestration and automation.

Automation refers to an individual task accomplished without human intervention. Orchestration refers to a
series of automation tasks that completes an entire deployment.

3. Why might an organization select one orchestration tool over another?

Requirements such as cross-platform support, familiarity with particular languages, support for containers,
and agent or agentless options might influence and organization’s selection.

47
Review Activity: Git
1. If an IT department stored all scripts written by sysadmin in a Git repository, what benefits
might the department realize?

easier collaboration, better version control, centralization of resources

2. What is the purpose of tagging in Git?

Tags identify important versions or code changes.

3. Where might Git repositories be stored?

They might be located on the user’s local workstation, on a local/internal network, in the cloud, or in a public
repository such as GitHub.

4. In what circumstances might you submit a Git pull request?

Such a request might be submitted when contributing code to a project managed by project maintainers
who must approve your changes.

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48
Review Activity: Containers
1. What are three advantages of containers?

Containers are scalable, offer high availability, and can be quickly deployed.

2. Differentiate between an image and a container.

An image is a static specification for a container. When the image is run, the executing code is a container.

3. What makes a container stateless?

The data processed inside a container and the changes to the container’s configuration are not stored. (Note
that data may be persistently stored outside the container.)

49
Review Activity: Container Deployment
1. Differentiate between running a container with the docker run {image-name} command versus
with the docker run -it {image-name} bash command option.

Running the docker run {image-name} command causes the container to start up and run without
establishing an administrative interface. Running a container with the docker run -it {image-name} bash
command causes the container to start up and run but then launches the Bash shell within the container
and establishes an administrative connection to the shell.

2. What are some advantages of a private image registry?

Authorized users have full control of the images stored there, including versions, image access, and change
management.

3. How does a container registry enable CI/CD?

By acting as a central storage area for container images, the registry provides a place from which CI/CD
processes can pull images as needed for rapid and automated deployments for scaling.

50
Review Activity: Virtualization
1. Differentiate between virtualization layers for VM virtualization versus container virtualization.

VM virtualization virtualizes at the hardware layer, while container virtualization virtualizes at the OS layer.

2. How might you automate a virtual machine deployment, and what command is used?

You might automate a VM deployment by including the virt-install command in a script that provides
specifications such as processor, memory, storage, and network settings.

3. What is the purpose of the virtual bridge?

The virtual bridge manages network connectivity between the VM and the host server and/or the network.
The bridge may allow no network access to any other system, allow network access that is limited to other
VMs on the host and the host itself, or allow full network access.

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51
Review Activity: Linux Boot Process
1. Differentiate between the older system BIOS and the modern UEFI standards.

BIOS tests hardware, manages hardware settings, and runs the boot loader. UEFI does the same but handles
larger memory spaces, larger storage disks, and includes security enhancements.

2. What is the role of the initrd?

The initrd loads with the kernel and contains everything needed to boot the system. It is loaded during the
initial startup phase to allow for flexible configurations.

3. What is the /boot/vmlinuz<kernel-version> file?

The file is a compressed version of the Linux kernel.

52
Review Activity: Boot Settings
1. Why don’t you usually need to install GRUB2 on most Linux systems?

It’s already installed as part of the OS installation process.

2. How is working with the grub.cfg file different from working with most Linux configuration
files?

Most Linux configuration files are edited directly, but grub.cfg is assembled from a group of configuration
files. Those files are edited directly.

3. What is the role of the grub2-mkconfig command?

The grub2-mkconfig command constructs the grub.cfg file from various configuration files.

53
Review Activity: Linux Deployment
1. What are some reasons for updating the system immediately after installation?

Updates provide security enhancements, stability components (such as device drivers), and application
features. Updating is part of security hardening.

2. Why is a non-root administrative account often created as part of the installation process?

Logging in as root is usually a poor security choice, but administrative tasks still need to be completed.
Therefore, a non-root administrative account is less privileged than root, but it can complete most necessary
administrative tasks.

3. Why is it a good idea to deploy a Red Hat–derived and a Debian-derived distribution at least
once?

It’s useful to compare features such as package managers and GUI tools between the two Linux families.

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 Glossary
absolute mode A syntax for setting time required to backup, and time
Linux permissions that uses numeric required to restore.
octal values to represent permissions
basic input/output system (BIOS)
values.
Legacy 32-bit firmware type that
absolute path A reference to a specific initializes hardware and provides a
location on a file system irrespective system setup interface for configuring
of the current working directory or boot devices and other hardware
combined paths. settings.
access control list (ACL) Collection block storage The storage method that
of access control entries (ACEs) that breaks data into chunks and distributes
determines which subjects (user the chunks across available storage
accounts, host IP addresses, and so space, independent of the server’s file
on) are allowed or denied access to system.
the object and the privileges given
boot loader A small program stored in
(read-only, read/write, and so on).
read-only memory that loads the kernel
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) from a storage device, and then starts
Broadcast mechanism by which the the operating system.
hardware MAC address of an interface
booting The process of starting or
is matched to an IP address on a local
restarting a computer and loading an
network segment.
operating system for the user to access.
Advanced Package Tool (APT) An
certificate authority (CA) A server that
advanced package management utility
guarantees subject identities by issuing
that is used with dpkg packages on
signed digital certificate wrappers for
Debian-based distributions.
their public keys.
agent A software program that acts on
Cinnamon One of the default desktop
behalf of some other program or service.
environments for Linux Mint and a fork
AppArmor A context-based permissions of GNOME 3.
scheme provided with Debian-based
command mode A text editing mode
and SUSE Linux distributions.
that enables users to perform different
authentication A method of validating editing actions using single keystrokes.
a particular entity’s or individual’s
command substitution A method of
unique credentials.
shell expansion in which the output of a
automation Use of scripts to perform command replaces the command itself.
configuration steps without requiring
command-line interface A text-based
manual intervention.
interface between the user and the
availability The fundamental security operating system that accepts input in
goal of ensuring that computer the form of commands.
systems operate continuously and that
Common Internet File System (CIFS)
authorized persons can access data that
CIFS was proposed as a means of
they need.
implementing SMB version 1 as an
backup Security copy of production Internet standard. SMB1 has very
data made to removable media, typically serious security vulnerabilities and is
according to a regular schedule. Different now disabled by default on current
backup types (full, incremental, or Windows versions. Also known as Server
differential) balance media capacity, Message Blocks (SMB).

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 G-2 | Glossary

Compression Reducing the amount of and platform updates, which are rapidly
space that a file takes up on disk using committed to production, with code
various algorithms to describe it more updates, which are rapidly committed to
efficiently. File storage compression a code repository or build server.
uses lossless techniques. NTFS-
control statement A programming
formatted drives can compress files
element that enables a program to
automatically while ZIP compression
execute instructions in a specified order.
adds files to a compressed archive.
Lossy compression, such as that used cron job Scheduled task that is
by JPEG and MPEG image and video managed by the Linux cron daemon.
formats, discards some information
CUPS A print management system
in the file more or less aggressively,
for Linux that enables a computer to
allowing for a trade-off between picture
function as a print server.
quality and file size.
current working directory (CWD)
conditional statement A control
The directory that the user is currently
statement used in programming to
accessing.
evaluate whether a particular condition
is true or false. cybersecurity Protection of computer
systems and digital information
confidentiality The fundamental
resources from unauthorized access,
security goal of keeping information and
attack, theft, or data damage.
communications private and protecting
them from unauthorized access. daemon A program that runs in the
background without the need for
confidentiality, integrity, and
human intervention.
availability (CIA triad) Three principles
of security control and management. Dandified YUM (DNF) An improved
Also known as the information security version of the YUM package manager.
triad. Also referred to in reverse order desktop environment A client to a
as the AIC triad. display server that tells the server how
container An operating system to draw graphical elements on the
virtualization deployment containing screen.
everything required to run a service, DevOps A combination of software
application, or microservice. development and systems operations,
container engine A piece of software this term refers to the practice of
that processes user requests and runs integrating one discipline with the other.
one or more containers on top of a DevSecOps A combination of software
single operating system. development, security operations, and
container image A static file with systems operations, this term refers
executable code that can create a to the practice of integrating each
container on a computing system. As discipline with the others.
a static file, it cannot be changed, and digital certificate Identification and
it can be deployed consistently in any authentication information presented
environment. It is a core component of a in the X.509 format and issued by a
containerized architecture. certificate authority (CA) as a guarantee
context-based permissions A that a key pair (as identified by the
permissions scheme that describes public key embedded in the certificate)
multiple types of information about is valid for a particular subject (user or
processes and files that are used in host). Also known as a certificate.
combination to make decisions related digital signature Message digest
to access control. encrypted using the sender’s private
Continuous Integration/Continuous key that is appended to a message to
Deployment (CI/CD) Software authenticate the sender and prove
development method combining app message integrity.

Glossary

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 Glossary | G-3

distro One of several fully functional ext4 One of the default file systems in
operating systems and members of modern Linux versions that supports
the Linux family that run the Linux journaling and large volumes.
kernel, GNU software, and additional
Fibre Channel (FC) High-speed network
components. Also known as a Linux
communications protocol used to
distribution.
implement SANs.
domain name system (DNS) Service
file storage A storage method where
that maps fully qualified domain name
data is managed as a discrete file within
labels to IP addresses on most TCP/IP
an operating system’s file system.
networks, including the Internet.
Common on workstations, servers, and
dpkg A package management system NAS devices.
used by Linux distributions derived from
file system Structure for file data
Debian Linux.
indexing and storage created by a
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol process of formatting a partition that
(DHCP) Protocol used to automatically allows an OS to make use of a mass
assign IP addressing information to storage device, such as an HDD, SSD, or
hosts that have not been configured thumb drive.
manually.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Application
encryption Scrambling the characters protocol used to transfer files between
used in a message so that the message network hosts. Variants include S(ecure)
can be seen but not understood or FTP, FTP with SSL (FTPS and FTPES) and
modified unless it can be deciphered. T(rivial)FTP. FTP utilizes ports 20 and 21.
Encryption provides for a secure means
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS)
of transmitting data and authenticating
A set of guidelines for the names of files
users. It is also used to store data
and directories and their locations on
securely. Encryption uses different types
Linux systems.
of cipher and one or more keys. The size
of the key is one factor in determining Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE)
the strength of the encryption product. Permits the creation of non-privileged
Also known as cipher and algorithm. virtual file systems without privileged
access to the kernel by providing an
environment variable A type of
interface between the two.
variable whose values are inherited
from parent processes and passed on to firewall Software or hardware device
child processes. that protects a network segment or
individual host by filtering packets to an
escape character A character that is
access control list.
used to remove the special meaning
from another character so it can be free and open-source software (FOSS)
interpreted literally. Computer code that embodies the
principles of both the free software
execute mode A text editing mode that
movement and the open-source
enables users to execute commands
software (OSS) movement.
within the editor.
full disk encryption (FDE) Encryption of
exit code A value that a child process
all data on a disk (including system files,
passes back to its parent process when
temporary files, and the pagefile) can be
the child process terminates. Also
accomplished via a supported OS, via
known as exit status.
third-party software, or at the controller
ext2 A non-journaled Linux file system level by the disk device itself.
introduced in 1993 and now the file
fully qualified domain name (FQDN)
system on some flash storage media.
Unique label specified in a DNS
ext3 Standard Linux file system that hierarchy to identify a particular host
includes journaling and has since been within a subdomain within a top-level
replaced with ext4. domain.

