POLICY BRIEF July 2016

Number 34

SDGs, DRR and CCA:

Potential for Strengthening Inter-linkages
Key Messages

 he world has arrived at a crucial turning point with the inception of three major global
T
frameworks dedicated to sustainable development (SD), disaster risk reduction (DRR)
and climate change adaptation (CCA). A coordinated response is now needed from all Rajib Shaw
relevant stakeholders to maximise implementation on the ground. Senior Fellow, IGES

 t the global level, while SD, DRR and CCA interlinkages are acknowledged, DDR is
A
weakly linked to the Paris Agreement. Linking CCA with DRR by strengthening national
and local level adaptation planning and implementation would assist here, and loss
and damage can provide ample opportunities for this to take place.
 t the national level, the economic aspect is key to sustainable development in many
A
countries—DRR and CCA can assist in economic development objectives of most
developing and least developed countries without compromising environmental
integrity or increasing disaster risk. SVRK Prabhakar
Senior Policy Researcher
 t the local level, strong convergence of SD, DRR and CCA calls for greater
A and Task Manager, IGES
collaboration among related stakeholders with adaptive management—not just in
drafting broad plans and policies but also actual implementation, monitoring and
evaluation, via collaboration among local governments, local experts, non-government
organisations and business sectors.
 his policy brief identifies approaches that could help achieve better synergies in
T
implementation of these frameworks on the ground via programmatic integration,
collaboration, capacity and innovation. Focal Points at national and sub-national Yohei Chiba
levels could mainstream and monitor progress of indicators and targets in the three Policy Researcher, IGES
frameworks, as well as ensure convergence of these frameworks takes place on the
ground.
POLICY BRIEF Number 34

1 Context
There is indisputable evidence linking development New York in September (UN 2015b), and finally a new
with the state of the environment and disasters climate change agreement—the Paris Agreement—
(Shaw and Tran 2012, Tran et al. 2009, Srinivas and under the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework
Nakagawa 2007, Schipper and Pelling 2006), which Convention on Climate Change), was initially agreed
implies that if development were made sustainable in December (UN 2015c), and needs to be ratified
(SD) this would reduce pressure on the environment between 22 April 2016 and 21 April 2017.
and subsequent impacts in the form of disasters. In
turn, a succinct approach to disaster risk reduction Along with the adoption or near-adoption of
(DRR) as well as environmental management can these major frameworks, however, are concerns
further reduce the potential impacts of disasters on as to how they will converge on the ground and
development and help make development sustainable. how effectively they can be implemented, while
Synergies between Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) concurrently maximising their synergies and overall
and appropriate DRR measures are required, as CCA, DRR and SDG outcomes. Bearing in mind
climate change poses a key obstacle to development how important it is that these frameworks create
and also impacts on disaster risk (Prabhakar et al. action at ground level, and of the opportunity for
2015). intervention to improve synergy, this policy brief
provides some suggestions that can better knit these
In line with the urgency for progress on SD, DRR three frameworks and approaches (SDG, DRR and
and CCA, 2015 has been a landmark year in the CCA) together. It recognises the limited progress in
history of development, disaster and environment collaboration among relevant stakeholders engaged
fields with the creation of three major international in CCA, DRR and SD and calls for more action toward
frameworks. It started with adoption of a new DRR successful implementation of solutions on the ground.
framework in March 2015 in Sendai, Japan, called After overviewing these three domains and their
the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction interlinkages, it analyses the potential to promote
(SFDRR), covering 2015 to 2030 (UN 2015a), then synergy at regional and national levels with the
a new set of development goals—the Sustainable emphasis on local-level implementation, suggestions
Development Goals (SDG) (same timeframe; 2015 to for which form the conclusion.
2030)—were adopted by the UN General Assembly in

