DOCUMENT RESUME

--ED 240 033 SO 015 406

AUTHOR Adler, Susan; Goodman, Jesse
TITLE What Is Social Studies? Student Teacher
Perspectives.
PUB DATE 83
NOTE 33p.; CUFA Presentation to the National Council for
the Social Studies (San Francisco, CA, November,
1983).
PUB TYPE Reports 7 Research/Technical (143) --
Speeches/Conference Papers (190)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Definitions; Educational Needs; Educational
Objectives; *Educational Practices; Educational
Research; Elementary Education; Middle Schools;
*Social. Studies; *Student Teachers; *Teacher
Attitudes
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to gain insight into
the way students' beliefs and actions toward social studies
interacted and the impact of this interaction upon their social
studies, student teaching in elementary and middle schools. Two
separate and distinctive samples were used Sample A consisted of 12
randomly chosen students from the .teacher education program at a
large southeastern state university. Sample B were four students
selected on the basis of specific criteria from the teacher education
program at a large midwestern state university. The two main methods
of data collection were observations and interviews. Six major
perspectives were expressed through the students' beliefs and
actions. These were: social studies as a nonsubject; as a means of
teaching human relations or citizenship; as "school knowledge; as the
"great connection," or core of the curriculum; and as a stimulus to
social action. These findings showed that the official conceptions of
social studies have little to do with students' beliefs and actions
in the classroom. While it is important to have clear conceptions of
and goals for social studies education, it is also necessary to focus
on how these goals and ideals can be manifested. (RM)

*************, *** ****

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made *
from the original document.
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
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MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
WHAT IS SOCIAL STUDIES?
STUDENT TEACHER PERSPECTIVES 5

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC,"

Susan Adler
Rockhurst College
Kansas City, MO

Jesse Goodman
Washburn University
Topeka, KS
 WHAT IS SOCIAL STUDIES?
STUDENT TEACHER PERSPECTIVES

Throughout the 20th century, educators have sought to create an overarch-

ing statement of the definition and purposes of social studies education. Such

statements, abstracted from classroom practice, comprise the conceptions of

social studies held by scholars. Despite differences among educators in their

views of what social studies is or ought to be, several conceptions persist.

The most dominant one is social studies as citizenship education. The 1916

report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission of Secondary Edu-

cation of the National Education Association described social studies as the

subject which serves the function of developing in young people the skills and

attitudes necessary to good citizenship (Clementi at al., 1966, p. 6). Citii-

zenship, in this definition, meant Active parti-ipation in community and

national decision-making. This conception of social studies has remained

important. In the 1981 statement on the "Essentials of the Social Studies,"

the National Council for the Social Studies wrote:

Citizenship participation in public life is essential to the health of

our democratic system. Effective social studies programs help prepare

young people who can identify, understand, and work to solve the prob-

lems that face our increasingly diverse nation and interdependent

world (p. 2).

Other conceptions of social studies are often portrayed as supporting this

overall goal. An example of such a conception is social studies as reflective

inquiry or decision-making (see for example: Engle, 1960: Massialas and Cox,

1966; Clements, Fielder and Tabachnick, 1966: Kaltsounis, 1966; Pagano, 1978

Hennings, Hennings and Banich, 1980). Here the emphasis is on the processes

of inquiry to formulate and salve social problems. Another conception is

 Page 2

having students learn the facts, concepts and processes of the social science

disciplines (Barr et al., 1977, p. 62). Pupils would for example, learn the

"structure" of anthropology by participating in anthropological inquiry to

"discover" anthropological concepts. Still another conception places emphasis

"on how most people particinate in .. society" (Superka and Hawkes, 1980,

p. 574). In this view, the content of social studies should deal with the major

roles people will play in their lives and with learning to understand, value,

and function creatively in these roles.

But how are these conceptions of social studies played out (or not played

out) in classroom practice? There seems to be much evidence that, although

teachers may use the terminology found in the literature, these conceptions

have little bearing on actual practice (e.g., Shaver, et al., 1977). How then

do practitioners, rather than scholars, give meaning and purpose to social

studies? But meanings, the context of classroom teaching, are not abstract

conceptions removed from the act of teaching. Rather, meaning is what Beard

(1934) referred to as the "frame of reference" upon which thought and action are

consciously or unconsciously based.. The concept _ teacher perspectives is a

useful one for capturing this notion of meaning.

Teacher Perspectives

A concept of teacher perspectives as it has come to be used in the liter-

ature, captures the ideas, behaviors, and contexts of particular teaching acts

(Becker. 1961; Cornhleth, 1982; Grace, 1978; Hammersley, 1977; Janesick, 1978;

Sharp and Green, 1975). Perspectives are the meanings and interpretations which

teachers give to their work and their work situation. Unlike more abstract

statements, perspectives are set in the concrete world of actual situations

and have reference to particular behaviors. Teacher perspectives take into

 Page 3

account how the situation of the school and classroom is cxperienced, how this

situation is interpre.ed given the teacher's background of experiences, beliefs,

and assumptions and how this interpretation is manifested in behaviors.

