Black Body Radiation

and Climate Forcing

L19: 20 Feb. 2023

L20: 21 Feb. 2023
L21: 13 Mar. 2023
Prof. A.K. Chaubey L22: 15 Mar. 2023
L23: 20 Mar. 2023
[email protected] L24: 22 Mar. 2023
 Radiation
 An object at temperature T can emit or absorb light waves of several
frequencies. The distribution of the energy exchanged by the object with
its external environment depends on the temperature T.
 When two objects at different temperatures are in contact, thermal
energy (heat) is transferred from the hot object to the cold object.
 By contrast, radiation is energy that is carried by an electromagnetic
wave. In this case, energy is transferred by emission and absorption of
light waves. Hence, by definition, thermal radiation is the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by any object at non-zero temperature T.
• Electromagnetic waves move through space at
a constant speed c = ~ 3x108 m s-1
• Sunlight, microwaves, heat from a fire, radio
waves, ultraviolet rays, x rays, gamma rays.
• The different types of radiation are distinguished
by their wavelength λ.
 a = long wavelength  less Energy
 b = short wavelength  more Energy
Electromagnetic spectrum
 Origin of Radiation
 In 1900, Max Planck laid the foundations of quantum physics by studying
the black body emission spectrum within the theory of quanta.
 Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck, was a German physicist. He founded
quantum physics in 1900 with his fundamental hypothesis on the theory
of quanta.
 He formulated the fundamental hypothesis according to which the energy
generated by a periodic movement of frequency ѵ (rotation or vibration)
has a discontinuous structure.
 Consequently, radiant energy can only exist as bundles or quanta of
energy hѵ. The number h is a universal constant known as the Planck
constant.
In 1905, Albert Einstein stated that light is made of particles subsequently
called photons, each of which has an energy hѵ. Radiation results from
electronic transitions between discrete levels of atomic or molecular systems.
The energy exchanged during these transitions corresponds to photon
absorption and emission processes. The energy E, angular frequency ω,
frequency ν and wavelength λ of the photon are related by the following
relations:

Where, E is expressed in joules (J), ѵ in hertz (Hz), ω in radian per second

and λ in meters (m). The quantity c designates the speed of light in a vacuum
and is the h-bar (or reduced) Planck constant.
Numerically, h = 6.62606896*10−34 J⋅s; h-bar ( )= 1.054571628*10−34 J⋅s.
c = 299792458 m⋅s−1 (exact value).
At the microscopic scale, it is convenient to use the electron-volt (eV) as a
unit of energy, where:
1 eV = 1.602179487 . 10−19 J.
Decomposition of an incident radiant flux Φi

 By definition, radiant flux, denoted by Φ, is the power

emitted by a source throughout the space in which it can
radiate. Radiant flux is expressed in Watts (W).
 Let us consider an object receiving an incident energy flux
Φi. The surface of the object is chosen to allow radiation
reflection, absorption and transmission.
Reflection, Transmission and Absorption of EMR
According to the law of conservation of energy, we can write:
Φi = Φr + Φa + Φt ……………………………………(1)
In this relation, Φr, Φa and Φt are the reflected radiant flux, absorbed
radiant flux and transmitted radiant fluxes, respectively. Let us consider
ρ, α and ζ as the coefficients of reflection, absorption and transmission,
respectively, of the radiant flux. These quantities by definition can be
expressed as:

……………… (2)

By dividing equation (1) by Φi and using equation (2), we get:

Coefficients ρ, α and ζ characterize the behavior of an object that is subjected

to radiation. It is worth noting that the absorption coefficient α is the most
important parameter. This coefficient measures the proportion in which
incident electromagnetic radiation is converted into thermal energy.
Photon absorption and emission processes