2 Evolution of SDGs, DRR and CCA Domains and Interlinkages

2.1 Sustainable Development Goals the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs; a global
The 17 SDGs and 169 targets lie at the heart of development framework with 8 goals, 21 targets
the newly-agreed on development framework (figure and 60 indicators), progress in which has varied
1). The key issues are “to eradicate poverty and across countries, continents and goals—Africa, least
hunger in all forms, to combat inequalities within and developed and landlocked developing countries, and
among countries, to build peaceful, just and inclusive small island developing states have not sufficiently
societies, to protect human rights and promote gender attained the goals, particularly those relating to
equality and the empowerment of women and girls, maternal, newborn and child health and reproductive
and to ensure the lasting protection of the planet health (UN 2015b).
and its natural resources by 2030” (UN 2015b),
which resulted from two years of intensive public Although climate change issues are not
consultations and engagement between states, civil explicitly laid out in the MDGs, disaster issues are
society and other stakeholders. The SDGs succeed briefly covered in Goal 7: “Ensure Environmental

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Figure 1 The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (source: available at Globalgoals.org)

Sustainability”, and form Goal 1 of the SDGs in 1985, which established 1990 as the International
relation to exposure of the poor and vulnerable to Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
disaster risks. DRR is highlighted in Goal 11: “Make It then evolved into the International Strategy for
cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient Disaster Reduction (ISDR) from 2000 (figure 2).
and sustainable”, which also calls for a focus on The first global framework on DRR was established
disaster resilient cities and human settlements, as well in 2005 as the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA),
as carrying out DRR at all levels. Similarly, climate with five priorities: 1) institutionalise DRR efforts;
change issues are dealt with as separate Goal 13: 2) identify, assess, monitor disaster risks; 3) use
“Take urgent action to combat climate change and its knowledge, innovation and education to build a
impacts”, for which a specific annual fund target of culture of safety; 4) reduce underlying risk factors;
USD100 billion has been set for 2020. and 5) strengthen disaster preparedness for
effective responses. Of these, number 4 (underlying
2.2 Disaster Risk Reduction risk factors) is devoted to development issues
The DRR concept has evolved over the last 25 (poverty, sanitation, health, etc.) and also links to
Figure 2
years since its inception as the first UN resolution in climate change impacts (UN ISDR 2005).

Figure 2 Evolution of the Disaster Risk Reduction Field

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SFDRR, in contrast, has four priority areas (figure to multi hazard early warning system) (UN ESCAP
3) and seven global targets (1. reduce mortality, 2016). Development issues are directly related to
2. reduce number of affected people, 3. reduce priority 1 as well as 3. SFDRR is characterised by its
direct disaster economic losses, 4. reduce critical strong focus on stakeholder roles, such as civil society
infrastructure disruption, 5. increase number of organisations, voluntary groups, academia, science
countries with national DRR strategy, 6. enhance and technology groups, the business community and
international cooperation for actions, andFigure 3
7. access the private sector.

Figure 3 SFDRR Priority Areas and Role of Stakeholders

2.3 Climate Change Adaptation the Paris Agreement, which is where we are now.
Unlike the previous two fields, climate change
adaptation lacked a concrete global consensus on Figure 4 depicts the key points of the Paris Agreement
its framework, although programmes such as the (UN 2015c), which emphasises adaptation and loss and
Nairobi Work Programme, comprehensive climate damage issues. Article 7 focuses entirely on adaptation
change action plans such as the Bali Action Plan issues. The Agreement acknowledges the significant
and agreements such as Cancun Agreements and need for adaptation and urges governments and related
Paris Agreement took place. Climate change issues stakeholders to undertake measures that embody the
were mainly dominated by mitigation options and Cancun Adaptation Framework for sharing information,
cost-sharing negotiations in the early days after strengthening institutional mechanisms, strengthening
establishment of the UNFCCC; however, along with scientific knowledge, assisting developing countries in
the rise in climate related hazards, adaptation started identifying suitable adaptation practices, and improving
attracting more attention at COP 10 (Conference of effectiveness and durability of adaptation actions.
the Parties in 2004; Buenos Aires, Argentina), then
received successive boosts from the adoption of Bali There is a need for closer collaboration between
Action Plan in 2007 (Kato 2010) and the following CCA and DRR communities, which will be realised
COPs in Cancun (Mexico) and others leading up to through the Agreement’s focus on loss and damage

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Figure 4 Highlights of Paris Agreement (source: Infographic by Jonathan Storey, AFP)

(see box 1). Under the UNFCCC, loss and damage often situated within the context of extreme events
was categorised as ‘Loss and damage associated (Prabhakar et al. 2016).
with the adverse effects of climate change’ and was

Box 1 Loss and Damage can Unite CCA and DRR Communities
Loss and damage (L&D) associated with climate change impacts has emerged as a key issue underpinning
climate change adaptation at the global level during recent climate change negotiations under UNFCCC. L&D
could also unite CCA and DRR communities in several ways—mainly via DRR’s familiarity with assessments
and solutions, which could be capitalised on by the CCA community and integrated into its strategies. In turn,
CCA communities can relay their familiarity with climate change implications for disasters to DRR communities.