This concept of perspectives allows the complexity of the teaching act to

reveal itself. As an interrelated set of ideas and action, the concept takes

into account how teachers interpret and create their situations, and how they

act and react in their environment. By studying the perspectives of

teachers, we can begin t_ get at the contradictions and problematic nature of

classroom teaching. Teaching is a dynamic event in which the teacher strives

to make sense of and make decisions about classroom situations. We ask, then,

what assumptions, commitments, and understandings guide those interpretations

and decisions. We argue that to ask such questions helps us to better under-

stand what it means to be a social studies teacher.

Since perspectives are dynamic and complex, it is important to avoid easy

theoretical categorization. Such categorization generally assumes perspectives

to be dichotomous. One might view perspectives as traditional vs. progressive

or conservative vs. liberal or reconstructionist vs. transformative. Rather

than use standard labels, this research sought to capture the live quality of

perspectives through the use of students'1 own intellectual and behavioral con-

structs. It was these constructs, rather than dichotomous categories. which

served as the basis of analysis. As will be demonstrated, what emerged are

"grounded" categories (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), or categories based upon the

language and action of students themselves.

The Pre-service Teacher

Several studies (- .g. Becker, 1961: Lortie, 1975) found that perspectives
 Pane 4

armed early in one's career. It follows then, that a crucial period

the development of teacher perspectives is during the teacher's

education. Accordingly, the study reported here inquired into the

as of student teachers toward social studies education. In general,

In. 'tare on field experiences and student teaching has not been very Mullin-

1tj7t:7,. It tells us little about how students incorporate, or fail to incorporate

L thinking about social studies into actual practice. We know little about

'uow students interpret and define their teaching situations vis-a-vis their

student teaching.

Our purpose was to gain insight into the way students' beliefs and actions

toward social studies interacted, and the impact of this interaction upon social

studies teaching in elementary and/or middle schools. After a discussion of the

methodology used, we will describe the perspectives which emerged from our obser-

vations and interviews. This section will not include an attempt to quantify

the numbers or percentages of student tztchers who held each perspective. Rather,

it serves to provide a beginning base for understanding the kinds of perspectives

students hold. Furthermore, while each of our informants would fit in one of the

categories developed, many did not remain exclusively in one category; that is,

they sometimes showed evidence of holding a perspective other than their dominant

one. Hence the next section will be a portrayal of one individual, thus repre-

senting the complexity of students' perspectives. Finally, this paper will con-

clude with a discussion of the implication of this research for educators.

Methodology

The rationale behind choosing one methodology over another is connected

to the nature of the subject being studied, and the underlying goal(s) of the

research. Weber's (1977) notion of "Verstehen" was panicularly helpful in

6
 Page 5

outlining our purpose. Through empathic understanding and direct experience of

the social world, one is able to gain insight into a given social phenomenon.

Since this study explored the complex interconnection between people's beliefs

and actions, and the effect of this connection on the social studies education

found in classrooms, we felt it was necessary to use a methodology that incor-

porated the existential experience of the participants, themselves (i.e. their

act on thoughts, feelings, and perceptions), as a mayor focus for investiga-

Urn and interpretation. Therefore, the methods used were those associated

with ethnographic field studies (e.g., Glaser and Strauss, 1975; Bruyn, 1966).

As Blumer (1969) points out, this methodology permits the researcher to meet

all of the basic requirements of an empirical science: to directly confront

the social world beingstudied; to raise abstract questions regarding this

world; to discover relations between categories of data: to formulate proposi-

tions regarding these relations; to organize these propositions into an ana-

lytical scheme that others can understand; and then to test the questions,

data, relations, propositions, and analysis through renewed examination of

the social world.

Methods and Sample Selection

This study is perhaps somewhat unique in that it contains two separate and

distinctive samples. While the methods used to collect data were similar, they

were not identical. In both cases, observations and interviews (both formal

and informal) were the two main methods of data collection. Other sources of

data collection such as questionnaires, student logs, completed student assign-

ments, course syllabi, and official program literature were used as part of our

final analysis. Data were recorded in field notes during two university quar-

ters Sample A and one full semester for Sample B.2

Sample A was located in an elementary teacher education program at a large,

 Page 6

southeastern state university. Twelve randomly chosen students were observed

as they participated in university courses, seminar meetings, and practicum

experiences. Ten students were placed in early field experiences while they

attended university classes, and two were student teaching full time. Field

placements ranged from first through sixth grades. All of these students
attended the same weekly seminar meetings. Each student was observed in his/
her practicum site one to four times, and each observation lasted between two

hours and the entire school day. Approximately 40% of their university class

sessions were observed during the fall and spring quarters, and each of their

seminar meetings were observed during this time.

Sample B was located in a large midwesturn state university. During the

semester before the field work began, the researcher informally observed the

university social studies methods courses. Out of these classes, four repre-

sentative students were chosen as the focal point of study. The selection of
these four students was based upon: 1) their student teaching placement in

upper elementary grades, 2) their scores on the "Conceptions of Social Studies

Inventory" test given to all students prior to their student teaching, and

3) recommendations by their social studies methods professors ,3 Earip of these

students was extensively observed at least five times during their student

teaching semester.