Glossary

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 G-4 | Glossary

gedit The default GUI text editor used in hashing Function that converts an
GNOME desktop environments. arbitrary-length string input to a fixed-
length string output. A cryptographic
Git Type of version tracking software
hash function does this in a way that
used primarily with collaborative
reduces the chance of collisions, where
development projects to ensure integrity
two different inputs produce the same
and version control.
output. Also known as message digest
globbing A method of shell expansion and cryptographic hash.
used to replace a specific wildcard
home directory A container for a user’s
pattern with values that match the
personal files and other files specific to
pattern.
that user.
GNOME The default desktop
hop One link in the path from a host to
environment for most Linux
a router or from router to router. Each
distributions that run the X Window
time a packet passes through a router,
System or Wayland.
its hop count (or TTL) is decreased by
GNU GRand Unified Bootloader (GNU one.
GRUB) A boot loader developed by the
hostname A human-readable name
GNU Project that became popular on
that identifies a network host.
UNIX-like systems.
HyperText Transfer Protocol/
GNU nano A small, user-friendly text
HTTP Secure (HTTP) Application
editor that evolved from the Pico text
protocol used to provide web content
editor created for UNIX-like systems.
to browsers. HTTP uses port 80.
Also known as nano.
HTTPS(ecure) provides for encrypted
GNU Parted A utility that is used to transfers, using TLS and port 443. Also
manage partitions on a storage device. known as HTTP Secure.
graphical user interface (GUI) An hypervisor Software or firmware that
environment for passing commands to creates and manages virtual machines
a computer by using a graphical, mouse- on the host hardware.
driven interface rather than by using
I/O scheduling The process by which
text-based commands.
the operating system determines the
group An access control object that order of input and output operations as
contains multiple users with similar they pertain to block storage devices.
security requirements.
identity and access management
GUID partition table (GPT) Modern (IAM) Security process that provides
disk partitioning system allowing large identification, authentication, and
numbers of partitions and very large authorization mechanisms for users,
partition sizes. computers, and other entities to work
with organizational assets like networks,
hard link A reference to a file that
operating systems, and applications.
enables a file’s data to have multiple
Also known as identity management
names on the same file system.
(IdM) and access management.
hardening Process of making a
immutable flag An attribute of a file
host or app configuration secure by
or directory that prevents it from being
reducing its attack surface, running only
modified, even by the root user.
necessary services, installing monitoring
software to protect against malware index node (inode) An object that
and intrusions, and establishing a stores metadata about a file or directory
maintenance schedule to ensure the on a file system.
system is patched to be secure against
infrastructure as code (IaC)
software exploits.
Provisioning architecture in which
hash The theoretically indecipherable deployment of resources is performed
fixed-length output of the hashing by scripted automation and
process. Also known as hashed value. orchestration.

Glossary

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 Glossary | G-5

init A daemon that initializes a system responsible for controlling the rest of
and acts as the parent to all processes. the operating system.
Also known as init daemon.
kernel module A system-level object
initrd image An archive file containing that extends the functionality of the
all the essential files that are required kernel.
for booting the operating system.
kernel panic A mechanism by which the
input/output operations per second system detects there has been a fatal
(IOPS) Performance indicator that error and responds to it.
measures the time taken to complete
kernel space The area of system
read/write operations.
memory in which the kernel executes
insert mode A text editing mode that the services it provides.
enables users to insert text by typing.
Kernel-based Virtual Machine
integrity The fundamental security goal (KVM) Hypervisor used to implement
of keeping organizational information virtualization in Linux.
accurate, free of errors, and without
latency Time taken for a signal to reach
unauthorized modifications.
the recipient, measured in milliseconds.
integrity checking The process Latency is a particular problem for
of verifying that data has not been two-way applications, such as VoIP
modified, whether intentionally or (telephone) and online conferencing.
unintentionally, in any way.
least privilege Basic principle of
Internet Protocol address (IP) security stating that something should
Format for logical host and network be allocated the minimum necessary
addressing. In IPv4, a 32-bit binary rights, privileges, or information to
address is expressed in dotted decimal perform its role. Also known as principle
notation, such as 192.168.1.1. In IPv6, of least privilege.
addresses are 128-bit expressed
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
as hexadecimal (for example,
(LDAP) Protocol used to access network
2001:db8::0bcd:abcd:ef12:1234).
directory databases, which store
Internet Small Computer Systems information about authorized users
Interface (iSCSI) IP tunneling protocol and their privileges, as well as other
that enables the transfer of SCSI data organizational information.
over an IP-based network to create a SAN.
Lightweight Directory Access
ISO image A disk image for OS booting Protocol Secure (LDAPS) A method
and installation named after the ISO of implementing LDAP using SSL/TLS
9660 file system standard used by encryption. Also known as Secure LDAP.
compact disks (CDs).
Linux Open-source OS packaged in
JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) distributions supported by a wide range
A file format that uses attribute-value of hardware and software vendors.
pairs to define configurations in a
Linux kernel A free and open-source
structure that is easy for both humans
monolithic kernel that manages all
and machines to read and consume.
other resources on the Linux operating
KDE Plasma The second-most common system.
desktop environment for Linux
Linux Unified Key Setup (LUKS)
distributions that run the X Window
A platform-independent full drive/
System or Wayland.
disk encryption (FDE) solution that is
Kerberos Single sign-on authentication commonly used to encrypt storage
and authorization service that is based devices in a Linux environment.
on a time-sensitive, ticket-granting
load balancing The technique of
system.
distributing network traffic or computing
kernel All operating systems have a workload among multiple devices in a
kernel, which is a low-level piece of code network.

Glossary

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 G-6 | Glossary

local area network (LAN) Network and reliable delivery of complex

scope restricted to a single geographic applications.
location and owned/managed by a
minimum policy A policy wherein
single organization.
subjects and objects run in an
localization The process of adapting unconfined environment with minimal
system components for use within a configuration loaded into memory. This
distinct culture, other than the culture that policy is well suited to small devices.
the system was originally designed for.
mount point A partition or volume
logical volume (LV) Storage capacity mapped to a folder in another file
created from the volume group of system rather than allocated a drive
logical volume management. letter.
Logical Volume Manager (LVM) multifactor authentication (MFA)
Software that maps physical devices and Authentication scheme that requires the
partitions to logical volumes. user to present at least two different
factors as credentials; for example,
loop In scripting and programming,
something you know, something you
control statement that executes code
have, something you are, something you
repeatedly based on a condition.
do, and somewhere you are. Specifying
mandatory access control (MAC) two factors is known as 2FA. Also known
Access control model where as multifactor.
resources are protected by inflexible,
name resolution Relating easy-to-
system-defined rules. Resources
remember hostnames with difficult-to-
(objects) and users (subjects) are
remember IP addresses for network
allocated a clearance level (or label).
communications.
manual pages Built-in documentation
network address translation (NAT)
for specific Linux commands that
Routing mechanism that conceals
provides information on what a
internal addressing schemes from the
command does and how to use it. Also
public Internet by translating between
called man pages.
a single public address on the external
master boot record (MBR) Sector side of a router and private, non-
on a mass storage device that holds routable addresses internally.
information about partitions and the OS
Network File System (NFS) Remote file
boot loader.
access protocol used principally on UNIX
MATE One of the default desktop and Linux networks.
environments for Linux Mint and a fork
network interface card (NIC) Adapter
of GNOME 2.
card that provides one or more Ethernet
media access control (MAC) Hardware ports for connecting hosts to a network
address that uniquely identifies each so that they can exchange data over a
network interface at layer 2 (Data link. Also known as network adapter.
Link). A MAC address is 48 bits long
network port An endpoint in network
with the first half representing the
communication that identifies the type
manufacturer’s organizationally unique
of Application-layer protocol used in a
identifier (OUI). Also known as client
communication.
identifier, hardware address, and local
address. Network Time Protocol (NTP)
Application protocol allowing machines
Message Digest Algorithm v5 (MD5) A
to synchronize to the same time clock
cryptographic hash function producing a
that runs over UDP port 123.
128-bit output.
New Technology Filing System (NTFS)
microservice An independent,
64-bit default file system for Windows,
single-function module with well-
with file-by-file compression and
defined and lightweight interfaces
RAID support as well as advanced file
and operations. Typically this style of
attribute management tools, encryption,
architecture allows for rapid, frequent,
and disk quotas.

Glossary

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 Glossary | G-7

object storage A storage method permissions Security settings that

where data is broken into chunks and control access to objects including file
managed with detailed metadata. It is system items and network resources.
very scalable and is best for data that is
physical volume (PV) A storage device
written once and read often.
or partition allocated to logical volume
octal number A number that is management (LVM).
expressed using one of eight unique
piping Using the output of one
digits, i.e., a base-8 number system.
command as the input for a second
one-time password (OTP) A password command.
that is generated for use in one specific
pluggable authentication module
session and becomes invalid after the
(PAM) Framework for implementing
session ends.
authentication providers in Linux.
open-source Licensing model that
preboot execution environment (PXE)
grants permissive rights to end-users,
Feature of a network adapter that allows
such as to install, use, modify, and
the computer to boot by contacting
distribute a software product and its
a suitably configured server over the
source code, as long as redistribution
network.
permits the same rights.
privilege escalation The practice of
operator Programming object that can
exploiting flaws in an operating system
resolve the truth value of a condition,
or other application to gain a greater
such as whether one variable is equal to
level of access than was intended for the
another.
user or application.
orchestration Automation of multiple
process Software program that has
coordinated steps in a deployment
been executed and is running in system
process.
memory.
out-of-memory killer (OOM killer)
process identifier (PID) A unique
A feature of the Linux kernel that
integer assigned to each new process
determines what process(es) to kill
when it starts so that it can be identified
when the system is extremely low on
by the system and users. Also known as
memory.
process ID.
ownership The property by which a
process management The layer of the
user is allowed to apply and modify the
Linux kernel that allocates execution
permissions of a file or directory.
space on the processor for different
package manager A program that processes.
installs, updates, inventories, and
public key infrastructure (PKI)
uninstalls packaged software.
Framework of certificate authorities,
parent directory The directory that digital certificates, software, services,
is one level above the current working and other cryptographic components
directory. deployed for the purpose of validating
subject identities.
partition A discrete area of storage
defined on a hard disk using either the RAID0 Striping drive configuration that
master boot record (MBR) scheme or provides no redundancy against device
the GUID partition table (GPT) scheme. failure.
Each partition can be formatted with a
RAID1 Mirrored two-disk redundant
different file system and a partition can
drive configuration with 50% capacity
be marked as active (made bootable).
utilization.
path A reference to a specific location
RAID5 Striping with parity-redundant
on a file system.
drive configuration supporting a flexible
PATH variable An environment variable number of devices and better than 50%
that specifies where an application’s capacity utilization.
binaries are stored on the file system.