2.4 Interlinkages Acknowledged but Underrepresented Although the phrase “sustainable development” is
A simple analysis of the instances of “sustainable well embedded in the SFDRR and Paris Agreement,
development”, “disaster risk” and “climate change” in “disaster risk” only features moderately in SDG
the three documents mentioned above (UN 2015 a, documents and is underrepresented in the Paris
b and c) is depicted in figure 5, where line thickness Agreement, as indicated by the thinnest line in figure
indicates the extent to which each framework refers 5. Conversely, the key phrase “climate change” is well
to or acknowledges keywords of SD, disaster risk embedded in both SDG and SFDRR, which indicates
and climate change. DRR receives high recognition that the usage of key phrases in SDG and SFDRR
in the SDG Agenda. Targets for achieving nine out of is balanced, but the low appearance of disaster
17 SDGs have elements of DRR, including SFDRR risk issues in the Paris Agreement mean they are
targets embedded in them. underrepresented.

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Figure 5

12

20

20

15

16

Figure 5 Strength of SD, DRR and CCA Linkages in the Three Global Frameworks

3 Scope of Synergy at Regional and National Level

3.1 Regional Example of ASEAN entry points to enable cooperation between DRR and
ASEAN is a unique example of development, CCA—which are environmental and health impact
DRR and climate change integration. For MDGs, assessments, food, water and human security and
incorporation of developmental issues in the ASEAN ecosystem-based approaches. Therefore, while there
joint declaration occurred as late as 2009; however, are separate Focal Points, awareness needs to be
for SDGs, incorporation of the goals took place quickly raised at the policymaking level and more synergy is
due to high-level expressions of commitment and needed between regional activities under SDG, CCA
swift policymaking (Olsen et al., 2015). In the case of and DRR.
implementation, the ASEAN national Focal Points for
SDGs are the key organisations in each country. UN 3.2 National Level
ISDR (2010), in its analysis of institutional regional To get a grasp of synergy at the national level,
landscapes of CCA and DRR, has pointed out that six countries (those highly vulnerable to natural
within ASEAN separate departments individually focus disasters and climate change impacts) were chosen
on CCA and DRR, but while a regional agreement from developing, developed and island states to
exists for DDR (ASEAN Agreement on Disaster evaluate the extent of SDG fulfilment in national DRR
Management and Response) it does not for CCA. frameworks, strategies and plans (see the footnote
To plug this gap, the UN analysis identified several under table 1). The results are shown in table 1.

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Table 1 SDG Synergy of Selected National Disaster Risk Reduction Frameworks, Plans and Strategies1

SDGs Level of SDG incorporation in disaster risk reduction frameworks, plans and strategies
Australia Bangladesh Fiji India Japan Philippines
Goal 1 △ ◎ × ○ × ◎
Goal 2 ○ ◎ ○ △ ○ △
Goal 3 △ ○ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
Goal 4 ◎ ○ ○ ◎ ◎ ○
Goal 5 ○ ○ △ ○ ◎ ○
Goal 6 △ ○ ◎ ○ ◎ ◎
Goal 7 × × × △ ◎ ×
Goal 8 ○ ○ △ △ ◎ ○
Goal 9 ○ △ ○ ○ ◎ ○
Goal 10 ○ △ △ △ △ ×
Goal 11 ○ ◎ ○ ○ ◎ ◎
Goal 12 △ × × × ○ ×
Goal 13 ◎ ◎ × ○ △ ◎
Goal 14 ◎ × △ ○ △ ○
Goal 15 ○ × △ × △ ○
Goal 16 ◎ × × ○ ○ ×
Goal 17 ◎ × △ ◎ ○ △

Key: ◎: strongly incorporated; ○: incorporated; △: weakly incorporated; ×: not incorporated.