The purpose of these observations was to discover what actually happened

in the field placements, university .ourses. and/or seminar meetings. Rather

than predetermining specific items to look for, a number of general questions

were used to initially guide these observations: HOW is each setting organized?
What type of interpersonal dynamics exist? How do the students, cooperating

teachers, faculty members, and/or pupils act? What activities occur in each

setting? What topics are discussed, and what information, opinions, and/or
 Page

beliefs are exchanged between the narticipants7 More specific observation

questions, particularly concerning the teaching of social studies, were devel-

oped from reviewing notes as the field work continued. These observations

only illuminated what happened in each setting, but they also were used as the

focus for in-depth interviews concerning the nature and meaning of the parti-

cipants' actions.

Systematically scheduled interviews were conducted with each student from

both samples on a weekly or bi-weekly basis. Each social studies methods fac-

ulty member and each cooperating teacher was also interviewed. In addition,

other students not in the sample group were informally interviewed. Students

were interviewed before and after each field placement observation, and students

and/or faculty members were often interviewed immediately following a given

class session.

Much of this interviewing was conducted using Glaser and Strauss (1975)

notions of "theore tical sampling" and "constant comparative method" of analysis.

Interviews were not organized into specific predetermined questions. Instead,

interviews were structured around various areas of concern such as the purpose

of teaching a given lesson; perceptions of what happens in a given situation;

individual responses to the organization, people, activities, and tonics ad-

dressed in a given situation; and perceptions of rite relationship between be-

liefs and actions. After reviewing field notes, more specific questions emerged

and were then asked during interviews to gain deeper insight into situations and

to clarify misconceptions and ambiguities. Responses from students within the

sample groups were cross checked with additional students enrolled in these

programs. The purpose of interviewing was not just to listen to the words, but

also to derive meanings, motivations, and conflicts (often hidden by surface

conversation) that lay behind behavior. Interviews were designed to discover

9
 Page 8

the wayr in which individuals interpreted the social world around them/ and the

way thP-ftse interpretations were used as the basis their actions.

Analvslas

Asms a result of these observations and interviews, the analysis examined

the stucmdents' perspectives of social studies education. Throughout the field-

work, 12_nterview and observation notes were reviewed daily. Incidents and bits

of info=prmation were at first coded into tentative conceptual categories.

these c.---tagories emerged, questions arose that were used to guide further

investi_gation into the field. The findings from these investigations

then c pared to the initial categories. Special attention was given to data

that se -erred to challenge original conceptualizations. Through this e0115tillt

compari_son of data, theoretical categories crystalized. For example, initially

it seemrmed that there were five major persnectives that students had toward

social studies education. However, upon further investigation, it becaMe

that s- me data did not easily fit into these existing categories. Althoug

there w-mr.asn't an abundance of data to support the development of an additional

category, we felt that the data that did exist wa of significant importan e,

and a sixth category emerged. This return to the data source, followed

by mod i fication and/or new generation of ideas, continued until the findings

could b-e presented in some detail. As suggested by Glaser and Strauss (1975),

the ana_lysis presented in this paper takes a narrative form, using examples from

the dot. a to clarify concepts and to demonstrate the interrelationship between

analysi s and social reality. From this perspective, analysis is not a static

product Instead, it is viewed as "...an ever-developing entity" (Glaser and

Strauss , 1975, p. 32). rts analysis should be open to modification by the

origin as well as other scholars. The data presented in'this paper is not

designeed to "prove" the infallibility of the analysis generated. Rather, the

10
 Page 9

goal is to illu --ate concepts and thus provide a basis for further discussion

and debate. Pre e ting the analysis in narrative form reflects its "ever-

developing" nature Finally, the participants were given the opportunity to

respond to the stuc=3y's findings before a report of the study was written.

Perspectives of Social Studies Education

As described Min the introduction of this paper, this study examined student

perspectives towar social studies education. The findings suggested that six

major perspectives were expressed through these students' beliefs and actions.

It is important to note that these perspectives were not static or mutually

exclusive. Altheupmth individual students held a dominant perspective, upon

careful obse atior= it was noted that each student also expressed qualities of

other perspectives as they student taught. In addition, a number of individual

students altered thmaeir perspectives during their field experiences. In describ-

ing these six perspmmectives have temporarily frozen life, and the reader

should not forget t==he dynamic character of peoples' beliefs and actions.

Social Studies as anm Non- Subject

Unlike the othnmer perspectives described in this paper, this perspective

was limited to the students within Sample A.4 For many of these students,

social studies was net considered a major subject within the curriculum. Social

studies content wa rarely observed being taught in most of Sample A's practicum

sites. Reading ani math clearly dominated the curriculum in most classrooms.

Students often said_ that they had taught nothing but these two subjects in their

early field experie_-L ces. In grades 1 - 3, social studies was not even given an

official time slot - during the day. Fourth grade classrooms taught social studies

for half the year aid science the other half. However, these lessons were often

only taught if therm me was enough time at the end of a given day. There seemed to
 Page 10

be little continuity, organization,or thought put into these lessons. Debbie, who

was placed in a fourth grade classroom, summarized the experien6e of a number of

students.