Glossary

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 G-8 | Glossary

Read-only Memory (ROM) A ROM Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux)

chip is a special form of memory The default context-based permissions
that has data written to it during the scheme provided with CentOS and Red
manufacturing process and thus is not Hat Enterprise Linux.
amenable to alteration.
serial ATA (SATA) The most widely used
Red Hat Package Manager (RPM) A interface for hard disks on desktop
package management system used by and laptop computers. It uses a 7-pin
Linux distributions derived from Red Hat data connector with one device per
Linux. port. There are three SATA standards
specifying bandwidths of 1.5 Gb/s, 3
redirection The process of accepting
Gb/s, and 6 Gb/s respectively. SATA
input data from and sending output
drives also use a new 15-pin power
data to a component that is not a
connector, though adapters for the
default I/O device.
old-style 4-pin Molex connectors are
redundant array of independent/ available. External drives are also
inexpensive disks (RAID) Specifications supported via the eSATA interface.
that support redundancy and fault
Server Message Block (SMB)
tolerance for different configurations of
Application protocol used for requesting
multiple-device storage systems.
files from Windows servers and
relative path A reference to a specific delivering them to clients. SMB allows
location on a file system that is relative machines to share files and printers,
to the current working directory. thus making them available for other
machines to use. SMB client software
remote desktop A Windows remote
is available for UNIX-based systems.
control feature allowing specified users
Samba software allows UNIX and Linux
to log onto the Windows computer over
servers or NAS appliances to run SMB
the network and work remotely. Remote
services for Windows clients. Also known
Desktop uses the RDP protocol over TCP
as Common Internet File System (CIFS).
port 3389.
service A non-interactive process that
router Intermediate system working at
runs in the background to support an
the Network layer capable of forwarding
OS or application function, such as Plug-
packets around logical networks of
and-Play, the print spooler, and DHCP.
different layer 1 and layer 2 types.
In Windows, services can be viewed,
script Series of simple or complex configured, and started/stopped via
commands, parameters, variables, and the Services console, MSConfig, and the
other components stored in a text file Processes tab in Task Manager. Also
and processed by a shell interpreter. known as daemon.
search path A sequence of various service mesh A dedicated infrastructure
directory paths that is used by the shell layer managed by code that provides
to locate files. service-to-service interaction in a
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) A container environment.
cryptographic hashing algorithm created set group ID (SGID) A special
to address possible weaknesses in MD5. permission that enables a user to
The current version is SHA-2. execute a file with the privileges of the
Secure Shell (SSH) Application protocol file’s group.
supporting secure tunneling and remote set user ID (SUID) A special permission
terminal emulation and file copy. SSH that enables a user to execute a file with
runs over TCP port 22. the privileges of the file’s owner.
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) Original, shell System component providing a
obsolete version of the security protocol command interpreter by which the user
now developed as TLS. can use a kernel interface and operate
the OS.

Glossary

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 Glossary | G-9

shell environment The mechanism strict policy In SELinux, a policy in

by which a shell maintains settings and which mandatory access control (MAC)
other behavioral details about the shell. is enforced on all subjects and objects.
shell expansion The process by which superuser The local administrative
a shell identifies special tokens that it account on a Linux system, typically
substitutes values for. named root.
shell variable A type of variable that is swap space A partition on the storage
contained within specific shell processes device that is used when the system
and whose values do not get passed on runs out of physical memory.
to child processes.
switch Intermediate system used to
single sign-on (SSO) Authentication establish contention-free network
technology that enables a user segments at OSI layer 2 (Data Link). An
to authenticate once and receive unmanaged switch does not support
authorizations for multiple services. any sort of configuration. Also known as
an unmanaged switch.
Small Computer Systems Interface
(SCSI) Legacy expansion bus standard symbolic link A reference to a file or
allowing for the connection of internal directory that can span multiple file
and external devices. Each device on systems.
a SCSI bus must be allocated a unique
syslog Application protocol and event-
ID. The bus must also be terminated at
logging format enabling different
both ends.
appliances and software applications
software compilation The process of to transmit logs or event records to a
translating human-readable source code central server. Syslog works over UDP
into computer-readable instructions port 514 by default.
that the processor can execute.
system initialization The process that
SSH port forwarding The process of begins when the kernel first loads.
tunneling an application through the
systemd A software suite that replaces
SSH protocol to encrypt data in transit.
older init methods like SysVinit and that
standard error A text stream that includes various service management
is used as the destination for error tools.
messages.
SysVinit An older system initialization
standard input A text stream that acts method that has been largely
as the source for command input. superseded by systemd.
standard output A text stream that tab completion A feature in which a
acts as the destination for command command-line shell fills in the name of a
output. command you’ve partially typed.
sticky bit A special permission bit targeted policy In SELinux, a policy in
that provides protection for files in a which mandatory access control (MAC)
directory. is enforced on all subjects and objects
marked as targeted, while discretionary
storage area network (SAN) Network
access control (DAC) is enforced on all
dedicated to provisioning storage
untargeted subjects and objects.
resources, typically consisting of storage
devices and servers connected to text editor An application that enables
switches via host bus adapters. you to view, create, or modify the
contents of text files.
storage as a service (STaaS) A common
cloud subscription for managing file throughput Amount of data transfer
storage. supported by a link in typical conditions.
This can be measured in various ways
storage quota The storage space that
with different software applications.
is allotted to a user for file storage on a
Goodput is typically used to refer to
computer.
the actual “useful” data rate at the

Glossary

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 G-10 | Glossary

application layer (less overhead from arranged in pairs that are twisted to
headers and lost packets). Also known reduce interference. Typically, cables are
as goodput and throughput tester. 4-pair or 2-pair.
token A physical or virtual item user account The credentials and
that contains authentication and/or profile settings that represent a subject
authorization data, commonly used in on a computing host or network system.
multifactor authentication.
user space The area of system memory
Transmission Control Protocol/ outside of kernel space that includes
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Network software that accesses kernel services.
protocol suite used to implement the
variable Identifier for a value that can
Internet and most WANs and LANs. It
change during program execution.
uses a four-layer network model that
Variables are usually declared with a
corresponds roughly to the OSI model
particular data type.
as follows: Network Interface (Physical/
Data Link), Internet (Network), Transport vim Command-line text editor that
(Transport), Application (Session, extends the original vi software.
Presentation, Application). Vim uses a command mode for file
operations and an insert mode for
Transport Layer Security (TLS)
editing. Also known as vi.
Security protocol that uses certificates
for authentication and encryption to virtual file system (VFS) An abstraction
protect web communications and other layer that translates file system
application protocols. information between a real file system
and the Linux kernel.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Simplified form of FTP supporting only virtual local area network (VLAN)
file copying. TFTP works over UDP Logical network segment comprising a
port 69. broadcast domain established using a
feature of managed switches to assign
troubleshooting methodology
each port a VLAN ID. Even though
Structured approach to problem-solving
hosts on two VLANs may be physically
using identification, theory of cause,
connected to the same switch, local
testing, planning, implementation,
traffic is isolated to each VLAN, so they
verification, and documentation steps.
must use a router to communicate.
udev A Linux device manager that
virtual machine (VM) Guest operating
automatically detects and configures
system installed on a host computer
hardware devices.
using virtualization software (a
uncomplicated firewall (UFW) A hypervisor).
simplified interface for configuring the
Virtual NICs (vNICs) Connections
iptables firewall service.
between a virtual machine instance and
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface a physical network interface card (NIC)
(UEFI) Type of system firmware in the host server.
providing support for 64-bit CPU
virtualization Computing environment
operation at boot, full GUI and mouse
where multiple independent
operation at boot, and better boot
operating systems can be installed to
security.
a single hardware platform and run
unit file A configuration file that simultaneously.
systemd uses to determine how it will
volume group (VG) Aggregated space of
handle system resources that systemd
one or more physical volumes in logical
can manage.
volume management (LVM).
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Media
Wireshark Widely used protocol
type that uses copper conductors
analyzer.

Glossary

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 Glossary | G-11

XFS One of the default file systems in Yellow Dog Update Manager (YUM)
modern Linux versions that supports Package manager for installing,
journaling and efficiency in handling maintaining, inventorying, and removing
large files. software from the Red Hat family of
Linux distributions.
YAML Ain’t Markup Language (YAML)
Language for configuration files and Zypper An openSUSE package manager
applications such as Netplan and that supports .rpm packages.
Ansible.

Glossary

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 Index
Note: Page numbers with Italics represent charts, graphs, and diagrams.

< (redirection operator), 104 access levels, 63 commands, 381

; (chain operator character), account configuration described, 380
105 commands, 39–41 profiles, 380–381
&& (chain operator character), display account tunables, 381
105 information, 39–41 AppImage, 169
! (chain operator character), pluggable authentication application crashes, 246
105 models, 41 application installation control,
./ (configure command), 163 account management 152
< (redirection operator), 399 commands, 34, 34–36 application layer, 286, 287
| | (chain operator character), adduser command, 36, apt commands, 157–158,
105 36 172
$ ./configure command, 162 set a password, 35–36, 36 archive text files, with tar
> (redirection operator), 398 useradd command, 34–35 command, 128–130, 130
&> (redirection operator), 103, account management issues, arch subdirectory, 242
399 troubleshoot, 54 arithmetic operators, 415
>> (redirection operator), 103, account module, 372 arrays, 392–393
398 action, in SysVinit system, at command, 269–270, 270,
2> (redirection operator), 103, 260 284
398 add command, 431 Atom, 165
2>> (redirection operator), 103, Address Resolution Protocol attributes
398 (ARP), 321–322, 322, 326 chattr command for
add users to groups, 45, 45 managing, 71, 71–72
Advanced Package Tool (APT) configure, 70–72
A manage dependencies with, immutable flag, 71, 71
aa-complain command, 381, 158 lsattr command for
383 package dependency managing, 71, 71
aa-disable command, 381, 383 issues, 143 troubleshoot issues, 72
aa-enforce command, 381, 383 repository configuration Audacity®, 165
aa-unconfined command, 381, files, 160 audit2allow command, 379
383 to update packages, 158–159 authentication, 369–374
absolute mode, 67 After= directive, in .service unit IAM, 369
to set special Linux files, 255 LDAP, 371
permissions, 74–75 After field, in .target unit files, MFA, 370, 371
absolute path, 87–88 258 PAM, 371–373
access control list (ACL), 77–80 agent and agentless solutions, pluggable authentication
concepts, 77 425 models, 41
on files, configure, 77–79 agent software, 425 sssd, 371
troubleshoot, 79 alias command, 243, 405, 405, standard, review of, 369
access control list (ACL) entries 418 tokens, 370
configure, 78, 79 Ansible, 426 auth module, 372
display, 77, 78 Apache webserver, configure, automation versus
entries, configure, 78, 79 271–273 orchestration, 424–425
examples of, 79 apparmor_status command, availability, 358
access identities, 63 381, 381, 383 awk command, 108, 113, 397,
access issues, troubleshoot, 72, AppArmour, 380–381 418
75