Refer to figure 1 for the SDGs listed in the first column.

Resources used for the above evaluation: Australia: National Strategy for Disaster Resilience (Council of Australian
Governments, 2011); Bangladesh: Bangladesh National Parliament (2012) and NPDM (2010); Fiji: Fiji National Disaster
Management Plan (Fiji, 1995); India: National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009 (National Disaster Management
Authority, 2009); Japan: Central Disaster Management Council (2015); Philippines: NDRRMP, 2011

Overall, Japan’s Basic Disaster Management Plan relationship between economic development and the
followed by Australia’s National Strategy for Disaster degree of DRR incorporation of SD elements2. Though
Resilience have the most interlinkages with SDGs based on a limited set of countries, the relationship
compared to the three developing countries presented between economic development and level of SD
in table 1, with Fiji’s national disaster management incorporation indicates that there could be an optimal
plan having the least. This trend appears to be related level of economic development that enables SD
to the size of these countries’ economies in terms readiness of DRR plans and policies in countries. The
of GDP, indicating a strong relationship between reason behind this strong linkage could be attributed
economic development, DRR and SD (refer to figure to enhanced investments in DRR due to the higher
6 based on data from The World Bank, 2016). The economic costs resulting from disasters occurring in
analysis presented in figure 6 indicates a strong richer countries (Vorhies 2012).

1
‌This table was compiled by the authors by analysing the DRR strategies, plans and policies of the six countries listed and rating them on the four-
point scale shown below the table. Judgement of the extent to which these strategies, plans and policies address the targets mentioned in the 17
SDGs was left to the discretion of the authors and hence should be considered a qualitative evaluation.
2
‌The Y axis in figure 6 (DRR incorporation of SD elements) is derived from the sum of the numerical transformation of the scores presented in table 2.
◎ is represented as 4, ○ as 3, △ as 2 and × as 1.

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POLICY BRIEF Number 34

55

Japan

50 Australia
y = 32.475x0.0535
R² = 0.8779
DRR incorporation of SD elements

r=0.8242
India
45 Philippines

Bangladesh
40

Fiji
35

30
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
GDP (billion USD)

Figure 6 Power Regression between GDP and DRR Incorporation of SD Elements

in DRR Plans of Selected Countries
Note: Values on the Y axis were obtained by numerical transformation of indicators presented in table 12.
Data source: The World Bank 2016.

Of all the countries, both India and Bangladesh India and other countries, where nodal ministries tend
gave relatively less consideration to biodiversity to be home affairs or internal affairs, and could assist
and ecosystem aspects, while Australia and the Bangladesh in addressing its basic development
Philippines attached more weight to them. Australia’s needs much more effectively.
approach to addressing natural disasters has centred
on building resilience into the social, natural and built Differences in DRR plans have been identified
environments, and highlights the shared responsibility across developing and developed countries—for
of society at large in building a resilient society; it instance, Japan’s DRR plan includes more sustainable
also emphasises education, networks and building actions, such as ensuring sustainable energy,
institutions to promote resilience. As a major shortfall, consumption and production, but does not address
however, its disregard for clean energy in promoting poverty issues, which can aggravate disaster damage.
disaster resilience could be cited—an issue shared by
most of the other countries listed in table 1. Both India Collective regional efforts can complement deficits
and Australia place strong emphasis on education and at the national level—for example, Fiji’s current
networks for DRR. DRR plan does not take account of climate change
but the island does receive protection in the form
In Bangladesh, DRR plans give lower consideration of the Strategy for Climate and Disaster Resilient
to coastal areas, even though the country depends Development in the Pacific (SRDP), a regional
heavily on coastal resources and is subjected to strategy drafted by the Pacific Island countries to
coastal hazards. DRR plans also tend to follow provide an integrated approach to disaster and climate
national developmental priorities, which are poverty change risks (Pacific Island Forum Scretariat 2015),
and hunger, owing to the government’s nomination which is important for countries like Fiji due to the
of Ministry of Food as the Focal Point for DRR in the small economies and low national capacities involved.
country. This case is unique and contrasts with that of