Well, in the afternoon, if we have some me to kill, we might show a

film strip or movie on some social studies topic. We're suppose to

teach it more often, but there are too many other things to do (inter-

view with Debbie).

Many students stated that their cooperating teachers were under pressure to raise

the nationally standardized reading scores of their pupils, and as a result,

little time could be devoted to other educational goals. For many of these stu-

dents, social studies simply did not exist as part of the curriculum. Although

social studies was taught in the middle level grades, compared to other subjects

such as reading, it was not considered very important.

What is perhaps most surprising is that both students and many faculty mem-

bers in Sample A seemed to take the dominance of reading over other possible

elementary subjects for granted. This rather crucial issue was never discussed

in any of the university class periods observed. When students were asked if

they felt this dominance was educationally sound, whatever their answers, they

all said it was the first time anyone had directly asked them that question.

Social Studies as Human Relations

Similar to the above perspective, a number of students did not view social

studies as a field of knowledge, but saw it as teaching children techniques of

human relations. Rather than using history, anthropology, sociology, political

science, or some other social science to explore the nature of human beings and

the world around them, this perspective emphasized teaching children about them-

selves and how to cooperate with the other children in their class.

12
 Page 11

I think social studies should help children become more aware of

themselves and how to get along with others_ (She was asked how

these goals should be accomplished.) I think the best way is to

have them do things that make them more aare of their feelings

and values. We use T.A. (Transactional Analysis) for Kids a lot.

It's a great book for improving children's self imau, and help-

ing them communicate better (interview with Jeannie).

Students with this perspective did not plan and implement units of study around

a given body of knowledge, but Instead taught interpersonal communication, prob-

lem solving, and/or self-concept lessons.

Jill had her third grade class 'eke "Me Mobiles." Each had to

paint faces that reflected feelings they often felt. After the

period was over, Jill and her cooperating teacher collected the

plates and later m le mobiles out of them and hung them up

around the room. When asked to explain the meaning of this

activity, Jill responded, "We have them do this kind of stuff

every Tuesday and Thursday. Each time we pick out a different

activity from one of these books (She pointed to three books

on teaching children about human relationships.) that helps

them get In touch with themselves or other kids in the class.

Personally, I think this stuff is a lot more meaningful than

the traditional social studies I had as a kid" (observation

of and interview with Jill).

The predominant characteristic of this perspective is that all these activities

were conducted under the general heading of "human relations." There was no

real content to be explored, nor was there a context into which these activities

were placed. For example, the above activity was not part of a unit on what it

13
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means to be a human being or even a unit on human emotions, but was simply one

of many activities that the children participated In twice each week. Similar

to seeing social studies as a non-subject, this perspective portrayed social

studies as devoid of any substantive content.

Social Studies as Citizenship

This perspective saw social studies as the means to teach children :he

value of being a "good" citizen. Unlike the conception of social studies d

scribed in the introduction of this pager, the term "good" to these students

did not imply thoughtful, involved, and socially active individuals. Instead,

it meant an uncritical loyalty to the economic and political institutions and

customs of our society. For example, Barb taught her first grade class to

memorize the "Pledge of Allegiance" as one of her social studies activities.

In these lessons there was no attempt to help the pupils understand what it

means to pledge one's allegiance or what the flag might possibly symbolize to

different individuals (obse nation of an interview with Barb). A few students

expressed the view that setting up classroom rules was social studies in that

it helped pupils become better citizens.

Sooner or later kids have to learn that they can't do everything

they want. Learning to obey rules and how to get along in society

is just part of growing up, and it's important for teachers to

teach these things to kids. So in this way I teach some social

studies indirectly (interview with Tim).

In teaching subject matter, children were encouraged to emulate individuals

who exemplified this unque4tioning loyalty.

Pupils were giving their oral reports on "Famous Americans in History."

While there were numerous reports on presidents, military heros, and

sports figures, there were virtually no reports on controversial

14
 Page 13

individuals or outspoken critics of American society. The only social

activist mentioned was Martin Luther King, and the emphasis of this

report was on Dr_ King's peaceful, non-violent intentions and his

loyiity to America. The fact that individuals in the civil rights

movement openly defied state and federal laws, spoke against the

injustices within our society, and often spent time in jail was

r }ever really explored in this report. Neither Andy or his cooper-

ating teacher raised these points at any time during or after the

pupils' presentations (observation of Andy).

When Andy, who was placed in a 6th grade classroom, was asked why there weren't

more social critics among the reports, he responded.

This is a pretty conservative community, and that kind of stuff

I don't chink would go over real big here. (He was asked if he

agreed with this point of view.) Yes, I guess so. There's no

better place to live in the world today, and I think we should

teach these kids how lucky they are instead of always focusing

oil the negative (interview with Andy).

This perspective also promcted the notion that to be an American citizen was

intrinsically best. When compared to other cultures, for example, there was

often a subtle but consistent message that our governmental institutions, pro-

duction of consumer goods, written laws, wealth, size of our cities, and/or

scientific discoveries meant that our society was "more advanced" than other

nations of the world. These messages were often evident in lessons of history,

political science, sociology, as well as anthropology.