Emission of Radiation
 Classification of objects
Objects susceptible to exchange energy are classified into
three categories:
 Transparent objects that allow radiation to pass through
without attenuation. This is the case with glass, transparent
plastic material, etc.
 Opaque objects that absorb radiation and get heated. This
is the case with solid bodies (metals, rocks, etc.), cardboard
and some viscous liquids, such as paint.
 Translucent objects that absorb a part of the radiation and
allow the rest to pass through. For these objects, radiation
propagation is accompanied by absorption that increases
the energy of the medium. A familiar example is that of oil.
 Black Body and Gray Body
A black body is an ideal object that has the specific
property of perfectly absorbing the electromagnetic
radiations irrespective of their frequency.
The adjective “black” highlights only the fact that the
object absorbs all the radiations of the visible spectrum so
that it appears to be black.
In other words, a black body is an ideal body which allows the whole of the
incident radiation to pass into itself (without reflecting the energy) and
absorbs within itself the whole incident radiation. This propety is valid for
radiation corresponding to all wavelengths and to all angels of incidence.
Therefore, the black body is an ideal absorber of incident radaition.
Any object whose absorption coefficient α = 1, is termed as black body.

Gray Body: Please note that a gray body is not necessarily gray. This term
designates any object whose absorption coefficient is α < 1.
Black body and Gray body
There are two types of bodies:

 Gray bodies for which α < 1

 Black bodies for which α = 1.
 The Magic of Quantum Mechanics
Max Planck wanted to understand black body radiation. He used a black
body of a box shape with a small hole in it.

He heated the box up, wait for the system to reach a stationary state (at a
fixed temperature) and see what kind of electromagnetic radiation (intensity
as a function of frequency) comes out of the hole. He calculated correctly
that the black body would emit electromagnetic radiation having a distribution
of frequencies. However, the larger the frequency the larger its intensity,
leading to what is known as ultraviolet catastrophe. There is a serious
discrepancy between the results of classical theory and the experiment,
especially for large frequencies. Only after assuming the existence of energy
quanta, theory and experiment can be reconciled.
Black-Body Emission Spectrum
 What is Radiant Exitance or Radiant Emittance?
 Radiant exitance or Radiant Emittance is the radiant flux emitted by a
surface per unit area,

 The SI unit of radiant exitance is the watt per square metre (W/m2), while
that of spectral exitance in frequency is the watt per square metre
per hertz (W·m−2·Hz−1) and that of spectral exitance in wavelength is the
watt per square metre per metre (W·m−3). Radiant exitance is often called
"intensity" in branches of physics other than radiometry, but in radiometry
this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity.

 Radiant exitance of a surface, denoted Me ("e" for "energetic“) is defined

as:

Where, ∂ is the partial derivative symbol; Φe is the radiant flux emitted; A

is the area.
Radiant Exitance or Radiant Emittance………..Contd.
Radiant exitance of a black body surface (Meo), according to the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law, is given by:

Meo = σT4

Where, σ is Stefan - Boltzmann constant, and T is the

temperature of the black body surface.

For a gray body surface, the radiant exitance (Me) is given by:

Me = єMeo = єσT4

Where, є is the emissivity of the surface.

Please note that Radiant Exitance of a black body surface is
denoted as Meo ("e" for "energetic“ and “o” for black body).
 Spectral Exitance / Spectral Emittance
Spectral exitance / spectral emittance is the radiant exitance
of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength, depending on
whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of
wavelength. In frequency of Spectral exitance of a surface,
denoted Me,ν, in frequency is given as:

Spectral exitance / spectral emittance of a surface, denoted

Me,λ, is given in wavelength as:

Where, ν is the frequency, and λ is the wavelength.

Spectral Exitance / Spectral Emittance…..…Contd.
 The Spectral Exitance or Spectral Emittance is the
radiant exitance of a surface per unit frequency or
wavelength, depending on whether the spectrum is
taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength.

 Spectral Exitance / Spectral Emittance is computed

using formulae of Planck's law.