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4 Potentials for Synergy at Local Level

There is greater potential for linking DRR and and NGOs regarding the efficacy of activities and
CCA at the local level since communities and approaches implemented. There is ample evidence
local governments often have limited capacity to to suggest NGOs are better able to implement
address risks and are often the first responders in innovative small-scale pilot initiatives, while
emergencies. Further, the importance of “local” has governments are better placed to invest in and sustain
been highlighted across the three frameworks and at large interventions at sub-national and national
different levels. The SDG document mentions it 10 levels. However, the picture is mixed as regards the
times in its 35 pages, in connection with authorities, sustainability of these initiatives—while NGOs are
communities, culture, materials and planning; goals 6, better placed to perfect the implementation of or
8, 11 and 13 further mention local issues. The Paris fine-tune programmes to achieve objectives, these
Agreement quotes it nine times, in connection with programmes are often unsustainable in the long-term
communities and knowledge in the field of adaptation; when compared to government initiatives, which last
and the 25-page SFDRR document quotes it 48 longer but often fail to deliver the intended benefits.
times, in connection with different entities such as Collaboration between governments and NGOs in
government, community, knowledge, priority, DRR SD in general and risk reduction in particular has
strategy. long been called for but has seen limited success.
Governments are becoming increasingly aware of
This all points to an apparent increased focus, at the need to collaborate with NGOs and evidence of
least in the case of DRR, of the global mind-set on local-level committees to bring together these two
local implementation. All four priorities in SFDRR stakeholders is emerging (Behera 2002). This issue is
have explicit national and local contexts, but although addressed below in section 5 – The Way Forward.
the SDGs and Paris Agreement acknowledge the
importance of local issues they lack the specifics for It has also been observed that DRR has been
their implementation. slowly mainstreamed into various developmental
programmes being implemented by governments and
In the field of stakeholder engagement in such integration has been found effective especially in
implementing development activities, comparisons achieving multiple benefits of SD (box 2).
have often been made between governments

Box 2 Integrating DRR into Developmental Programmes in India

Integrating DRR into developmental programmes at local and national levels has long been sought
in India, and much progress has been made. The government has incorporated DRR elements
into the National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy and National Housing and Rural Habitat Policy.
While such programmatic integration has increased in several other countries too, more traditional
approaches also abound, in which local development programmes have reduced risk considerably—
for example, the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (2005), which
helped create tangible community assets over the past several decades nationwide and covers drought-
proofing, flood mitigation and micro-irrigation. This scheme has also focused on other important SDG
areas, including sanitation, health, transportation and food (Ministry of Rural Development 2016).

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5 The Way Forward

As explained above, while some progress has been regional, national, and sub-national levels, and can
made in areas of SD, DRR and CCA, since actions be divided into four main categories: programmatic
are initiated at the local level and the challenges exist integration, collaboration, capacity and innovation, as
at the local level, it is important to recognise, prioritise schematically depicted in figure 7. Feedback loops
and institutionalise efforts maximising the synergies span between levels, forming the basis for the need
between these initiatives on the ground. to recognise and implement integrated interventions
Figure 7 that complement SD, DRR and CCA. While this
Recognise needs and implement integrated recognition can occur across all scales, it could start
approaches that complement SD, DRR and CCA at the regional level and complement national and
The recommendations offered here to strengthen sub-national initiatives.
the synergy between SD, DRR, and CCA apply at the

Mainstreaming Expertise Institutions Finance Skills Disaggregation Champions

Programmatic
Influence

Collaboration Capacity Innovation

Integration

Recognize the need and implement integrated development approaches complementing CCA
and DRR

Figure 7 Maximising Synergy via Programmatic Integration, Collaboration, Capacity, and Innovation