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 I-2 | Index

B boot loader, 456–457 high utilization, 231

boot problems, troubleshoot, information, display, 219,
background a command, 104
465–466 220
backup, 128
boot process, 454–461 sar command to display
bandwidth control, 152
begin, 455–457 usage, 229
Bash, 9–19
BIOS in, 455, 456 set priorities for, 231
checking for executable
/boot directory, 458, time, in processes running
files, 163
458–459 on the system, 226
command history, 12–13, 13
boot loader, 456–457 uptime command to display
commands, 11–14
boot sources, 454–455 workload, 229
command shells, 9
load kernel, 457, 457–459 virtual, 226
directories, 17–18, 18
summarized, 459, 459–460 certificate authority (CA),
log in using the GUI and CLI,
UEFI in, 456 364–365
18, 18
boot settings, 462–467. see also certificates. see digital
Nano, 15–16, 16
GRUB2 certificates
operations examples, 416
boot sources, 454–455 certificates with the openssl
su and sudo, 16–17, 17
HTTP and FTP, 455 s_client command, 315
syntax components, 9–10
ISO image, 454 chage command, 39, 40, 41, 55,
tab completion, 12
NFS, 455 58
Vim, 14, 15
PXE, 455 chaining, 104–106
~/.bash_profile, 34
storage disk, 454 character devices, 218–219
~/.bashrc, 34
USB, 454 chattr command, 71, 71–72, 82
Bash scripting basics, 386–399.
virtual machine file, 454 chcon command, 376, 383
see also scripts
botting, 456–457 checkout command, 431
call scripts from local
braces, variable substitution Chef, 427
directory, 387
with, 413 chgrp command, 70, 82
file extensions, 388
branch command, 431 chkconfig command, 260–261,
how to run scripts, 387–388
branching, 433 284
purpose of, 386
bridge, 445 chmod command, 62, 66–67,
script comments, 386–387
BSD-style ps command, 227 68, 69–70, 70, 74–75, 81
script permissions, 388
Btrfs filesystem, 186 chown command, 62, 63, 69–70,
script syntax, 388
bus information, display, 217, 70, 81
sh-bang command, 388
217 chronyc command, 267
basic connectivity monitoring
bzip2 command, 133, 138 chrony configuration, 267
tools, 337
chronyd daemon, 267
Basic Input/Output System
(BIOS) C chronyd service, 267
chrony network port, 263
in boot process, 455–456, capacity issues, 208–210
CIA Triad, 358
456 display storage, 208
Cinnamon, 7
in disk performance, 205 find, 208–209
CLI. see command-line
problems, 466 inode exhaustion, 209–210
interface (CLI)
Before= directive, in .service resolve, 209
clone command, 431
unit files, 255 case statement, 408–409
Close, in Vim, 14
BIOS. see Basic Input/Output cat command, 11, 29, 98, 98,
cloud-based storage, 174
System (BIOS) 99, 100, 104, 110, 116
Cockpit, 311
blacklist command, 243 cd command, 11, 29, 92–93, 93,
code, Git to manage, 430–432
blkid command, 184–185 116
collaboration, Git, 433, 434
block devices, 218–219 centralized internal
command chains, 104–106
block storage, 175 repositories, 153
command-line interface (CLI),
boolean (logical) operators, central processing unit (CPU)
5–7, 6
415 cache, free memory versus,
common CLIs, 6, 6
/boot directory, 458, 458–459 237
log in using, 18, 18

Index

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 Index | I-3

remote-access tools, read the command container operations, 441–446

308–310 backward, 14 container registries, 444–445
Command mode, in Vim, 14 tab completion, 13 containers, 437–452
Command Mode key strokes, use command history administer, 444–445
in Vim text editor, 122 instead of rewriting long basics of, 438–440
command modifiers, 104–106 commands, 13 command reference table,
background a command, command shells, Bash, 9 452
104 command-subcommand container engines, 439
chain commands, 104–106 syntax, 10, 11 container image operations,
tee command, 106 command substitution, 413 442–444
xargs command, 106 commit command, 431 customized image, 443,
command reference, B-1–B-14 Common Internet File System 443–444, 444
basic Linux commands, (CIFS), 201, 201 deploy, 441–446
B-1 Complete Fair Queuing (CFQ) described, 438
commands for scheduler, 207–208 docker command, 441–446
administering storage, compression, 131–134 images versus, 439
B-6–B-7 with bzip2 command, 133 Kubernetes, 446
commands for authoring choosing method for, microservice, 446
text files, B-5 133–134 networks, 445
commands for managing with gzip command, 132 orchestration concepts,
containers, B-13 with tar command, 134 445–446
commands for managing with xz command, 132 persistent storage, 445
devices, processes, memory with zip command, 133 registries, 444–445
and the kernel, B-7–B-8 conditionals, 406, 406–410 service mesh, 446
commands related to case statement, 408–409 summary, 452
administering users and exit codes used with virtualization concepts,
groups, B-1–B-2 conditional statements, 408 448–451
file management if conditional, 407 virtual machines versus,
commands, B-3–B-4 if...else conditional, 438, 438
IaC commands, B-13 407–408 context-based permissions,
Linux installation test command, 409–410 375. see also AppArmor;
commands, B-14 conditional statements, 388 Security-Enhanced Linux
network security .conf file command, 243 (SELinux)
configuration commands, confidentiality, 358 control flags, 372
B-11 config command, 431 control statement, 406
network setting configuration file concepts, convert text files, with dd
configuration commands, 120–121 command, 131
B-9–B-10 configuration files, in Git use copy in and copy out text files,
permissions configuration case, 429 with cpio command, 130–131
commands, B-2–B-3 configuration files for RPM copy text files, with dd
script implementation repositories, 153–155 command, 131
commands, B-12–B-13 updating, 154–155 copy versus move and SELinux,
security management YUM and DNF to configure, 380
commands, B-12 153–154 cp command, 97, 99, 117
service management configuration management, cpio command, 130–131
commands, B-9 425 Create/Open, in Vim, 14
software management configure script, 162 cron jobs, 268
commands, B-5 connectivity issues, cron scheduler, 256
commands, Bash, 11–14 troubleshoot, 350 at command, 269–270, 270
clear the screen, 14 container engines, 439 cron component
common commands, 11–12, container image, 439 placement, 268
12 container networks, 445 cron configuration, 269

Index

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 I-4 | Index

cron jobs, 268 default.target unit file, 258, shortcuts, 92–93, 93

crontab file, 268–269 258–259, 259 structure of, create, 96, 96
crontab command, 269, 284 delete user accounts, 37–39 directories, Bash, 17–18, 18
crontab file, 268–269 dependencies, APT to manage, directories in Linux file system,
crypto subdirectory, 242, 243 158 86
cryptsetup command, 197, 214 depmod command, 242, 249 disabled mode, 377
CUPS, 274–275 development projects, in Git disabled root account, 47–48
network port, 263 use case, 430 disabling/stopping a service,
curl command, 165–166, 172, device drivers, 239–240 254
309 device issues, 210–211 disk and partition references,
current working directory display LVM settings, 211 180–181, 181
(CWD), 88 display RAID settings, 211 disk mirroring (RAID 1), 198,
cut command, 112, 397 fstrim command, 211 199, 200
cybersecurity, 168 device swap, 235 disk performance, 205–208
/dev/null file, 219 CFQ scheduler, 207–208
D DevOps, 5 Deadline scheduler, 207
DevSecOps, 358 IOPS, measuring, 206–207
daemons, 252
/dev subdirectory, 85 I/O schedulers, 207
Dandified Yum (DNF) package
dev subdirectory, 243 latency, 205
manager, 145, 149–150
/dev/urandom file, 219 Noop scheduler, 207–208
package dependency
/dev/zero file, 219 throughput, 206
issues, 143
df command, 187, 187–188, disk quotas, 177, 209
data
188, 214 disk striping (RAID 0), 198, 198,
move to new storage, 188
dhclient command, 299, 314 200
recover and access, 210
dhclient.conf config file, 299 disk striping with parity
data transfer tools, 310–311
dictionary attack, test (RAID 5), 199, 199, 200
rsync command, 310–311
passwords against, 373 display file metadata, 86–87
scp command, 310
diff command, 113 display logs, 265, 265–266
sftp command, 310
dig command, 319, 320, 325 dmesg command, 245, 245,
date command, 277–278,
digital certificates, 363, 250
284
363–368 dmidecode command, 217,
dd command, 131
authentication, 364 219, 248
Deadline scheduler, 207
certificate authorities, dnf commands, 149–150
Debian Linux, 4
364–365 dnf history command, 150
Debian package-management
integrity checking, 365–367 to query packages, 152
system, 157–161
PKI, 364–365 subcommand for, 149–150
apt commands, 157–158
self-signed, 365 DNF (Dandified Yum) package
APT repository
use cases, 363–364 manager, 145, 149–150
configuration files, 160
wildcard, 365 docker command, 441–446,
Debian package managers,
digital signature, 361 452
157–158
direct-attached storage, 197, docker container command,
dpkg commands, 159
205, 209 444, 452
/etc/apt.conf, 160
directive=value statements, in docker pull command, 442,
manage dependencies with
systemd unit files, 255 452
APT, 158
directories DocumentRoot directive, 271,
query packages on Debian
change, 93 271–272
systems, 159, 159
existing, 95 Domain Name System (DNS),
Red Hat compared to,
know your location, 93–95 290, 300, 300
142–143
navigate, 92–95 dpkg commands, 159, 172
update packages, 158–159
project files, create, 96 drivers subdirectory, 242
debug subdirectory, 243
remove, 98–99 du command, 187–188, 214
default permissions, 66
dumpe2fs command, 191, 214

Index

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 Index | I-5

Dynamic Host Configuration ethtool command, 297, 297, file management commands,
Protocol (DHCP), 290 325 92–107. see also file
client, 298–299, 299 exec command, 390–391 management scenario
dhclient command, 299 ExecStart= directive, in .service command modifiers,
dhclient.conf config file, 299 unit files, 256 104–106
server, 290, 298 ExecStop= directive, in .service to display file contents with
dynamic IP addresses, 298–299 unit files, 256 head and tail commands,
configure, 298 Execute mode, in Vim, 14 100–101
DHCP server, 298 Execute Mode commands, in to display files, 99–101
Vim text editor, 122–123 display strings with grep
E exit codes, 393–394, 394 command, 101–102, 102
exit codes used with navigate directories, 92–95
e2label command, 190, 214
conditional statements, 408 redirectories, 102–104
echo command, 98, 108, 110,
exit command, 394 file management scenario,
390
export command, 403, 418 95–99
e-commerce certificate, 364
ext2, ext3, ext4 file systems, 89 closing the project, 98–99
Edit, in Vim, 14
ext4 filesystem, 185 copy and move project files,
Emacs text editor, 121
external storage, 174 97–98
enabling a service, 254
extract text files, with tar create directory structure,
encryption, 198, 358–361
command, 128–130, 130 96, 96
full disk, 359
create project files, 96
goals, 359–360
display project file contents,
hashing, 361, 361 F 98
private key, 360–361
FC (Fibre Channel), 202, 203 existing current directories,
public key, 360
fdisk command, 182, 182–183, 95
types, 360–361
183, 213 remove directories and
understanding, 358–359,
Fedora Linux, 4, 145, 154, 186, files, 98–99
359
280, 330, 468 starting the project, 95–96
enforcing mode, 377
Fibre Channel (FC), 202, 203 summarizing, 99
env command, 403–404, 404,
file command, 87, 87, 116 working the project, 97–98
418
file extensions, 388 file manipulation commands,
environment variables, 401,
file links 110–114
402
configure, 88–90 awk command, 113
troubleshoot, 405–406
hard links, 89 cut command, 112
escape characters, 392
inodes, 88–89 diff command, 113
/etc/apt.conf, 160
link types, 89 echo command, 110
/etc/bashrc, 34
symbolic links, 89–90, 90 paste command, 112
/etc/default/grub file, 464, 465
file locations, 108–115 printf command, 111
/etc directory, 86, 296
file manipulation sed command, 113–114
/etc/fstab file, 189
commands, 110–114 sort command, 112
/etc/inittab file, 260
search commands, 108–110 tr command, 111
/etc/nsswitch.conf file, 302, 302
file management, 83–118 wc command, 111
/etc/passwd file, 32, 32, 33, 35,
best practices and file manipulation commands in
41, 54, 55
guidelines, 116 scripting, 397–398
/etc/profile, 34
command reference table, file naming conventions, 87
/etc/resolv.conf file, 301
116–118 files. see also file management
/etc/shadow file, 32, 33, 33, 41,
commands, 92–107 scenario
55
file locations, 108–115 access control lists on,
/etc/skel directory, 34
Linux file system, configure, 77–79
/etc subdirectory, 85
84–91 commands to display,
/etc/sudoers file, 48, 49, 49–50,
summary, 116–118 99–101
52
file storage, 175