 It also provides formula for the computation of the

spectral exitance for a real surface (Gray-body
surface).
Planck’s Radiation Law: Spectral Distribution of Emissive Power
Planck's law describes the electromagnetic radiation emitted by
a black body in thermal equilibrium at a definite temperature.
The law is named after Max Planck, who originally proposed it
in 1900. Planck’s blackbody formulation to express the spectral
exitance of the black body around a given frequency (Moe,v) or
wavelength (Moe,ʎ) are given as :

Where, h is the Planck constant (h = 6.62606896*10−34 J⋅s), ν is

the frequency; λ is the wavelength; k is the Boltzmann constant;
c is the speed of light in the medium; T is the temperature of that
surface, λ is the wavelength, L0 is the radiance of the black body
Planck’s Law: Spectral Distribution of Emissive Power
Planck’s formulation to express the spectral exitance of the gray-
body around a given frequency (Me,v) or wavelength (Me,ʎ) are
given as :

As a function of wavelength
As a function of frequency
Where, є is the emissivity of the
surface.
Isotherms of a black body: experimental Facts
By definition, the electromagnetic energy density denoted by du in the
band of angular frequency between ω and ω+dω (or of wavelength
between λ and λ+dλ) is given by the expression:
du = u (ω) dω = u (λ) dλ -----------------------------------(1)
The physical quantity u (ω) or u (λ) is called the spectral density of
electromagnetic energy. u (ω) is expressed in J ⋅ rad−1⋅ s and u (λ) in J ⋅
m−1.

Let us study the variation of the spectral density of electromagnetic energy

depending on wavelength λ for each temperature T of the black body.
Experience shows that these are asymmetrical curves known as black
body isotherms. For each temperature value T, there is a corresponding
curve that reaches a maximum for a specific wavelength value denoted as
λmax. It should be kept in mind that λmax does not correspond to the
maximal value of the wavelength of an isotherm taking place at
temperature T of the black body. It is rather the wavelength
corresponding to the peak of each isotherm. For example, for the isotherm
at 5,500 K, λ ≈ 520 nm.
Black Body Isotherm Curves
 Rayleigh–Jeans law
The Rayleigh–Jeans law is an approximation to the spectral
radiance of electromagnetic radiation as a function of
wavelength from a black body at a given temperature. It can
be expressed as:

where is the spectral radiance, the power emitted per unit

emitting area, per steradian, per unit wavelength; c is the
speed of light; kB is the Boltzmann constant; and T is the
temperature in kelvins. For frequency v, the expression is:

The Rayleigh–Jeans law agrees with experimental results at

large wavelengths (low frequencies) but strongly disagrees at
short wavelengths (high frequencies).
Spectral radiance of electromagnetic radiation
Following Rayleigh–Jeans law and Plank’s law
Ultraviolet Catastrophe / Rayleigh - Jeans catastrophe
 The ultraviolet catastrophe, also called the Rayleigh -
Jeans catastrophe, was the prediction of late 19th
century/early 20th century.
 An ideal black body at thermal equilibrium would
emit unbound quantity of energy as wavelength
decreases.
 Infact, the ultraviolet catastrophe is the error at short
wavelengths in the Rayleigh - Jeans law (depicted as
"classical theory" in the graph) for the energy emitted by
an ideal black body. The error, much more pronounced for
short wavelengths, is the difference between the black
curve (as classically predicted by the Rayleigh - Jeans
law) and the blue curve (the measured curve as predicted
by Planck's law).
Ultraviolet Catastrophe / Rayleigh - Jeans catastrophe
 Black-Body Radiation Laws
Kirchhoff’s Laws of Thermal Radiation
 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was a German physicist. He is well known
especially for his laws related to the conservation of currents and
charges in electrical circuits. Kirchhoff is also known for his laws related
to thermal radiation, which he formulated in 1859.
 There are two Kirchhoff’s laws on the thermal radiation.

 They explain the black body isotherms and the relation between
radiance L of the gray body and radiance L0 of the black body.
 The First Law: all black bodies at the same temperature have the same
radiance.
 The Second Law: among all the objects brought to the same
temperature, the black body is the most luminous.
 Considering a gray body of coefficient of absorption α, the mathematical
expression of Kirchhoff’s second law leads to the relation between
radiance L of the gray body and radiance L0 of the black body, which is:
L= α.L0
Beyond this slide, contents are not
included in the Mid-Sem Exam
 Black-Body Radiation Laws

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law

 Joseph Stefan was an Austrian physicist. He is especially
renowned for his work published in 1879 on the radiation of
the black body in which he stated the law that bears
his name.