It is important for international and regional forums 2. Mainstreaming

‌ impact assessments: As has been
(G-7, G-20, G-77, BRICS, ASEAN, SAARC) to done for environmental impact assessments, it is
recognise, advocate and implement a development high time to mainstream SD, DRR and CCA impact
agenda that is climate-sensitive and disaster resilient. assessments at programmatic and project levels.
This issue also needs to be strongly recognised While there are targets for SDGs, nationally-agreed
in global/regional strategy development, and can DRR and CCA targets in consonance with SDGs
be achieved by bolstered adaptation planning and are essential to realise these three outcomes.
implementation via linking DRR and CCA, and loss Such mainstreaming will bolster the climate- and
and damage can provide ample opportunity for this. disaster-resilience of policies and investments,
For some regional entities (e.g., ASEAN), which have via proper checks in terms of disaster and future
agreements on single issues, similar agreements for climate risks.
other frameworks need to be developed. 3. ‌Establish appropriate national Focal Points to
measure progress in the three frameworks/
5.1 Programmatic Integration agreements: Responsibilities need delegating to
1. ‌Integrate risk reduction into development plans, ensure greater synergy between interventions, and
policies, city/local services, which are linked to this can be done by identifying appropriate national
developmental priorities: Disaster and climate risk Focal Points to measure progress in the three
reduction must be integrated into existing city/ frameworks. In actual practise, implementation
local authority services such as water, sanitation, needs to be carried out by different ministries but
education, health and land use planning. the data and statistics related to progress must
Sustainable development needs risk issues to be centralised (at the Focal Point), either with the
be linked to city services and also satisfy the national planning agency or national statistical
“additionality” qualification, which can increase bureau/census department. Similar integration
service resilience. should also happen at state and sub-national

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 POLICY BRIEF Number 34

levels, including at programmatic and project whose budgets are only approved from above.
levels. Appropriate fiscal decentralisation at the top tiers
of government and recognition of the need to
5.2 Collaboration expand the mandate and responsibilities of local
1. ‌S t r o n g e r c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n D R R a n d governments will resolve this issue.
CCA communities: To strengthen the weak
DRR elements in the Paris Agreement, close 5.4 Innovation
collaboration is needed between the DRR and 1. Focus
‌ on innovation, knowledge and business:
CCA communities at the national and sub-national Innovation needs to be promoted in science and
levels, and loss and damage will provide the technology, knowledge development and business,
opportunity for this (box 1). which can be addressed by national governments
2. ‌Enhancing private/business sector involvement and international agencies via respective
and participation: The private sector can act as interventions.
the key development agent in most cases, and is 2. Utilise
‌ new tools for information sharing: The
emphasised in SDG as its mode of implementation, global era of communications we are in opens up
and in SFDRR’s actions, which involve the private new doors for social networking and open data-
and business sectors in risk reduction. Private sharing among countries and stakeholders, thus
companies can play a key role in climate risk we need to use new and emerging communication
reduction, and policies need developing at the local technologies more effectively to bridge the
level in order to promote their involvement in all development divide between countries, bring
three sectors. stakeholders together in a common understanding
and promote synergistic actions on the ground.
5.3 Capacity 3. Customised
‌ education: At the elementary, higher
1. ‌Technical capacity: Local stakeholders are often and university education levels, knowledge on
limited in scientific capacity and especially limited linkages between SD, DRR and CCA needs to
in technical expertise, which both need bolstering be integrated into modules and syllabuses, which
to enable effective local implementation. Linking can be customised based on local needs and will
local resource institutions (academic and research enhance human resource development in the
institutions) to local authorities will help, but raising longer term.
the capacity of local decision-makers themselves 4. Identify
‌ and recognise local champions and
for smoother collaboration and communication innovators: it is equally important to recognise
with these institutions is more effective. Adding and support, by building their capacities, local
appropriate stipulations to related plans, policies champions and innovators, both in terms of
and guidelines used by local stakeholders will institutions and people; document and analyse
strengthen these linkages. their good practices, and disseminate them widely,
2. ‌Financial capacity: Lack of financial capacity is one which networks can do effectively.
of the chief limitations facing local governments,

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■ Acknowledgement

Authors gratefully acknowledge the support from the Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN) Project ARCP2014-08CMY-Prabhakar and
CAF2015-RR08-CMY-Chiba.

■Cover Photo
Maximum usage of productivity: A semi-floating vegetable garden in the rice field in Southern part of Bangladesh. The livelihood support project was sup-
ported by NGO, named CONCERN.

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