Index

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 I-6 | Index

Filesystem Hierarchy Standard fs subdirectory, 242, 243 GNU-style ps command, 227

(FHS), A-1, 17, 83–84, 108, 116, fstrim command, 211 Grand Unified Bootloader
142, 187, 458 full disk encryption (FDE), 359 version 2 (GRUB2). see GRUB2
Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE), fully qualified domain name graphical.target unit file,
176 (FQDN), 300, 321 258–259
filesystem issues, 210 functions, in scripts, 393 graphical user interface (GUI),
filesystem mismatch errors, 6, 7
210 common GUIs, 7, 7
filesystems, manage, 190–191 G log in using, 18, 18
dumpe2fs command, 191 gedit text editor, 121, 126, 126 permissions in, 68, 69
e2label command, 190 getfacl command, 77–78, 78, remote GUI tools, 311
fsck command, 190 79, 82 grep command, 117, 224, 395,
resize2fs command, 190–191 getsebool command, 379 397
tune2fs command, 191 GIMP, 165 group accounts, manage,
XFS tool, 191 Git 43–46
file system swap, 235 branching, 433 add users to groups, 45, 45
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), collaboration, 433, 434 group configuration files,
455 concepts, 429–430 43, 43
find command, 106, 108–109, described, 429–430 group management
110, 111, 118, 397, 418 git command, 430–432 commands, 44–45
firewall, 328–336 .gitignore file, 434 groupadd command, 44, 45, 58
chain, 330, 330 git pull request, 434 group configuration files, 43,
configure to permit to manage code, 430–432 43
inbound HTTP (port 80/tcp) in practice, 432–434 groupdel command, 44, 45, 58
connections, 271, 272 repositories, 430, 432–433 group (G) identity, 63
features, 329–330 version control with, 429– group management
firewalld command, 435 commands, 44–45
331–333, 333 git command, 430–432, 436 verification, 44–45
iptables command, 330–331 GitHub®, 165 groupmod command, 44, 45,
nftables command, 331 .gitignore file, 434 58
troubleshoot issues, 335 git pull request, 434 GRUB2, 205, 462–466
UFW, 333–335, 334 Git use case, 429–430 boot menu, 464
use cases, 328–329 development projects, 430 in boot process, 457
firewall-cmd command, infrastructure as code, 430 configuration problems,
331–333, 333, 350, 352 scripts, 430 466
firewalld command, 331–333, standardized configuration configure, 463–466
333 files, 429 /etc/default/grub file, 464,
first in first out (FIFO) queue, globbing, 414 465
207 GNOME desktop environment, grub2-install command, 463
Fish (friendly interactive shell), 121, 126 grub2-mkconfig command,
9 GNOME Virtual Machine 465
Flatpak, 169 Manager (VMM), 7, 121, 126, grub.cfg file, 463–464, 464
for loop, 412 450, 450 identify, 462–463
looping through ranges GNOME Virtual Machine improvements made in, 462
with, 412 Manager (VMM) utility, 450, grub2-install command, 463,
forward logs, 265–266 450 474
four-digit mode, 67 GNU Compiler Collection grub2-mkconfig command,
free and open-source software (GCC), 162 465, 474
(FOSS), 2 GNU GRand Unified grub.cfg file, 463–464, 464
free command, 236, 236, Bootloader (GNU GRUB), 462 GRUB legacy, 462
249 GNU nano text editor, 121 GUID Partition Table (GPT),
fsck command, 190 GNU Parted utility, 183–184 175, 176

Index

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 Index | I-7

gVim text editor, 121 head command, 99, 100–101, index.html home page, 272,
gzip command, 132, 138 117 272
to unpack download, 163 header files (.h file extension), index node (inode), 88–89
162 infrastructure as code, 419–436
H help in Linux, 20–23 command reference table,
here documents, redirection 436
hard disk drive (HDD), 174
with, 399 orchestration, implement,
disk and partition
HISTFILESIZE, 404 424–428
references, 180–181, 181
history and philosophy of Unix summary, 436
hwinfo command, 179–180
and Linux, 2–3, 3 understand, 420–423
lsblk command, 180
/home directory, 86, 86 version control with Git,
lsscsi command, 180
/home subdirectory, 85 429–435
in storage deployment,
/home/username directory, 18 infrastructure as code, in Git
179–181
$HOME variable, 86, 86 use case, 430
hard disk partitioning, 175
host, 445 init command, 431
hardening servers, 356–357
host command, 321, 321, 326 init daemon, 252
hard links, 89
hostname, 287 initrd image, 457, 457
hardware information, 216–222
hostnamectl command, 300, inode exhaustion, 209–210
bus information, display,
325 Input/Output Operations per
217, 217
htop command, 226, 226 Second (IOPS), 206–207
CPU information, display,
HTTP. see Hypertext Transfer Insert mode, in Vim, 14, 15
219, 220
Protocol (HTTP) Insert Mode commands, in Vim
dmidecode command, 217
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer text editor, 123
hardware information tools,
Protocol Secure), 290 insmod command, 241, 249
216–217
hwinfo command, 179–180, install
hwinfo command, 216–217
216–217, 217, 219, 248 in systemd unit files, 255
memory information,
Hypertext Transfer Protocol in .target unit files, 258
display, 220, 220–221,
(HTTP) install command, 243
221
in boot process, 455 installing Linux, 453–474
udev device manager,
configure firewall to permit best practices and
218–219
inbound, 271, 272 guidelines, 473
hardware problems, 466
network ports, 263, 290 boot process, 454–461
hardware RAID, 176, 200, 206,
Hypertext Transfer Protocol boot settings, modify,
211
Secure (HTTPS), 290 462–467
hardware resources, 215–250
hypervisors, 449 command reference table,
best practices and
474
guidelines, 248
command reference table, I deploy Linux, 468–472
summary, 473–474
248–250 id, in SysVinit system, 260
integrity, 358
hardware information, id command, 39, 58
integrity checking, 135, 365–367
216–222 identity and access
hash functions, 365–367
Linux kernel management, management (IAM), 369
SHA commands, 367
239–247 if conditional, 407
Internet layer, 286, 287
memory management, ifconfig command, 293–294,
Internet Protocol (IP) address,
234–238 325
288–290
process management, if...else conditional, 407–408
assign, 297–298
223–233 iftop command, 316, 316, 325
configuration, 290
summary, 248–250 image operations, container,
described, 287
hash, 135 442–444
DHCP client, 298–299, 299
hash functions, 365–367 customized image, 443,
DHCP server, 290, 298
hashing, 361, 361 443–444, 444
DNS, 290

Index

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 I-8 | Index

dynamic IP addressing parameters, 244 traits of Linux operating

components, 298–299 updates, 243 system, 3–4
IPv4 address classes, user space, 239 troubleshooting
288–289 version information, 240 methodology, 24–27
IPv6 addressing scheme, Kernel-based Virtual Machine Linux, deploy, 468–472
290 (KVM), 449 basic installation steps, 470
name resolution, 299–302 kernel modules, 240–243 begin installation process,
reserved ranges, 289 advantages of using, 469–470
route command, 303 240–241 confirmation message, 471
static, 298 commands, 241–242 installation screen, 469
subnet masks and network described, 240–241 install methods, 469
segments, 289, 289 directories, 242–243 physical and virtual
Internet Small Computers kernel panic, 244 deployments compared,
Systems Interface (iSCSI), 202, kernel space, 239 468–469
203 kernel subdirectory, 243 post-deployment steps, 470
interruptible process state, 230 key-based authentication, Raspberry Pi hardware
ioping command, 206–207, 214 307–308 platform, 468–469
I/O schedulers, 207 configuring, 307–308 Linux applications available for
iostat command, 206–207, 214 SSH tunneling, 308 download, 165
ip commands, 292, 293, 325 .ko extension, 241 Linux application vendors, 22
iperf command, 316, 317 ksh (Korn shell), 6, 9 Linux distributions (distros), 4,
iptables command, 330–331, Kubernetes, 446 4–5
352 Linux distribution vendors, 22
IPv4 address classes, 288–289 L Linux documentation, 20–21
IPv6 addressing scheme, 290 built-in, 21–22
latency, 205
iSCSI (Internet Small manual pages, 20, 20–21
high network, troubleshoot,
Computers Systems Interface), online, 22
318
202, 203 Linux Documentation Project,
less command, 11, 100, 101,
iwconfig command, 294, 325 22
116
Linux file organization, 84–85
library files (.a file extension),
Filesystem Hierarchy
J 162
Standard, 84
/lib subdirectory, 85
jailing an application, 168. standard subdirectories,
Lightweight Directory Access
see also sandbox 84–85
Protocol (LDAP), 370, 371
job control, 231–232 Linux file system, 84–91
Linux, 1–29
journalctl command, 246 absolute path, 87–88
Bash interaction with, 9–19
display file metadata, 86–87
best practices and
file links, configure, 88–90
K guidelines, 28
key directories, 86
characteristics, 2–8
KDE Plasma, 7 Linux file organization,
CLI, 5–7, 6
Kerberos, 371 84–85
command reference table,
kernel, 239–247 relative path, 88
29
application crashes, 246 Linux kernel, 2
free and open-source
described, 239 Linux Mint, 4, 157, 468
software, 2
device drivers, 239–240 Linux Unified Key Setup (LUKS),
GUI, 6, 7
dmesg command, 245, 245 197–198
help in, 20–23
dmesg log file, 245 commands, 197
history and philosophy of
kernel space, 239 Listen directive, 271, 271
Unix and Linux, 2–3, 3
load, in boot process, 457, ln command, 88, 89, 116
Linux distributions, 4, 4–5
457–459 load balancing, 203
open-source software, 2
modules (see kernel local area network (LAN), 201,
summary, 28–29
modules) 201

