Fundamentals of

Electronic
Communication
 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

• Communication - is the
process of exchanging
information.
• Two of the main barriers to
human communication:
– Language
– Distance
MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION
MILESTONES IN THE HISTORY OF ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION
 ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. Transmitter - is a collection of electronic

components and circuits designed to convert
the electrical signal to a signal suitable for
transmission over a given communication
medium.
2. Communication channel or medium - is
the medium by which the electronic signal is
sent from one place to another.
3. Receiver - is a collection of electronic
components and circuits that accepts the
transmitted message from the channel and
converts it back to a form understandable by
humans.
 ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

1. Transmitter - is a collection of electronic

components and circuits designed to convert
the electrical signal to a signal suitable for
transmission over a given communication
medium.
2. Communication channel or medium - is
the medium by which the electronic signal is
sent from one place to another.
 ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

4. Noise. In a communication system, during

the transmission of a signal, or while receiving
the signal, some unwanted signal enters the
communication system via communicating
medium, and interferes with the transmitted
signal. Such a disturbance is called as Noise.
 TYPES OF A ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Electronic communications classification (Transmission):
(1) Simplex transmission - In simplex mode, Sender can
send the data but the sender can’t receive the data. It is a
unidirectional communication.
 TYPES OF A ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Electronic communications classification (Transmission):
(2) Half duplex transmissions - The form of two-way
communication in which only one party transmits at a
time.
 TYPES OF A ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Electronic communications classification (Transmission):
(3) Full duplex transmissions - In full-duplex mode,
Sender can send the data and also can receive the data
simultaneously. It is two-way directional communication
simultaneously.
 TYPES OF A ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Electronic communications classification (Signal):
(1) Analog signals – is a continuous wave form that
changes smoothly over time.
 TYPES OF A ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Electronic communications classification (Signal):
(1) Digital signals - Digital signals, in contrast to
analog signals, do not vary continuously, but change
in steps or in discrete increments.
 INFORMATION CAPACITY
➢ a measure of how much information
can be propagated through a
communication system and it is a
function of bandwidth and
transmission line.
➢ represents the number of
independent symbols that can be
carried through a system in a given
unit of time.
 INFORMATION CAPACITY
Hartley’s Law
I B•t
where
I = information capacity (bits
per second)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
t = transmission time (seconds)
 INFORMATION CAPACITY
Shannon Limit
𝑆
I = B log2 1 +
𝑁

𝑆
I = 3.32B log10 1 +
𝑁

where
I = information capacity
(bits per second)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
𝑺
= signal-to-noise power ratio
𝑵
(unitless)
 SYSTEM BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.

BW = f2 - f1
Where
f1 = lower frequency (Hz)
f2 = upper frequency (Hz)
SYSTEM BANDWIDTH
 CHANNEL BANDWIDTH

The term bandwidth refers to the range

of frequencies that contain the
information. The term channel
bandwidth refers to the range of
frequencies required to transmit the
desired information.
 CHANNEL BANDWIDTH

Carrier Frequency - is defined as the frequency

of a carrier wave, measured in cycles per
second, or Hertz, that is modulated to transmit
signals.
Sidebands - a sideband is a band of frequencies
higher than or lower than the carrier frequency,
that are the result of the modulation process
 BANDWIDTH
For example, in AM broadcasting, audio signals
up to 5 kHz can be transmitted. If the carrier
frequency is 1000 kHz, or 1 MHz, and the
modulating frequency is 5 kHz, sidebands will
be produced at
1000 - 5 = 995 kHz (Lower sideband)
and at
1000 + 5 = 1005 kHz (Upper Sideband)
 BANDWIDTH
The bandwidth of the AM signal
described above is the difference
between the highest and lowest
transmitting frequencies: BW = 1005
kHz – 995 kHz = 10 kHz. In this
case, the channel bandwidth is 10
kHz.
 NOISE AND NOISE CALCULATIONS
Electrical Noise is defined as any undesirable
electrical energy that falls within the passband
of the signal.
Noise can be divided into two general
categories: correlated and uncorrelated.
Correlated noise exists only when a signal is
present.
Uncorrelated noise is present all the time
whether there is a signal or not.
 UNCORRELATED NOISE

Uncorrelated noise is present regardless of

whether there is a signal present or not.
Uncorrelated noise can be further
subdivided into two general categories:
external and internal.
 External Noise

External Noise is noise that is generated

outside the device or circuit. The three
primary source of external noise are
atmospheric, extraterrestrial, and man-
made.
 External Noise
1. Atmospheric Noise is naturally occurring
electrical disturbances that originate within
Earth’s atmosphere. Atmospheric Noise is
commonly called static electricity.
 External Noise
2. Extraterrestrial Noise consists of
electrical signals that originate from
outside Earth’s atmosphere and is therefore
sometimes called deep-space noise.
i. Solar Noise is generated directly from
the sun’s heat.
ii. Cosmic Noise are continuously
distributed throughout the galaxies.
Cosmic noise is often called black-
body noise
 External Noise
3. Man-made Noise is simply noise that is
produced by mankind. Man-made noise
is most intense in the more densely
populated metropolitan and industrial
areas and is therefore sometimes called
industrial noise.
 Internal Noise

Internal noise is electrical interference

generated within a device or circuit.
There are three primary kinds of
internally generated noise: shot, transit
time, and thermal.
 Internal Noise

1. Shot Noise is caused by the random

arrival of carriers (holes and electrons)
at the output element of an electronic
device, such as a diode, field-effect
transistor, or bipolar transistor.
 Internal Noise
2. Transit-time Noise - any modification to a
stream of carriers as they pass from the input
to the output of a device (such as from the
emitter to the collector of a transistor)
produces an irregular, random variation
categorized as transit-time noise.
3. Thermal Noise - is associated with the rapid
and random movement of electrons within a
conductor due to thermal agitation.
 Internal Noise