 Based on this law, Stefan determined the Sun’s surface

temperature (5430°C).

 Then his student Boltzmann offered a theoretical justification

for the Stefan law. This is why this law is commonly known
as the Stefan - Boltzmann law.

28
 Black-Body Radiation Laws

The Stefan-Boltzmann Law

By definition, total energy exitance M0 is equal to the power radiated by the
unit surface in all directions and can be computed using:
M0 = σT4 ---------------------------------------- (1)
Where, σ is Stefan - Boltzmann constant which can be written as
σ = 5.67 * 10-8 J s-1m-2K-4, and L0 is the radiance of the black body.
The total radiant exitance for the gray body (M) and black body (M0) are
related to radiance L (gray body) and L0 (black body) as per following:

M = πL and M0 = πL0 ---------------------------------------- (2)

Therefore the Stefan - Boltzmann law states that the total radiant exitance
M0 of the black body is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature T.
Using above two relations (1) and (2) , the radiance L0 of the black body can
be written as:
L0 = σT4 / π ---------------------------------------- (3) 29
 Black-Body Radiation Laws

Wien’s laws and Useful Spectrum

The two Wien’s laws give the abscissa λmax of the wavelength and the
ordinate M0λmax of the maximum monochromatic exitance for each
temperature T of the black body.

Wien’s first law (Wien’s Displacement Law)

The wavelength λmax at an isotherm peak shifts toward short wavelengths
when temperature T increases. According to this law:

λmaxT = σw
Where, σW is a constant , known as Wien's displacement constant, which is
σW = 2.8977685 × 10–3 m. K = 2.8977685 × 106 nm . K.

Wien’s law shows that the value of λmax shifts toward short wavelengths
when the temperature T increases.
Isotherm curve of the black body at temperature T

λmaxT = σw
 Wien’s second law
The ordinate M0λmax of the maximum monochromatic exitance is proportional
to the fifth power of temperature, which is:
M0λmax = BT5

In the above relation, M0λmax is expressed in W ⋅ m−3 (if the wavelength

λmax is expressed in m) or in W ⋅ m–2 ⋅ μm−1 (if λmax is expressed in
micrometers); the units of constant B depend on the unit of wavelength
λmax.

B = 1.28 .10−5 [W ⋅ m−3 ⋅ K−5] if λmax is expressed in m.

B = 1.28 .10−11 [W ⋅ m−2⋅ μm− 1⋅ K− 5] if λmax is expressed in μm.

It is noticed that when the wavelength of radiation is such that λ < 0.5λmax,
there is practically no more radiated energy (approximately 1%).
Furthermore, there is practically no more radiated energy when λ > 4.5λmax.
By definition, the wavelength range 0.5λmax <λ < 4.5λmax is called the useful
spectrum of the considered isotherm (hatched part in Figure).
Useful Spectrum (Hatched Part of the Isotherm Curve)

The wavelength range 0.5λmax <λ < 4.5λmax is called the

useful spectrum of the considered isotherm (hatched portion
in the figure).
 Comparison of Rayleigh-Jeans, Wien's and
Planck's laws for a Body of 8 mK Temperature
Radiance (Wm-2Sr-1

Frequency (Hz)
34
 Summary of Black-Body Properties
It has been shown that the blackbody possesses certain fundamental
properties that make it a useful standard for quantifying the properties of
real radiating bodies. These properties are the following:

1. The blackbody is the maximum absorber and emitter of radiant energy at

all wavelengths and in all directions. Therefore it reflects no radiation
and appears perfectly black.

2. Roughly we can say that the stars radiate like blackbody radiators. This
is important because it means that we can use the theory for blackbody
radiators to infer important properties about stars.

3. At a particular temperature the black body would emit the maximum

amount of energy possible for that temperature.

4. Blackbody radiation does not depend on the type of object emitting it.
Entire spectrum of blackbody radiation depends on only one parameter,
the temperature, T.
 Summary of Black-Body Properties
5. The total (including all wavelengths) radiant exitance (total emissive
power) of a blackbody into a medium is given by the Stefan–Boltzmann
law:
M0 = σT4
6. The blackbody spectral and total intensities are independent of the
direction so that emission of energy into a direction θ away from the
surface normal direction is proportional to the projected area of the
emitting element, dA cosθ. This is known as Lambert’s cosine law.