Social Studies as School knowledge_

In this perspective, social studies was seen, essentially, as textbook

knowledge; a major concern of students who held this perspective was the need
 Page 14

'cover the material." These students depended unon textbooks and textbook-

like materials ( mimeographed handouts) cheir teaching. Learning was

defined as the passive acquisition of information, with little time given to

questioning, challenging.or critically analyzing this school knowledge.

Whether inf ation was the names of state capitals, the causes of the Civil

War or the effects of the Industrial Revolution, pupils were expected to memorize

specific information for a specified time period. Proof of learning was limited

to successful scores on tests of recall and comprehension.

Students with this perspective often became dependent upon the textbooks

and rarely questioned the information found in them.

Ann was verbally quizzing the children in preparation for their test

chapter six in their textbook which compared "democracy" to "com-

munism." She asked various questions about the characteristics

of each system and if a child missed the question the pupil had to

look up the answer in the text (observation of Ann).

Ann was later asked if she thought the comparison between communism and democracy

was an accurate approach to take since one reflects a political system and the

other an economic system (i.e., apples and oranges). Her response was typical

of students with this perspective.

Maybe that kind of questioning is appropriate for college, but

don't think these kids (sixth graders) can handle it. Besides,

if I spend a lot of time discussing every little point, we won't

finish the chapter in time (interview with Ann).

When asked why they were teaching what they re teaching, students who held

this perspective commonly gave one or more of the following answers: the

cooperating teacher told me what to teach, the lesson was next in line in the

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 Page 15

textbook, 3) this curriculum was required by the principal. the school board,

the state, or 4) this is what the teachers in the next grade would expect pupils

to know. These students had a d ere at itufe toward currtculum experts,

textbook authors, and /or professors. "They" know wEiat teach,

_ and i the

job of teachers to follow the plan accordingly. Social studies was limited to

the official knowledge found in professionally developed curriculum materials.

The effects of "covering the material" were dramatic. Instead of "inst

tion" being an activity in which teachers and pupils explore and share knowledge,

st ulate interest, and work together toward a commonly arrived at intellectual

goal, "teaching" became an activity or problem of management.

When I look back at my field experiences, the thing that strikes me

most °mss just how little actual teaching went on. (She was asked for

clarification.) You know, where you sit down with the kids and

teach them hing (content). Mostly, you just organized the

day make sure everyone was doing what they were supposed to

do, passed out worksheets, and graded tests. No one seemed to

teach much, we just set things up for kids to work (observation

of Susie's final conference with her university supervisor).

The most important managerial concern for these students was discipline. Stu-

dents were observed experimenting with various techniques such as turning lights

on and off, counting down from ten, putting names on the blackboard, etc. These

techniques were used to keep the pupils on task, maintain order and "...ensure

that work is being done and that learning is taking place" (interview with David).

Social Studies as the Great Connection

Social studies as the "great connection" or core of the curriculum was the

dominant theme in the perspectives of a few of our informants. Students who

 Page 16

held this hers ectivc emphasized the integration of knowledge: they did not

teach as if there were hard boundaries be- en school subjects. An observer

in the clas_ooa might not be sure what "subject" as scheduled for a partic-

ular time_ For example, during of Peter's teaching, a math

lesson on measurement included measuring map distances to various national

parks and was tied to a social studies unit on John Muir.

Students who held this perspective were not dependent upon textbooks.

Not only did they see knowledge as integrated, but they also viewed knowledge

as coming many different sources, both inside and outside the school.

The most interesting thing T. did was plan a unit on ecology. I did

lot f my research on the topic. =Instead of having the kids

read only textbooks and fill out worksheets, I had them make an art

display illut ing the balance between all things, they saw a

Movie about the habitats of wild animals and how they are being

destroyed, I brought in a guest spe from a local environmental

group and from the local utility company, and I had the kids read

newspaper articles and children's books that dealt with endangered

species and man's relationship to the earth. I ended the unit by

having the students...write poema about this tlpic. It was neat

deciding what to teach and how to teach it (interview with Judy).

These students e not merely managers of p- deteAned curriculum. In inter-

views they expressed the importance of teachers developing curriculum based upon

their own and/or their pupils' interests. They believed that they could best

promote inquiry and reflection among their pupils if they could exercise more

control over the curriculum in their classrooms. They suggested that by inte-

grating subjects, they were able to get their students more involved in learnin
 Page 17

Social Studies as 1 Action

This last perspective is similar in some ways to the preceding one. Like

the "great connection, the two students who held thi -cti developed

their own curriculum and promoted reflective inquiiy among their pupils. How-

ever, this perspective emphasized a more critical stance toward textbooks, the

role of the teacher, knowledge, and the social/political contexts within which

schools exist. As part of their case histories, both Kate and Peter mentioned

being influenced by the civil rights and anti-war movements of the sixties and

seventies. They saw the relationship between the dominant political, social,

and economic forces within the United States, and the role schools play in per-

petuating the existing order. =Each expressed a desire to, in some small way,

help change our society through their teaching. They wanted their pupils to

become more critical and question many of our social norms.