Thermal agitation has several names,

including thermal noise, because it is
temperature dependent; Brownian noise, after
its discoverer; Johnson noise, after the man
who related Brownian particle movement of
electron movement; and white noise because
the random movement is at all frequencies.
 Johnson’s Noise Power formula:
N = KTB
Where:
N = noise power (watts)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
K = Boltzmann’s proportionality constant (1.38
x 10-23 joules per kelvin)
T = absolute temperature (kelvin) (room
temperature = 17 ̊ C, or 290K)
Noise power (in dBm(decibel-milliwats))

𝐾𝑇𝐵
N(dBm) = 10 log 0.001

𝐾𝑇
N(dBm) = 10 log 0.001 + 10 log B

N(dBm) = -174 dBm+ 10 log B

Noise Voltage

VN = 𝟒𝑹𝑲𝑻𝑩
where:
B = bandwidth (hertz)
K = Boltzmann’s proportionality constant (1.38
x 10-23 joules per kelvin)
T = absolute temperature (kelvin) (room
temperature = 17 ̊ C, or 290K)
VN = rms Noise voltage (voltz)
R = load resistance (ohms)
 Correlated Noise

Correlated noise is a form of internal noise

that is correlated (mutually related) to the
signal and cannot be present in a circuit unless
there is a signal – simply stated, no signal, no
noise!.
Correlated noise is produced by nonlinear
amplification and includes harmonic and
intermodulation distortion, both of which are
forms of nonlinear distortion.
 Correlated Noise

Harmonic distortion occurs when unwanted

harmonics of a signal are produced through
nonlinear amplification (nonlinear mixing).
Harmonics are integer multiples of the original
signal. Amplitude distortion is another name
for harmonic distortion.
 Correlated Noise

Intermodulation distortion is the generation of

unwanted sum and difference frequencies
produced when two or more signals mix in a
nonlinear device. The sum and difference
frequencies are called cross products.
Mathematically, the sum and difference
frequencies are
Cross products = mf1 ± nf2

Where: f1 and f2 = fundamental frequencies

 Impulse Noise

It is characterized by high-amplitude peaks of

short duration in the total noise spectrum. As
the name implies, impulse noise consists of
sudden bursts of irregularly shaped pulses that
generally last between a few microseconds and
several milliseconds, depending on their
amplitude and origin.

Common sources of impulse

noise include transients produced
from electromechanical switches
(such as relays and solenoids),
electric motors, appliances,
electric lights (especially
fluorescent), power lines,
automotive ignition systems,
poor-quality solder joints, and
lightning.
 Interference

It is a form of external noise and, as the name

implies, means “to disturb or destract from.”
Electrical interference is when information
signals from one source produce frequencies
that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and
interfere with information signals from another
source.
 Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio

Signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N) is the ratio

of the signal power level to the noise power
level. Mathematically, signal-to-noise power
ratio is expressed as
= PPs
𝑆
𝑁 n
where:
Ps = signal power (watts)
Pn = noise power (watts)

= 10 log PPs
𝑆
(dB)
𝑁 n
 Noise Factor

• Noise factor (F) and noise figure (NF) are

figures of merit used to indicate how much the
signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal
passes through a circuit or series of circuits.
 Noise Factor and Noise Figure

Noise factor is simply a ratio of input signal-to-

noise power ratio to output signal-to-noise
power ratio. In other words, it is a ratio of
ratios. Mathematically, noise factor is

Input signal-to-noise power ratio

F= (unitless ratio)
Output signal-to-noise power ratio
 Noise Figure

Noise figure is simply the factor stated in dB

and is a parameter commonly used to indicate
the quality of a receiver. Mathematically, noise
figure is

Input signal-to-noise power ratio

NF(dB) = 10 log
Output signal-to-noise power ratio
 Noise Figure

When two or more amplifiers are cascaded, the

total noise factor is the accumulation of the
individual noise factors. Friiss’ formula is used
to calculate the total noise factor of several
cascaded amplifiers. Mathematically, Friiss’
formula is

Where:
FT = total noise factor for n cascaded amplifiers
F1 = noise factor, amplifier 1
F2 = noise factor, amplifier 2
F3 = noise factor, amplifier 3
Fn = noise factor, amplifier n
A1 = power gain, amplifier 1
A2 = power gain, amplifier 2
An = power gain, amplifier n
 Noise Figure

Note that to use Friiss’ formula, the noise

figures must be converted to noise factors. The
total noise figure is simply
NFT (dB) = 10 log FT
 Environment Temperature

Because the noise produced from thermal

agitation is directly proportional to temperature,
thermal noise can be expressed in degrees as
well as watts or dBm. Mathematically,
environmental temperature is expressed as
𝑁
T = 𝐾𝐵

where:
T = environment temperature
(kelvin)
N = noise power (watts)
K = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x
10-23 J/K)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
 Equivalent Noise Temperature

Equivalent noise temperature (Te) is a

hypothetical value that cannot be directly
measured. Te is a convenient parameter often
used rather than noise figure in low-noise,
sophisticated VHF, UHF, and satellite radio
receivers. Te, as is noise factor, indicates the
reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio a signal
undergoes as it propagates through a receiver.
Te = T (F – 1) where:
Te = equivalent noise temperature
(kelvin)
T = environment temperature
(reference value of 290K)
F = noise factor (unitless)
 Equivalent Noise Temperature

Conversely, noise factor can be represented as a

function of equivalent noise temperature with
the following formula:

Te
F=1+ 𝑇
End!