7. Planck's law describes the electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black

body in thermal equilibrium at a definite temperature.

8. The wavelength at which the maximum spectral intensity of radiation

into a medium for a blackbody is given by Wien’s displacement law.

λmaxT = σw
 9.
• As the temperature
increases, the peak

Power Radiated at each Wavelength

wavelength emitted by the
black body decreases.
• As temperature increases,
the total energy emitted
increases, because the
total area under the curve
increases.
• As the temperature
decreases, the curve gets
infinitely close to the x-axis
but never touches it.
 Numerical - 1
Consider an isotherm at the surface temperature of the Sun,
which is assimilated to a black body. Find the useful spectrum
corresponding to T = 6,000 K, if σW = 2.898 . 10−3 m ⋅ K.
Solution:

λmax . T = σW
λmax = (2.898 x 10-3 m . K ) / 6000 K
= 0.483 x 10-6 m
= 483 x 10-9 m
= 483 nm
Since the wavelength range 0.5λmax <λ < 4.5λmax is called the useful spectrum
of the considered isotherm.

Therefore useful spectrum corresponding to 6000 K will be:

0.5 x 483 <λ < 4.5 x 483 nm

or, 241.5 <λ < 2173.5 nm
 Numerical - 2
What is the maximal monochromatic exitance of the isotherm of
the black body at wavelength λmax= 1.184 μm at T = 2,500 K?
B = 1.28 .10−11 W ⋅ m−2⋅ μm− 1⋅ K− 5.

Solution:
The maximum monochromatic exitance, M0λmax , is proportional
to the fifth power of temperature, which is:
M0λmax = BT5
= 1.28 * 10-11 *(2500)5
= 1.25 *106 Wm-2μm-1
Climate Forcing
 Weather and Climate
 Weather - refers to the state of the
atmosphere at a given place and time.

 Climate - Climate is often summarized

by average or mean values of weather
elements, but it is necessary to include
the extremes and variations. Climate
represents for a larger area.
 Weather Vs Climate
Weather Climate

Can change within a few Takes very long time to

minutes or hours change!
 Climate Vs Weather
• Determined: daily
• Looked at by the
• Determined: Over time minutes, hour, day,
• Looked at by the years week
• Reported as an average • Reported as a
• Depends on the location forecast
on Earth • Depends on the
• Weather makes up weather occurring
climate mainly to the west
• Climate helps you
determine the weather
Climate is an average of weather (Temperature, Rainfall...)
over a “long” time.
Weather

Climate (average min/max)

 Climate Forcing
 Climate forcing is the physical process of affecting the climate on
the Earth through a number of forcing factors.
 These factors are specifically known as forcings because they
drive the climate to change, and it is important to note that these
forcings exist outside the existing climate system.
 The climate system includes the hydrosphere, land surface,
the cryosphere, the biosphere, and atmosphere.
 Examples of some of the most important types of forcings
include: variations in solar radiation, volcanic eruptions,
changing albedo, and changing levels of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
 Each of these are considered external forcings because these
events change independently of the climate, perhaps as a result
of changes in solar activity or human-caused fossil
fuel combustion.
 Have we changed the climate?
Climate models capture the last 100 year's warming
only if we include the human effects.

Natural Climate Influence All Climate Influences

What will the future climate look like?

IPCC (www.ipcc.ch)
 What makes climate to change?
Natural processes
● Changes in the Insolation
● Changes in the earth's orbit
● Changes in the atmosphere
● Changes in ice sheets
● Volcanic eruptions
● Tectonic Plate Movement

Human Activities
• Any activity that releases “greenhouse gases”
into the atmosphere
● Internal Wiggles (for example El Nino)

Some cause bigger changes, some cause small changes

Some cause slower changes, some cause fast changes
Some cause changes that last, some cause changes that go away fast
Conceptual framework of climate
forcing, response, and feedbacks
Estimated radiative forcings since pre-industrial
times for the Earth and troposphere system
 THE CLIMATE OF THE EARTH IS CONTROLLED BY THE
EARTH’S ENERGY BALANCE