What I'd like to be doing in social studies does definitely reflect

what I think people, as thinking members of society, need to be able

to do - that is, question things they read and the prevailing tides

(political/social ideologies) of the country (interview with Peter).

As a result of these beliefs, Peter and Kate chose topics of study that would in-

crease their pupils' social/political awareness, and would stimulate them to be-

come more socially active citizens.

The textbook covered the aging process and generally, it did a

pretty good job of pointing out some of the problems old people

face in our country. However, we (Kate and her cooperating

teacher) felt that it (the textbook) lacked a sense of real life.

So we had the kids visit a nursing home down the block from the

school. The kids got really involved. They started to'"adont"

grandparents from the home, and we took numerous field trips

 18

there. When they died, the kids wrote letters to their relatives

and in some cases even went to the funerals. So we started talk-

ing about death with the kids. But then we realized that we ,ore

focusing only on the problems of the elderly. So we started talk-

about how some elderly people regain their childhood in their

last years. Some travel and develop hobbies: some learn how to

really enjoy life. This is something the textbook totally ignored.

We discovered that a big factor in enjoying one's later years was

health and having enough money. So we ended the unit by writing

President, local congress people, and (Representative)

Pepper to find out what the government does or does not do to in-

sure proper care for the elderly (interview with Kate).

From this perspective, social studies was a means to increase pupils' sense of

social responsibility, and as a result, promote a more humane society. Although

this perspective was dominant in only two students, its effect in the classrooms

observed was clearly noticeable.

Portrayal of Sally

The six perspectives described capture and freeze for a moment the beliefs

and actions of two groups of student teachers. But, in fact, these perspectives

were not as static or clear cut as the preceding descriptions might imply. Each

student observed was involved in the dynamic life of the classroom; each was

faced with processing, consciously or unconsciously, classroom activities, events

and people: each had to confront the nature of his or her own role as a teacher.

Thus, although each student manifested a generally consistent pattern of social

studies teaching which is captured by one of the six perspectives described,

each, at least occasionally, taught in apparently inconsistent or contradictory

20
 Page 19

ways; that is, each occasionally displayed some characteristics of holding, or

being attracted toward other Perspectives. In some cases, the researchers

actually observed suderits move from one dominant perspective to another. Thus,

the following portrayal is intended to capture some of this dynamic quality by

describing the evolving perspectives of one student teacher, Sally.

Sally was, in some Ways. typical, She began her student teaching feeling

nervous about taking charge of a class, worried about how she would manage fifth

grade students, and unsure of her role as a teacher. Social studies was, how-

ever, an interest of hers and something she looked forward to teaching. Her

academic focus in history and her involvement in community politics may help

to explain why she showed little attraction toward the first three

She even did battle with the first perspective, Social Studies as Non-Subject.

Not enough time, she said, was being spent on social studies and she was indig-

nant that that was the subject dropped when room needed to be made in the school

day for extra activities.

Sally's dominant perspective, during the first part of the semester, was that

of Social Studies as School. Knowledge. She expressed concern about having enough

time to cover all the material and confided that she was reluctant to be too in-

novative in her teaching lest the pupils become disorderly and "waste time." She

taught from the textbook and seemed to depend upon "expert" knowledge as the basis

of her social studies curriculum. But even while she worried about covering the

material she began to express doubt about the meaningfulness of textbook learning.

To memorize facts is too easily forgotten. When you do things you

tend to remember them more. Especially if it's some exciting sort

of activities that the kids can be proud of and that they can learn

from ... I 7gn them to start thinking about and to stare doing

21
 Page 20

their own thing.

Furthermore, her conceptions of social studies even at the beginning of the

semester, expressed, albeit in a vague sense, a view of social studies as some-

thing more than covering the material. hen asked to define social studies,

Sally said:

To me there is no set definition because it involves so many things

and covers such a wide area. Practically any topic in the classroom

can fit under the heading social studies. Basically, I see social

studies as learning about ourselves and the world, very broad.

An observer watching Sally early in the semester teaching textbook lessons

and listening to her apparently contradictory talk about the Importance of hav-

ing pupils start thinking and getting actively involved, might have concluded

that her talk was mere empty _rhetoric, a rhetoric she picked up in a methods

class but was unwilling to put into practice. But one might also conclude

that her early perspective, characterized by a concern for order and covering

the material, was more a reflection of her overriding concerns about classroom

management than of a conception of social studies as the knowledge of experts

passed on to the younger generation.

Sally didn't find her solution to keeping order in the classroom a very

satisfactory one. She talked about wanting her students to enjoy social studies,

about the importance of getting them actively involved, about wanting them to

develop empathy for other people. Her cooperating teacher encouraged her to

"take chances try new activities and approaches.

I think I've given Sally the security to go ahead and try what she

wants. ...She didn't have to worry about what my reaction was

going to be because she knew I was supporting her (interview with

Sally's cooperating teacher).

22
 Page 21

As the semester progressed, Sall-; began to incoroorate a variety of activ-

ides into he7 social studies lessons. She got her pupils involved in small

group research projects and began to help them analyze and evaluate the infor-

mation they were finding- "Check more than one book," she told one group,

"they don't always give you the same information."