Index

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 Index | I-9

localectl command, 279–280, ls -l command, 64, 64–66 configure and execute

284 lsmem command, 220, 220, remote connectivity for
localization, 277–282 249 system management,
configure, 278–280 lsmod command, 241 A-10
date command, 277–278 lsof command, 227–228, 228, implement and
described, 277 343, 343 configure firewalls, A-9
localectl command, 279–280 lspci command, 217, 217, 248 implement identity
manipulate system settings, lsscsi command, 180, 213 management, A-9
277–278 lsusb command, 217, 249 summarize the purpose
timedatectl command, LUKS. see Linux Unified Key and use of security best
278–279 Setup (LUKS) practices in a Linux
time zone configurations, environment, A-8
troubleshoot, 280–281, 281 M system management,
local repositories, 153 A-1–A-8
major.minor kernel versions,
locate command, 108, 109–110, build and install
240
118 software, A-7
make command, 163
log command, 431 configure and manage
make install command, 163
Logical Volume Manager (LVM) storage using the
malware, 168
benefits of, 193 appropriate tools,
man command, 20, 29
configure, 192, 192–193 A-3–A-4
mandatory access control
deploy, 194–195 configure and use the
(MAC), 375. see also Security-
display settings, 211 appropriate processes
Enhanced Linux (SELinux)
hard disk partitioning and services, A-5
manual pages, 20, 20–21
versus, 175 exam objective, A-7–A-8
navigation, 21
management tools, 193–194 manage files and
ps command and, 227
storage, 192–195 directories, A-2–A-3
sections, 20–21, 21
Logical Volumes (LV), 192, 192, summarize Linux
map network traffic, 346–350.
193, 194, 195, 211 fundamentals, A-1–A-2
see also Nmap utility
log in use the appropriate
mapping course content to
using command-line networking tools or
CompTIA Linux+ (Exam
interface, 18, 18 configuration files, A-6
XK0-005), A-1–A-17
using graphical user troubleshooting, A-14–A-17
scripting, containers, and
interface, 18, 18 analyze and
automation, A-11–A-14
using user account, 16 troubleshoot central
create simple shell
login commands, troubleshoot, processing unit (CPU)
scripts to automate
55–56, 56 and memory issues,
common tasks,
login issues, troubleshoot, A-15–A-16
A-11–A-12
54–55 analyze and
perform basic container
login process, 55 troubleshoot network
operations, A-13
loops, 410, 410–412 resource issues, A-15
perform basic version
for loop, 412 analyze and
control using Git, A-13
for loop, looping through troubleshoot storage
summarize common
ranges with, 412 issues, A-14–A-15
infrastructure as code
until loop, 411 analyze and
technologies, A-13–A-14
while loop, 411 troubleshoot user
summarize container,
lpr command, 275, 284 access and file
cloud, and orchestration
lsattr command, 71, 71, 82 permissions, A-16
concepts, A-14
lsblk command, 180, 213 use systemd to diagnose
security, A-8–A-11
ls command, 11, 12, 29, 84, 85, and resolve common
apply the appropriate
86, 86, 89, 90, 95, 96, 96, 99, problems with a Linux
access controls,
100, 103, 105, 106 system, A-16–A-17
A-9–A-10
lscpu command, 219, 249 masking a service, 254

Index

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 I-10 | Index

master boot record (MBR), 175, mounting distinguish network file

176 automatically mount new systems for, 201, 201
MATE, 7 storage, 188–190 to resolve capacity issues,
md5sum command, 366, manually test mount, 209
366–367, 383 186–187 network configuration files,
media access control (MAC) mount options issues, 210 296
address, 287 mount points, 257 network configuration issues,
/media subdirectory, 85 .mount unit files, 257, 257 313–314
memory, 234–238 mtr command, 340–341, 341, network devices, 288
exhaustion, 236–237 352 Network File System (NFS), 201,
swap space, 234–236, 235 multifactor authentication 201
virtual, 234 (MFA), 370, 371 in boot process, 455
memory exhaustion, 236–237 multipathd command, 203 configure, 273–274
free command, 236, 236 multipathing, 203 network port, 263
free memory versus cache, multi-user.target unit file, for SAN, 203
237 258–259 service, 252
out of memory (OOM) mv command, 97–98, 99, 108, network interface card (NIC),
scenarios, 237 117 287, 315–318
vmstat command, 236–237, network interface errors,
237 N 315–318
memory information, display, iftop command, 316, 316
name resolution, 299–302
220, 220–221, 221 iperf command, 316, 317
DNS, 300, 300, 302
memory tools, 220, 220–221, overview of, 315
/etc/nsswitch.conf file, 302,
221 tracepath command, 317,
302
merge command, 431, 432 317–318
/etc/resolv.conf file, 301
Message Digest 5 (MD5), 365 traceroute command, 317,
files, 300–301
microservice, 446 317–318
FQDNs, 300
minimum policy, 379 network interfaces, 292–294
hostnamectl command, 300
mkdir command, 96, 99, 108, ifconfig command, 293–294
locally configuring, 301
117 ip commands, 292, 293
name resolution failures,
mkfs command, 185, 186, 190, iwconfig command, 294
318–321
195, 213 NetworkManager, 294–295,
dig command, 319, 320
mkinitrd command, 458, 474 296
host command, 321, 321
mkswap command, 235–236, nmcli command, 294–295
nslookup command, 320,
249 nmgui command, 295, 296
320
/mnt subdirectory, 85 nmtui command, 295, 295
resolvectl command, 319,
modify and delete user network-monitoring tools, 337
319
accounts, 37–39 network nodes, 287
WHOIS, 321, 321
userdel command, 38 network-online.target unit file,
Nano, 15–16, 16
usermod command, 37 258
nano text editor, 125–126
verification, 38–39 network saturation, 318
shortcuts in, 125–126
modify user accounts, 37–39 network security, 327–353
netcat or nc command, 309–310,
modify variables, 403, 403–406 command reference table,
325
modinfo command, 241, 249 352–353
netstat command, 341–342,
modprobe command, 241–243, firewall, configure, 328–336
353
249 network traffic, monitor,
net subdirectory, 242, 243
module directories, 242–243 337–351
network access layer, 286, 287
module interfaces, 372, 372, summary, 352–353
Network Address Translation
373 network segments, 289, 289
(NAT), 445
moint point, 186–187 network settings, 285–326
network-attached storage
mount command, 186–187, best practices and
(NAS), 200–201, 201
190, 208, 211, 213 guidelines, 324

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

Linux+_XK0-005_Index_ppI1-I20.indd 10 17/06/22 8:34 PM

 Index | I-11

command reference table, nmap command, 346–350, 353 configuration management,

325–326 Nmap utility, 346–350 425
fundamentals of, 286–291 described, 346–347 orchestration utilities, 425–427
IP addresses, 288–290 output redirection, 348–349 Ansible, 426
manage, 292–304 scans, basic, 347–348, 348 Chef, 427
network ports, 290 scans, detailed, 349–350 Puppet, 426
remote administrative nmcli command, 294–295, 325 SaltStack, 427
access, 305–312 nmgui command, 295, 296 Terraform, 427
summary, 324–326 nmtui command, 295, 295 others (o) identity, 63
TCP/IP and network nodes out-of-memory killer (OOM
devices, 286–288 display with Nmap, 314, 314 Killer), 237
troubleshoot, 313–323 network, 287 overlay, 445
network settings, troubleshoot, nohup command, 232, 249 ownership, 69–70, 70
313–323 non-volatile memory express
clear ARP cache, 321–322, (NVMe), A-15, 180, 205 P
322 Noop scheduler, 207–208
package managers
high network latency, 318 normal command syntax, 10
critical component of, 141
identify network nslookup command, 320, 320,
Debian, 157–161
configuration issues, 325
DNF, 145, 149–150
313–314 null device, 219
querying, 141, 141, 150–152,
identify network interface
159, 159
errors, 315–318 O Red Hat and Debian
name resolution failures,
object storage, 175 compared, 142–143
318–321
octal numbers, 67 related commands, 142
test remote systems,
OnBootSec time expression, RPM, 145–156
314–315
256 software compilation
network time, configure, 267
OnCalendar time expression, distinguished from,
Network Time Protocol (NTP)
256 140–141
network port, 290
one-time passwords (OTP), 370 software dependencies, 143
service, 252
OOM Killer (out-of-memory SUSE ZYpp, 143
Network Time Protocol
killer), 237 YUM, 145, 147–149
daemon (ntpd), 267
Open Container Initiative (OCI), package repository, 141–142
network port, 263
439 packet capturing monitoring
network traffic, 337–351
open-source software, 2 tools, 337
map, 346–350
openssl s_client command, 315 pam_faillock module, 41
network-monitoring tools,
openSUSE, 4 pam_tally2 module, 41
337
operators, 415–416 parameter expansion, 402
test connectivity with path
Bash operations examples, parameters, kernel, 244
tools, 338–341
416 parent directory, 92, 93
test connectivity with socket
kinds of, 415 parted command, 183, 208,
tools, 341–343
redirection, 103–104 210, 213
troubleshoot connectivity
operators, permission, 68 partition
issues, 350
optional flag, 372 add filesystem to, 185–186
network traffic, analyze,
Options= option, in .mount automatically mount new
343–346
unit files, 257 storage, 188–190
tcpdump command, 344,
/opt subdirectory, 85 blkid command, 184–185
344, 345
orchestration, 424–428 Btrfs filesystem, 186
Wireshark, 345, 345–346
agent and agentless design of, 181
nftables command, 331
solutions, 425 ext4 filesystem, 185
Nmap, display network nodes
automation versus, 424–425 fdisk utility, 182, 182–183,
with, 314, 314
concepts, 424–425 183

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 I-12 | Index

GNU Parted utility, 183–184 ownership, 69–70, 70 principle of least privilege, 62,
HDD references, 180–181, principle of least privilege, 356
181 62 printf command, 111
manually test mount, special, 74–76 printing, configure, 274–275
186–187 standard, 62–73 CUPS, 274–275
move data to new storage, strings, interpreting, 64–66 lpr command, 275
188 summary, 81–82 print variables, 404
partprobe command, 184 symbolic mode, 68 private key encryption, 360–361
/proc/partitions directory, three-digit and four-digit privilege escalation, 47–53
184 modes, 67 described, 47
in storage deployment, view, 64, 64–66 disabled root account,
181–186 permission strings, 47–48
test the storage, 187, interpreting, 64–66 “get root” idiom for, 47
187–188, 188 permissive mode, 377 polkit (PolicyKit) toolkit,
types, 175–176 persistent setting, 252 51–52
XFS filesystem, 185–186 persistent storage, 445 with su, 48
partprobe command, 184 pgrep command, 223–224, 244 with sudo, 48–50
passwd command, 35–36, 36, physical deployment, 468–469 troubleshoot, 52
39, 40, 55, 58 Physical Volumes (PV), 192, processes running on the
password 192, 193, 194, 195, 211 system, 225–229
history, test passwords pidof command, 224, 244 CPU time, 226
against, 373 ping command, 338, 338–339, htop command, 226, 226
module, 372 352 lsof command, 227–228,
PAM for managing, 373 ping test, 314 228
set, 35–36, 36 pipe character ( | ), 101–102, ps command, 227, 227
paste command, 92, 112 102 sar command, 229
path tools, to test connectivity, piping, 105 systemd-analyze blame
338–341 pkaction command, 51 command, 228, 228
mtr command, 340–341, pkcheck command, 51 top command, 225, 225, 226
341 pkexec command, 47, 51, 51–52, uptime command, 229
ping command, 338, 338–339 59 process identifiers (PID), 223
tracepath command, pkexec program argument, 51 process management, 223–233
339–340 pkill command, 230 job control, 231–232
traceroute command, pkttyagent command, 51 manipulate processes,
339–340, 340 pluggable authentication 223–225
PATH variable, 404 models (PAM), 41 process, defined, 223
permissions, 61–82 Pluggable Authentication process ID, display, 223–224,
absolute mode, 67 Module (PAM), 371–373 224
access control lists, 77–80 configurations, 372, 372 process identifiers, 223
access identities, 63 described, 371–372 process signals, 224–225
access issues, troubleshoot, passwords managed with, process states, 229–231
72, 75 373 running processes and
access levels, 63 policy requirements, test open files (see processes
attributes, 70–72 passwords against, 373 running on the system)
best practices and polkit (PolicyKit) rules, 51–52 set priorities for CPU
guidelines, 81 configure, 51 processes, 231
command reference table, pkexec and other polkit /proc/partitions directory, 184
81–82 commands, 51, 51–52 /proc subdirectory, 85
default, 66 positional parameters, 414–415 project files, create, 96
in GUI desktop Preboot Execution ps command, 224, 225, 227,
environments, 68, 69 Environment (PXE), 455 227, 229, 229, 231, 249
operators, 68 pseudo-swap, 235