 Energy flows into the Earth from the Sun and

flows out when it is radiated into space.
 The Earth’s energy balance is determined by the
amount of sun’s radiation that falls on the Earth
(insolation) and the characteristics of the Earth’s
surface and atmosphere that act to reflect,
circulate and re-radiate this energy.
Insolation (Incoming Solar radiation): The measure of
the amount of solar radiation (energy) falling on a
surface. It is a very important factor in determining the
climate of the Earth.
THE EFFECTS OF VARYING INSOLATION ON OUR CLIMATE
APPROXIMATELY 49% OF THE INSOLATION IS ABSORBED
BY THE EARTH’S SURFACE
DIFFERENT ORBITAL VARIATIONS AND HOW THEY EFFECT
CONDITIONS ON EARTH

o The Earth’s orbit o Earth’s orbit is also

around the sun is not not fixed
perfectly circular o Called Milankovitch
o The closer the Earth is Cycles
to the Sun the more o Changes the total
concentrated the solar insolation and the
radiation (insolation) timing of the insolation
Ocean Water Warming
Factors affecting Distribution of
Temperature in Ocean Water
1. Latitude
2. Inequality in the distribution of water and land
3. Prevailing wind
4. Oceanic currents
5. Distance of the earth from the sun
6. Duration of day
7. Number of sunspots activities
8. Submarine ridges
9. Local weather conditions
10. Location and shape of sea

 Incoming Solar Radiation: Insolation

Sea Surface Temperature from Equator to Poles
Temperature (0C)

Latitude

Variation with latitude of surface temperature - average of all oceans.

Global Distribution of Sea Surface Temperature

The surface temperature of seawater primarily depends on the latitude and season.
Global Average Annual Sea Surface Temperature
 Vertical Profile of Ocean Temperature
 If thermal energy from solar radiation Temperature (0-300 C)
is largely absorbed by the surface
layers, how can it be carried deeper?
1. Conduction – a slow process
2. Turbulent mixing by winds and

Depth (0-10 km)

waves
3. Horizontal and vertical
advection (transport of water
in bulk motion along with all its
properties)
 Thermal Layers of the Ocean Water
 The turbulent mixing establishes a
isothermal surface-layer that can vary Isothermal layer
from 15 to 200 m. Depth at which Mixed
layer end is called MLD (Mixed Layer
Depth)
 Between about 200 m and 1000 m depth
temperature declines rapidly. This region
of steep gradient is called Thermocline.
The thermocline is the transition layer
between the mixed layer and the deep
water layer. Temperature decreases
sharply in this layer
 The isothermal layer and the deep water
layer are relatively uniform in temperature,
while the thermocline represents the
transition zone between the two.
Thermocline in Low and High Latitudes
Representative Temperature Profiles for
Tropical, Mid-Latitude, and Polar regions
Temperature in Summer and Winter Seasons
ENERGY FLOWS IN THE CLIMATE SYSTEM
 ALBEDO
Albedo is the fraction of light that a surface reflects. If it is all
reflected, the albedo is equal to 1. If 30% is reflected, the albedo
is 0.3. The albedo of Earth's surface (atmosphere, ocean, land
surfaces) determines how much incoming solar energy, or
light, is immediately reflected back to space. This can have an
impact on climate.

The ratio of radiosity

to irradiance (flux
each unit of area)
obtained by a
surface is known as
surface albedo.

ENERGY ABSORBED VERSUS REFLECTED

 Climate change feedbacks
 Climate change feedbacks are important in the
understanding global warming.

 The feedback processes amplify or diminish effect of

each climate forcing, and so play an important part in
determining the climate sensitivity and future climate
state.

 There are a number of feedback processes important

to Earth’s climate system. These are:
(i) Water Vapour feedback
(ii) Cloud feedback
(iii) Permafrost feedback
(iv) Ice-Albedo feedback
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
Changes in albedo can create a positive feedback that reinforces a
change in the climate. A positive feedback is a process which amplifies
the effect of an initial change.
 WEATHERING
Rocks exposed at earth’s surface interact with water and the
atmosphere undergoing a set of chemical and physical
changes called weathering.