I've learned that we never trust the textbook alone to do a good

job teaching- ...I like to provide kids with a lot of different

sources, to get them in the habit looking at more than one thing

and not just going by their books.

Sally began to apply her belief that providing structure to a lesson did

not necessarily mean all pupils had to do the same thing and that ways could

be found to give pupils choices. To Sally, structure came to mean that the

teacher should create an "orderly learning environment," providing experiences

which would stimulate and encourage pupil learning_ Her concern for establish-

ing and maintaining order was balanced by a concern for children's needs and

interests.

By the end of the semester, Sally had moved away from Social Studies as

School Knowledge and toward a view of Social Studies as the Great Connection.

Her lessons began to tap her pupils' personal experiences, to encourage their

creativity, to help children see connections between past and present. She

began to talk about how social studies should be "more a part of the class-

room" and wanted to try "integrating it with other courses." Finally, Sally

began to talk about social studies as social action.

I adamantly believe that toe many of us U.S. citizens don't care

about what's going on and because of that we're in a mess. I

think awareness is a really big thing and learning that'there

are ways to act on that.

23
 Pz

It cannot be said that Sally's perspectives toward social studios at the

end of the semester were clearly characterized by Social Action. Although on

the level of abstract ideas, she was committed to he bring students learn to h

critically and then act on the stands they take; however, she wasn't sqre how to

go about teaching the skills necessary to do so. In fact, it hadn't even

occurred to her that there were social action skills involved in social studies

until the researcher raised the point in questions. However, slowly and unsystem-

atically she was beginning to teach her pupils skills of critical inquiry as she

enc raged them to seek out new sources, evaluate the data they uncovered, and

to draw their own conclusions based on the data.

the end of the semester, Sally had gained more confidence in herself

as a teacher, and in the process her perspectives toward social studies had

evolved away from a concern with school knowledge and strict order. Not sur-

prisingly her teaching was still marked by some uncertainty and her perspective

remained open and changing.

Conclusions and Implications for Practice

The findings of this study raise a number of concerns that deserve con-

sideration among social studies educators. As discussed in the introduction of

this paper, many of these educators have similar conceptions of social studies

education. Social studies should promote reflective inquiry, active partici-

pation in society, and an understanding of social science. Given these goals,

two important concerns emerge from the findings of this study.

First, the findings suggest that official conceptions of social studies

have little to do with students' beliefs and actions in the classroom. Even

when students' conceptions of social studies are similar to our more idealis-

tic notions, as in the ease with Sample B, their perspectives provide a more

24
 Page

accurate portrayal of the work these students and the meaning they give to

this work. Rather than focusing on our own conceptions of what social studies

education "should be," perhaps we need to out more effort into understanding

the perspectives toward social studies education that students develop during

their professional preparation. It does little good to expose students to

innovative ideas if they view social studies as a non - subject.

If the above implication is correct, need more research that will

illuminate the perspectives students generate during their professional educa-

tion. Traditional analysis and categorization of students' beliefs and/or

actions into predetermined continuums such as conservative /liberal actually

tell us very little about the way in which the informants, themselves, give

meaning to and act upon the professional world they are about to enter. This

study, then, re- affirms the value of ethnographic methods of descriptive

analysis in helping us gain insights into the complex process of becoming a

social studies teacher. Are these persnectives common in other programs?

If so, why; if not why not? Perhaps additional research will uncover more

subtle perspectives missed in this study. If we are to improve the profes-

sional education of future social studies teacher- then we need research

that will help us understand students' perspectives toward this activity.

In addition to discovering what perspectives students have, we need re-

search that investigates the way in which their perspectives have developed.

As the description of Sally demonstrates, students' perspectives are complex

often interacting in unique ways under specific circumstances. The findings

of this study suggest that a number of factors contribute to the development

of student perspectives including conceptions of social studies education

growing out of childhood experiences, significant individualS (e.g., family

members, cooperating teachers, university faculty members), institutional

25
 e '24

expectations found in the practicum sites, and social forces outside of the

classroom (e.g., the accountability movement, social demands for ober eading
scores).

In examining these forces, we also need to ask why some perspectives seem

to dominate over others. For example, Ln our samples the first four perspect-

ives were much more common than the last o. A number of educators have illus-

trated that schools are a major force in perpetuating a technocratic, utilitar-

ian, and object-orientated national ideology Apple, 1982; Giroux, 1983).

They argue that this ideology lacks concern from human inquiry, values, and

needs. These individuals might suggest that the dominance of the first four

perspectives in our study reflects the influence that this ideology has on

those ihdivi4-- s going into the teaching profession as w 11 as the repro-

ductive force they will play in our schools upon entering the profession.

This literature also recognizes, however, that individuals are not merely shaped

into a uniform mold by this ideology. The presence of our last two perspectives

tends to support this notion. To various degrees students selectively chose

which beliefs and /or actions they thought were worthwhile. Some students acted

upon their practicum environment as well as conformed to it. It is clear that

these findings and theoretical notions are inconclusive. More research into

the external forces that influence students' perspectives, and the students'

response to these forces would give educators insights into the professional

socialization of future teachers.