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 Index | I-13

pstree command, 230, 230 YUM package manager, Git, 430, 432–433
public key encryption, 360 145, 147–149 location of, 141–142
public key infrastructure (PKI) redirection, 103, 398–399 reasons for sysadmins to
certificates, 364–365 with here documents, 399 control, 152–153
certificate authorities, standard redirectors, types of, 153
364–365 398–399 updating configuration files,
described, 364 redirection operators, 103–104 154–155
self-signed certificates, 365 redirectories, 102–104 YUM and DNF to configure,
wildcard certificates, 365 redirectors, standard, 398–399 153–154
pull command, 431, 445, 452 redundant arrays of RequiredBy= directives, in
Puppet, 426 independent disks (RAID), systemd unit files, 255
push command, 431, 445, 452 176–177, 198–199, 198–200 required flag, 372
pwd command, 6, 12, 12, 29 disk mirroring (RAID 1), 198, Requires= directive
199, 200 in .service unit files, 255
Q disk striping (RAID 0), 198, in systemd unit files, 255
198, 200 requisite flag, 372
querying package managers
disk striping with parity reserved ranges, 289
Debian, 159, 159
(RAID 5), 199, 199, 200 resize2fs command, 190–191,
installation database, 141,
display settings, 211 214
141
hardware RAID, 176, 200, resize storage, 195
RPM, 150–152
206, 211 resolvectl command, 319, 319,
quota report, 177
software RAID, 176–177, 325
200, 211 restarting a service, 263
R standards, 198–200 retrieve variables, 401–402
RAID. see redundant arrays of throughput and, 206 rm command, 98–99, 106, 117
independent disks (RAID) registries, container, 444–445 rmdir command, 98–99, 117
Random Access Memory regular expressions (regex), rmmod command, 241, 249
(RAM), 234, 235, 235 395 role context, 376
ransomware, 168 relative path, 88 root cause analysis, 26
Raspberry Pi hardware reloading a service, 263 root context, 375
platform, 468–469 remote administrative access, /root directory, 86
read, write, and execute (rwx), 305–312 /root subdirectory, 85
63 CLI remote-access tools, route command, 303, 314
read command, 390 308–310 router issues, 318
read-only memory (ROM), 456 configure key-based routers, 288
rebase command, 431, 432 authentication, 307–308 router saturation, 318
recover and access data, 210 configure SSH, 305–306 routing issues, 318
Red Hat Enterprise Linux data transfer tools, 310–311 rpm commands, 145–147, 172
(RHEL), 4, 145, 186, 330, 331, remote GUI tools, 311 option for, 146
375, 380, 426 remote desktop, 308 using, 146–147
Red Hat Package Manager remote log forwarding, 266 RPM package manager. see Red
(RPM), 145–156 remote systems, test, 314–315 Hat Package Manager (RPM)
choosing commands to use, certificates with the openssl RPMs, 175, 206
150 s_client command, 315 RSA SecurID®, 370
Debian compared to, display network nodes with rstate, in SysVinit system, 260
142–143 Nmap, 314, 314 rsync command, 310–311
DNF package manager, 145, repositories rsyslog
149–150 APT configuration files, 160 configure, 264–265
query packages on, 150–152 configuration files for RPM, modules portion of, 264
repositories, 152–155 153–155 severities and facilities,
rpm commands, 145–147 Debian-based, 160 264–265, 265
rsyslog service, 246

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 I-14 | Index

runaway processes, 230 scripts with logical controls, AppArmour, 380–381

running (process state), 230 401–417 apply the appropriate
conditionals, 406–410 access controls, A-9–A-10
S loops, 410–412 authentication, 369–374
operators, 415–416 certificates, manage, 363–368
SaltStack, 427
schedule a script, 416 command reference table,
SAN. see storage-area network
shell parameter expansion, 383
(SAN)
412–415 configure and execute
sandbox, 168–170
variables, 401–406 remote connectivity for
described, 168
script syntax, 388 system management, A-10
running software in,
script utilities, 394–398 encryption, 358–361, 359
reasons for, 168
file manipulation goals, 358
software, 168–169
commands in scripting, hardening servers, 356–357
sar command, 229, 237, 249
397–398 implement and configure
Save, in Vim, 14
regular expressions (regex), firewalls, A-9
/sbin subdirectory, 85
395 implement identity
scanning monitoring tools, 337
tee command, 396 management, A-9
schedule a script, 416
xargs command, 395, SELinux, 375–380
scheduling, configure, 268–270
395–396 summarize the purpose
scp command, 310
search commands, 108–110 and use of security best
script comments, 386–387
find command, 108–109 practices in a Linux
script components, 391–393
locate command, 109–110 environment, A-8
arrays, 392–393
updatedb command, summary, 383
escape characters, 392
109–110 Security-Enhanced Linux
functions, 393
which command, 110 (SELinux), 375–380
string literals, 391–392
search paths, 404 audit2allow command, 379
scripting, containers, and
sections, in systemd unit files, change security contexts,
automation, A-11–A-14
255 376
create simple shell scripts
Secure Copy Protocol (SCP), contexts, 375–376
to automate common tasks,
310 copy versus move and, 380
A-11–A-12
secure email certificate, 364 described, 375
perform basic container
Secure File Transport Protocol modes, configure, 377–378
operations, A-13
(SFTP), 310 policy types, configure,
perform basic version
Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA), 378–379, 379
control using Git, A-13
366 security contexts, 376, 376
summarize common
commands, 367 settings, 377–378
infrastructure as code
Secure LDAP (LDAPS), 371 system booleans, 379
technologies, A-13–A-14
Secure Shell (SSH) troubleshooting tools,
summarize container,
additional configurations, 379–380
cloud, and orchestration
306, 306 security key fob, 370
concepts, A-14
configure, 305–306 sed command, 108, 113–114,
script permissions, 388
network port, 263, 290 395, 418
scripts, 385–418. see also Bash
server configuration files, self-signed certificates, 365
scripting basics
305–306 SELinux. see Security-Enhanced
command reference table,
service, 252 Linux (SELinux)
418
settings, 263 semanage command, 379
in Git use case, 430
tunneling, 308 Serial Advanced Technology
with logical controls (see
understand, 263 Attachment (SATA), 175
scripts with logical controls)
Secure Shell (SSH) access, 86 throughput and, 206
shell script elements,
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), 371 Serial Attached SCSI (SAS), 175
390–400
security, 355–383, A-8–A-11 throughput and, 206
summary, 418

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 Index | I-15

Server Message Blocks (SMB), shell script elements, 390–400 command reference table,
201, 201, 203 built-in shell commands, 172
service command, 260–261, 390–391 compile from source code,
284 common script utilities, 162–164 (see also software
service failures, 259–260 394–398 compilation)
service mesh, 446 exit codes, 393–394 Debian-based software
services, defined, 252 identify, 391–393 packages and repositories,
services, managing, 251–284 redirection, 398–399 157–161
best practices and shell variables, 401 RPM software packages and
guidelines, 283 troubleshoot, 405–406 repositories, 145–156
command reference table, shielded twisted pair (STP), 288 run software in a sandbox,
284 show command, 431 168–170
localization settings, shred command, 198, 214 summary, 171–172
configure, 277–282 shutdown command, 11 understand, 140–144
summary, 283–284 SIGHUP signal, 224–225 software RAID, 176–177, 200,
system services, configure, SIGKILL signal, 224–225 211
263–276 SIGTERM signal, 224–225 software version control, 152
system services, manage, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol solid-state disk (SSD), 174, 208,
252–262 (SMTP), 290 211
.service unit files, 255–256 single sign-on (SSO), 369 sort command, 112
session module, 372 sleeping (process state), 230 source command, 391
sestatus command, 379, 379 Small Computer Systems special devices, 218–219
setfacl command, 77, 78, 79, Interface (SCSI), 175 special Linux permissions,
79, 82 throughput and, 206 74–76
set group ID (SGID), 74–75 smart cards certificate, 364 absolute mode to set,
setsebool command, 379 Snaps, 169 74–75
set user ID (SUID), 74–75 socket tools, to test set group ID, 74–75
set variables, 401 connectivity, 341–343 set user ID, 74–75
sftp command, 310 lsof command, 343, 343 sticky bit, 75
sha1sum command, 367, 367 netstat command, 341–342 symbolic mode to set,
sha256sum command, 367 ss command, 342–343, 343 74–75
sha384sum command, 367 software acquisition, 165–166 troubleshoot access, 75
sha512sum command, 367 curl command, 165–166 ss command, 342–343, 343,
sha#sum commands, 367, 383 download sites, review, 165 353
sh-bang command, 388 tar command to manage SSH. see Secure Shell (SSH)
shell commands, 390–391 source code, 166 SSH port forwarding, 308
echo command, 390 wget command, 165–166 standard error (stderr), 103
exec command, 390–391 software compilation, 162–164 standard input (stdin), 103
read command, 390 commands, 162–163 standard output (stdout), 103
source command, 391 GCC, 162 starting a service, 254
shell expansion, defined, 413 package management stat command, 87, 87, 116
shell parameter expansion, distinguished from, 140–141 static IP addresses, 298
412–415 process to build the status command, 431
command substitution, 413 executable file, 163 sticky bit, 75
globbing, 414 reasons for, 162 stopped (process state), 230
positional parameters, remove compiled software, storage, troubleshoot, 205–212
414–415 163 capacity issues, 208–210
shell expansion, defined, software management, device issues, 210–211
413 139–172. see also repositories disk performance, 205–208
variable substitution with acquire software, 165–167 filesystem issues, 210
braces, 413 best practices and storage-area network (SAN),
shells, 6, 9 guidelines, 171 202, 202–203