WEATHERING FEEDBACK
o Weathering process involves oWeathering process is a sink for
a chemical reaction atmospheric carbon dioxide (an
important greenhouse gas)
o Carbonic acid is formed when
carbon dioxide dissolves in oRemoving carbon dioxide from the
water atmosphere weakens the
greenhouse effect, cooling the
o Acid rain contains carbonic
Earth
acid
o Another chemical reaction is oChemical weathering occurs more
initiated when acid rain falls on rapidly in hotter climates, which
rocks, dissolving minerals and are associated with higher levels
breaking down their structure of carbon dioxide
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
 In the Earth system, positive and negative feedbacks are
essential components that play an important role in
maintaining a more or less stable state.
 A negative feedback mechanism stabilizes a system,
preventing an extreme state.
Currently the overall effect of climate
forcers is warming the planet.
 Greenhouse Gases

Nitrous Oxide

• CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is currently 40% higher than it was

when industrialisation began.

• Other greenhouse gases are emitted in smaller quantities, but they trap
heat far more effectively than CO2, and in some cases are thousands of
times stronger.
Greenhouse Gases - Carbon Dioxide
 CARBON DIOXIDE IS THE DOMINANT
GREENHOUSE GAS

Concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

are generally maintained by the carbon cycle.
 CONCENTRATIONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE HAVE
INCREASED FROM PRE-INDUSTRIAL LEVELS OF 280
ppm to ~400 ppm AS OF 2015
Variations in Temperature, Methane, and
Carbon Dioxide with Respect to Time.
 The figure displays variations in methane (parts per billion in volume), carbon
dioxide (in part per thousand in volume) and temperature with respect to time (from
450,000 years to present) in a nonlinear scale. Further, the temperature has
changed and then carbon dioxide and methane have responded during the
geological past i.e. between ~450,000 years and 1840 years (initiation of
industrialization) and vice-versa. Whereas, during post industrialization, methane
and carbon dioxide have already changed, but temperature has not yet responded
as much. This clearly indicates that the process, by which temperature was changing
and methane and carbon dioxide were responding and vice-versa, were different in
the past than that in the present.

 In the past, the amount of varied thermal energy received by the earth from the
Sun and also impacted by the earth’s orbital changes, plate movement, volcanism
etc reflected in the change in temperature of the earth first and then subsequently
methane and carbon dioxide changed. But currently, both methane and carbon
dioxide increased all time high without causing similar changes in temperature. The
processes, giving rise the all-time high concentrations of methane and carbon
dioxide, are different. Fossil fuel usage, industrial practices, agricultural practices,
change of land cover etc have played important roles in increased concentrations of
greenhouse gasses. It appears that other processes (chemical weathering,
increased cloud formation, high rainfall, increased aerosols etc) are working as
negative feedback to the earth climate system to keep the temperature optimum.
Further, the increase in temperature is regulated by the oceans due to high specific
heat capacity of ocean water.
The cooling trend is slower that warming trend
because of following reasons": Cooling means
reduction in air temperature. This forces humidity of
air to reduce and thereby decrease in snow fall and
therefore build-up of glacier takes more time. These
signify longer elapsed time during the cooling.
Whereas, due to increase in insolation, glaciers melt
which further resulted decrease in albedo of earth and
thereby trapping more insolation and therefore rapid
increase in temperature.
What does this graph mean?
Climate Changes Currently Happening
CONCENTRATIONS OF OTHER GREENHOUSE GASES ARE
ALSO INCREASING

Different greenhouse gases have different heat

trapping abilities.
For example, one molecule of CH4 traps 25 times the
heat of one molecule of carbon dioxide.
 Summary on Climate forcing
 Climate change is driven by perturbations to the energy balance of the
Earth system. These perturbations are called “climate forcings". The
climate forcings is associated with gases, aerosols, land use, and solar
variability.
 Factors that affect climate change are usefully separated into forcings
and feedbacks. A climate forcing is an energy imbalance imposed on the
climate system either externally or by human activities. Examples
include changes in solar energy output, volcanic emissions, deliberate
land modification, or anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases,
aerosols, and their precursors.
 A climate feedback is an internal climate process that amplifies or
dampens the climate response to an initial forcing. An example is the in-
crease in atmospheric water vapor that is triggered by an initial warming
due to rising carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, which then acts to
amplify the warming through the greenhouse properties of water vapor.
 Summary on Climate forcing ……….…Contd.