The second concern that emerges from the findings of this study addresses

certain recommendations for social studies education courses. While it is

important to have clear conceptions of and goals for social studies education,

it is also necessary to focus on how these goals and ideals can be manifested.

26
 Page 25

The jutapositinof the perspectives, social = tudies as "human relations" and

"school knowledc "against social studies as '11-le great connection" and "social
action" suggests that students need to 1 am mco-re than just how to teach out of
the textbook or for that matter even supplemen= The work of such students
as Peter, Kate, and Judy suggests that Dreparar ion courses should focus on the
skills of curriulum development and implementa_tion. Students need to learn
how to develop curriculum based upon their own .and/or their pupils' intellectual
interests. Preparation courses sl: aid teach seidents to choose worthwhile
topics of study; develop the themes, concepts, or areas of content that make up
this topic; research these themes to increase t heir own level of knowledge con-
cerning this to lc; discover resources that chi_ ldren can use to explore these
themes; develop activities that illuminate the themes of this topic and promote
creativity ancito rthoughtfulness among pupils; ..and organize these themes, re-
sources, and activities into a coherent unit of study. Developing curriculum
is similar to wr-icing a documentary or an artic le on a given topic. It requires
interest in the subject matter, motivation and skill to research relevant infor-
mation, energy discover new sources, and the ability to organize the findings
of this work int.ou form that other people can nder- tend and enjoy. Although
it seems that ma st students want to teach becatie they "want to work with
children" (e.g., huchma.nn, 1982; Tabachnick et 1979-80; Goodman, 1982),
the findings this study suggest that prepares rion courses must attempt to
stimulate students' curiosity toward the world f knowledge and the dynamics of
learning.

It is not emough, however, to teach students only how to develop their own
curriculum. Perpactives such as social studie as "a non-subject," "human
relations," and 'citizenship" suggest that preprat on courses need to examine

2
 Page A

underlying purposes and princi-oles of social stl 'dies education. As part of

those courses, we need to exam ine the relations_ -rip between our students' beliefs

arlEa actions, explore the perspectives that stud=lts have and what forces

fiu=ence them, and discuss the --relative merits these various perspectives,

Irrt egrated into these courses should be questior7ns such as: What role should

soc=ial studios play in the elermentary/midile sciflool? Who should decide what

content is taught? What crite7ria should be usedE3 to determine worthwhile social

stu=dies content and /or activities? What type of_7F learning should be emphasized

dur=ing the teaching of Studies? What is the relationship between social

studies content found in the classroom and the social /political forces found

wit =hin the broader society? Al Beyer and Zeichgrier (1982) suggest, underlying

que :stions of practice do not hive to be limited to "foundation" courses. To

the contrary, the findings of phis study sugges= that this level of analysis

shor-uld be central to preparaticnn courses.

Finally, _ Stake and Easley (1978) point o ut, it takes more than good

int. entions and the existence ofF viable alterna L_-_-ves to change school practice,

The institutional demands fountl within the practlcum sites seem to have a strong

inf: luence on students' perspece=ives. resul._t, preparation courses need to

ask students to consider the importance of becoming change agents in the schools.

As kohl (1976) discusses, studemnts should be exp-osed to issues concerning the

"politics of teaching." Preparation courses should have students consider the

problems of initiating substant=ive change withou t needlessly alienating admin-

stm=rators, other staff, and/or parents. Planntrt_g for short-term and long -tern

chanmnge, creating freedom within constraints. dev-keloping a support system within

the school and the community, t,..r_citing proposals -tor curriculum change, and pm

sencoting ideas for curriculum detsipp and implemen- a ion at local and/or state

28
 Peg

conferences are some of the strategies that can b examined within preparation

courses.

Becoming a social studies teacher is a compl.: human endeavor. It often

involves subtle, and at times, contradictory heliE=fs and actions. Incur

attempts to best educate these future teachers, ir= is mandatory that we begin

to penetrate this complexity of human life. hbilem developing innovathecon-

ceptions of social studies education is important (after all, if we don't dream

will stagnate) it is equally important tommine how our ideals can be

concretely manifested. Preparation courses are tr a panacea for the problems

that face social studies education; however,haeEl upon careful research

can develop useful and substantive strategies for these future teachers,
 Page 28

NOTES

1. To enhance the reading of this paper, the following word guide is provided:

Educator - one who teaches in a university teacher preparation program and/or

conducts research into social studies education, Student - one who is enrolled

in a college level teacher education program, Pupil - a child enrolled in an

elementary or middle school.

2. For a complete discussion of the rationale, theoretical principles, and

methods used to collect and analyze the data see Goodman (1982) and Adler (1982).

3. This selection procedure was used to find students who, at least on the

surface, appeared to hold conceptions of social studies education deemed

"desirable" in the social studies, literature the importance of teaching

social studies orientation toward critical thinking, integrated curriculum,

social interaction, and involvement). For a more detailed discussion of the

selection criteria and process see Adler (1982).

4. Due to the selection process (see p. 6 and footnote 3), each student in

Sample B believed social studies was an important subject to be taught, and

they were given more opportunities to teach it. Since there was a special effort

to do so, the researcher observed more social studies lessons being taught.
 Page 29

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