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 I-16 | Index

Fibre Channel protocols, NAS, 200–201, 201 normal command syntax,

202, 202 RAID, 198–199, 198–200 10
iSCSI protocols, 202 SAN, 202, 202–203 sysadm_u context, 375
multipathing, 203 storage quotas, 177, 209 sysctl command, 244, 250
network file systems for, storage-space tracking, 187, /sys subdirectory, 85
203 187–188, 188 systemctl commands, 253–254,
to resolve capacity issues, strict policy, 379 254, 284
209 << (redirection operator), 104, systemd-analyze blame
Storage as a Service (STaaS), 399 command, 228, 228
209 string literals, 391–392 systemd configuration
storage deployment, 179–196 string operators, 415 manager, 228, 244, 246
add filesystem to partition, strings, commands to display, systemd.mount file, 188–189
185–186 101–102 systemd software suite, 253
automatically mount new subdirectories, 84–85 systemd unit files, 254–255,
storage, 188–190 subnet masks, 289, 289 255
hard disk drive, 179–181 substitution, 402 system initialization, 252–253
LVM, 192–195 su command, 16–17, 17, 47, 59 system management, A-1–A-8
manage filesystems, elevate privileges with, 48, build and install software,
190–191 52 A-7
manually test mount, sudo command, 16–17, 17, 59 configure and manage
186–187 elevate privileges with, storage using the
partition the drive, 181–185 48–50, 52 appropriate tools, A-3–A-4
summary, 190 sudoedit command, 50 configure and use the
test the storage, 187, visudo command, 49–50 appropriate processes and
187–188, 188 sudoedit command, 50 services, A-5
storage disk, 454 sudoers file, 49, 50 exam objective, A-7–A-8
storage interfaces, 175 sudo kill -9 command, 230 manage files and
storage management, 173–214 sudo kill -15 command, 230 directories, A-2–A-3
best practices and sufficient flag, 372 summarize Linux
guidelines, 213 superuser, 69 fundamentals, A-1–A-2
command reference table, SUSE ZYpp package manager, use the appropriate
213–214 143 networking tools or
deploy storage, 179–196 swapoff command, 236, 249 configuration files, A-6
hard disk partitioning versus swapon command, 236, 249 system profiles, 34
LVM deployment, 175 swap space, 234–236, 235 System Security Services
partitions, 175–176 management commands, Daemon (sssd), 371
RAID arrays, 176–177 235–236 system services, configure,
securely wiping storage swap types or 263–276
device, 198 configurations, 235 basics of configuration, 263
storage concepts, 174–175 switch, 288 display and forward logs,
storage design types, switched system, 466 265–266
174–175 switching issues, 318 network time, 267
storage interfaces, 175 switch issues, 318 NFS, 273–274
storage media types, 174 symbolic mode, 68 printing, 274–275
storage options, 197–204 to set special Linux reloading a service, 263
storage quotas, 177, 209 permissions, 74–75 restarting a service, 263
summary, 213–214 symlink (symbolic link), 252 rsyslog, 264, 264–265, 265
troubleshoot storage, syntax components, Bash, scheduling, 268–270
205–212 9–10 Secure Shell, 263
storage media types, 174 command-subcommand webserver, 271–273
storage options, 197–204 syntax, 10, 11 system services, manage,
LUKS, 197–198 252–262

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 Index | I-17

daemons, defined, 252 TCP/IP. see Transmission traceroute command, 317,

disabling/stopping a service Control Protocol/Internet 317–318, 325, 339–340, 340,
and masking a service, Protocol (TCP/IP) 352
difference between, 254 tee command, 106, 117 traits of Linux operating
enabling a service and in scripts, 396, 418 system, 3–4
starting a service, difference Terraform, 427 Transmission Control Protocol/
between, 254 test command, 409–410 Internet Protocol (TCP/IP),
.mount unit files, 257, 257 test mount, 186–187 286–288
NFS service, 252 text editors, 120–126 layers of, 286, 287
NTP service, 252 common, 120–126 LDAP, 371
persistent setting, 252 gedit text editor, 126, 126 name resolution, 299–302
service failures, 259–260 nano text editor, 125, network devices, 288
services, defined, 252 125–126 network nodes, 287
.service unit files, 255–256 Vim text editor, 121–125, transport layer, 286, 287
SSH service, 252 124 Transport Layer Security (TLS),
systemctl commands, text files, 119–138 371
253–254, 254 best practices and tr command, 111, 395
systemd software suite, 253 guidelines, 137 tree command, 11, 94, 94–95,
systemd unit files, 254–255, command reference, 138 96, 117
255 edit, 120–127 Trivial File Transfer Protocol
system initialization, manage, 128–136 (TFTP), 455
252–253 summary, 137–138 troubleshooting, A-14–A-17
SysVinit startup, 260–261 text files, edit, 120–127 analyze and troubleshoot
.target unit files, 258–259 configuration file concepts, central processing unit
.timer unit files, 256, 257 120–121 (CPU) and memory issues,
web service, 252 text editors, 120–126 A-15–A-16
System V, 253 text files, manage, 128–136 analyze and troubleshoot
SysVinit commands, 260–261 archive and extract with tar network resource issues,
SysVinit startup, 260–261 command, 128–130, 130 A-15
compression, 131–134 analyze and troubleshoot
copy and convert with dd storage issues, A-14–A-15
T command, 131 analyze and troubleshoot
tag command, 431 copy in and copy out with user access and file
tail command, 99, 100–101, cpio command, 130–131 permissions, A-16
116, 117 integrity checking, 135 use systemd to diagnose
tar command, 128–130, 130, text streams, 103 and resolve common
134, 138 three-digit mode, 67 problems with a Linux
for archiving and throughput, 206 system, A-16–A-17
compressing data, 209 thumb drive, 174 troubleshooting methodology,
to manage source code, tilde character (~), 34 24–27
166 tilde symbol (~), 92 determine the scope of the
to unpack download, 163 timedatectl command, 278–279, problem, 25
targeted policy, 379 284 establish a plan of action,
.target unit files, 258–259 .timer unit files, 256, 257 25–26
configure, 258–249 time zone configurations, establish a theory of
default.target unit file, 258, troubleshoot, 280–281, 281 probable cause, 25
258–259, 259 /tmp subdirectory, 85 identify the problem, 24
manage, 258 tokens, 370 implement the solution or
tcpdump command, 344, 344, top command, 225, 225, 226 escalate, 26
345, 353 touch command, 11, 12, 29 test the theory to
tracepath command, 317, determine the cause, 25
317–318, 325, 339–340, 352

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 I-18 | Index

verify, prevent, analyze, and Universal Serial Bus (USB), 174, user login attempt failures, 55
document, 26 187, 208 user management issues,
troubleshoot user and group booting from, 454 troubleshoot, 54
issues, 54–57 Unix-style ps command, 227 usermod command, 34, 34, 58
login commands, 55–56, UNIX System V, 260 to add users to groups, 45,
56 unshielded twisted pair (UTP), 45
login issues, 54–55 288 exit code for, 39, 45
login process, 55 until loop, 411 modify and delete user
management issues, 54 updatedb command, 109–110, accounts, 37, 38
tunables, 381 118 in verification, 38
tune2fs command, 191, 214 uptime command, 229 user profiles, 34
tunneling, SSH, 308 urandom device, 219 users and groups, 31–59
twisted-pair Ethernet cable, use cases, certificate, 363–364 command reference table,
288 use cases, firewall, 328–329 58–59
type context, 376 user accounts, manage, 32–42 group accounts, manage,
Type= directive, in .service unit account configuration 43–46
files, 255 commands, 39–41 privilege escalation, 47–53
Type= option, in .mount unit account management summary, 58–59
files, 257 commands, 34–36 troubleshoot, 54–57
modify and delete user user accounts, manage,
U accounts, 37–39 32–42
user configuration files, user space, 239
Ubuntu Desktop, Server, Core,
32–34 user subdirectory, 243
4, 22, 142, 157, 169, 281, 300,
user account storage, 32, 32–33, user_u context, 375
330, 333, 444, 468, 469
33 /usr/bin subdirectory, 85
udev device manager, 218–219
useradd command, 34, 34, 58 /usr/lib64 subdirectory, 85
identify block, character,
exit code for, 38, 45 /usr/lib subdirectory, 85
and special devices, 218–219
options for, 34–35 /usr/local subdirectory, 85
use, 218
set a password, 35–36, 36 /usr/share subdirectory, 85
ufw command, 333–335,
user login attempt failures, /usr subdirectory, 85
352
55
umask command, 62, 66, 81
umount command, 186–187,
use the adduser command V
instead of, 36, 36
214 variables, 401–406
in verification, 38
Uncomplicated Firewall (UFW), alias command, 405, 405
user configuration files, 32–34
333–335, 334 env command, 403–404,
system and user profiles, 34
advanced settings, 334–335 404
user account storage, 32,
described, 333–334 environment, 402
32–33, 33
graphical user interface, export command, 403
user context, 375–376
334 HISTFILESIZE, 404
userdel command, 34, 34, 58
selecting a firewall, 335 modify, 403, 403–406
exit code for, 39, 45
unconfined_u context, 375 print, 404
in group management, 44
Unified Extensible Firmware retrieve, 401–402
modify and delete user
Interface (UEFI), 456 search paths, 404
accounts, 38
in GPT, 176 set, 401
-r option added to the
uninterruptible process state, troubleshoot shell and
command to remove the
230 environment, 405–406
account, 38, 54
unit understand, 401
in verification, 38, 39
in systemd unit files, 255 variable substitution with
User= directive, in .service unit
in .target unit files, 258 braces, 413
files, 256
unit files, 254–255, 255 /var/log directory, 86
user (u) identity, 63
universally unique identifiers /var subdirectory, 85
user lockouts, 373
(UUID), 462 vendor control, 152
Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

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 Index | I-19

vendor repositories, 153 vmstat command, 236–237, X

version control with Git, 237, 249
xargs command, 106, 117
429–435. see also Git vm subdirectory, 243
in scripts, 395, 395–396, 418
Vim text editor, 120, 121–125 Volume Group (VG), 192, 192,
X FORWARDING, 311
Command Mode key 193–194, 195, 211
XFS, 89
strokes, 122 tool, 193–194
XFS filesystem, 185–186
Execute Mode commands, vgdisplay command, 193,
XFS tool, 191
122–123 195, 208, 211
XRDP, 311
Insert Mode commands,
xz command, 132, 138
123 W
multiple windows in,
123–125, 124
WantedBy= directives, in Y
systemd unit files, 255
opening page of, 121 YaST (Yet another Setup Tool),
Wants= directive
virsh command, 449 143
in .service unit files, 255
virtual CPU (vCPU), 226 Yellow Dog Update Manager
in systemd unit files, 255
virtual deployment, 468–469 (YUM), 145, 147–149
wc command, 108, 111, 397
virtual file system (VFS), 85 package dependency
w command, 39, 56, 58
virtualization concepts, 448–451 issues, 143
webserver, configure, 271–273
virtual machines, 448–450 update packages with,
web service, 252
virtual networks, 450 148–149
wget command, 165–166, 172,
virtualization tools, 449 yum commands, 147–149
309
Virtual Local Area Network yum commands, 147–149, 172
whatis command, 21, 29
(VLAN), 450 to display information on a
What= option, in .mount unit
virtual machines (VM), 448–450 specified package, 152
files, 257
configuration, 448 to display installed
wheel group, 50, 52
container versus, 438, 438 software, 151
Where= option, in .mount unit
GNOME VMM utility, 450, subcommand for, 148
files, 257
450 YUM package manager. see
which command, 108, 110, 118
virtualization tools, 449 Yellow Dog Update Manager
while loop, 411
virtual memory, 234 (YUM)
whoami command, 6, 12, 12,
Virtual Network Computing
17, 29
(VNC), 311
virtual network interface cards
who command, 39, 56, 58 Z
WHOIS, 321, 321, 326
(vNICs), 450 zero device, 219
wildcard certificates, 365
virtual networks, 450 zip command, 133, 138
Windows System (X11), 311
visudo editor, 48, 49, 49–50, 52 zombie (process state), 230
Wireshark, 345, 345–346
vi text editor, 120. see also Vim zsh (Z shell), 6, 9
world-readable file, 33
text editor zypper command, 143

Index

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

Linux+_XK0-005_Index_ppI1-I20.indd 19 17/06/22 8:34 PM

LICENSED FOR USE ONLY BY: PRANAV KAMBLE · 31662591 · OCT 10 2022

Linux+_XK0-005_Index_ppI1-I20.indd 20 17/06/22 8:34 PM