 Climate forcings can be classified as radiative (direct or indirect) or

nonradiative. Direct radiative forcings affect the radiative budget of the
Earth directly; for example, added CO2 absorbs and emits infrared (IR)
radiation. Indirect radiative forcings create a radiative imbalance by first
altering climate system components, which then almost immediately
lead to changes in radiative fluxes; an example is the effect of aerosols
on the precipitation efficiency of clouds.
 Nonradiative forcings create an energy imbalance that does not involve
radiation directly; an example is the in-creasing evapotranspiration flux
resulting from agricultural irrigation.
 Climate response is the change in the climate system resulting from a
climate forcing.
 Summary on Climate forcing ……….…Contd.

 The earth is a planet in dynamic equilibrium, in that it continually absorbs and

emits electromagnetic radiation.
 It receives ultra-violet and visible radiation from the sun, it emits infra-red
radiation and energy balance says that ‘energy in’ must equal ‘energy out’ for
the temperature of the planet to be constant.
 This equality can be used to determine what the average temperature of the
planet should be. λmaxT = σw
 Both the sun and the earth are black-body emitters of electromagnetic
Radiation because they are masses capable of emitting and absorbing all
frequencies (or wavelengths) of electromagnetic radiation uniformly.
 The distribution curve of emitted energy per unit time per unit area versus
wavelength for a black body was worked out by Planck in the first part of the
twentieth century.
 First, the total energy emitted per unit time integrated over all wavelengths is
proportional to (T)4.
 Second, the wavelength of the maximum in the emission distribution curve
varies inversely with T i.e., ʎmax ∝ 1/T or, λmaxT = σw (σw is the Wien’s const).
 Summary on Climate forcing ……….…Contd.

 These are Stefan’s and Wien’s Laws, respectively.

 The solar flux energy intercepted per second by the earth’s
surface from the sun’s emission can be written as
Fs(1-A)лRe2, where Fs is the solar flux constant outside the
Earth’s atmosphere (1368 Js-1m-2), Re is the radius of the
Earth (6.38 x106 m), and A is the earth’s albedo,
corresponding to the reduction of incoming solar flux by
absorption and scattering of radiation by aerosol particles
(average value 0.28).
 The infra-red energy emitted per second from the earth’s
surface is 4лRe2σTe4, where σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(5.67 x108 Js-1m-2K-4) and 4лRe2 is the surface area of the
earth. At equilibrium, the temperature of the earth, Te, can be
written as:

4σ
 Summary on Climate forcing ……….…Contd.

 Using the data above yields a value for Te of 256 K. Mercifully, the
average temperature of the earth is not a Siberian 17⁰ C, otherwise life
would be a very unpleasant experience for the majority of humans on this
planet.
 The reason why our planet has a hospitable higher average value of
290 K is the greenhouse effect. For thousands of years, absorption of
some of the emitted infra-red radiation by molecules in the earth’s
atmosphere (mostly CO2, O3 and H2O) has trapped this radiation from
escaping out of the earth’s atmosphere (just as a garden greenhouse
operates).
 Some is re-radiated back towards the earth’s surface, thereby causing an
elevation in the temperature of the surface of the earth. Thus, it is the
greenhouse effect that has maintained our planet at this average
temperature, and for this fact we should all be very grateful!
 This phenomenon is often called the ‘primary’ greenhouse effect. It is,
therefore, a myth to portray all aspects of the greenhouse effect as bad
news; it is the reverse that is true.
Black-body emission curves from the sun (T ~5780 K) and
the Earth (T ~290 K), showing the operation of Wien’s Law
that ʎmax α (1/T).

The two graphs are not to scale.

 Thank You

Pillow lava at CIR observed during manned submersible dive