Airplane Performance Analysis

In general, performance analysis typically includes the following phases: take-off , climbing,
cruise, descent, approach, landing and accelerated performance. The airplane is assumed to be
trimmed (i.e. zero moments), so the whole airplane is assumed to be a point mass. The needed
aerodynamic data are CL-CD curves at various Mach numbers, and at different flap angles plus
gears. Typical curves are presented in the following figures.

Cruise Performance

Because the cruise performance is very important in transport airplane design, its analysis for a
jet airplane only will be illustrated here. The jet engine performance is defined in terms of fuel
flow rate in lbs/hr in producing one pound of thrust, called the specific fuel consumption (cj). If
Treq is the required thrust in cruise, then the actual fuel consumption rate would be:

W F = Treq c j (1)

The weight reduction is equal to the fuel consumption. Therefore,

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dW = −W F dt = −Treq c j dt (2)
The specific endurance, or endurance factor, is defined as the time in hrs flown per pound of fuel
and is given by:

dt 1
=− , hrs / lbs (3)
dw Treq c j

The specific range, or range factor, is defined as the distance travelled per pound of fuel and is
given by: (using the relation: V=ds/dt)

ds V
=− , nm / lbs (4)
dW Treq c j
Since

D C
Treq = D = W = DW
L CL

it follows that

ds V (C L / C D )
=− (5)
dW Wc j
But the flight speed can be written as:
2W
V= (6)
ρSC L
Therefore,
ds −1 2  C L  dW
=   , in nm/lbs (7)
dW 1.689c j ρS  C D  W
Eq. (7) shows that for a given weight and altitude, the range is maximum if C L / C D is
maximized.

Assuming constant air density, cj and C L / C D , Eq. (7) can be integrated exactly to give:

R=
1.675
c j ρS C D
CL
( Wbegin − )
Wend , in nm (8)

For the endurance, Eq. (3) is written as

dt C /C
=− L D
dW Wc j

Therefore, the endurance is given by:

Eqs. (8) and (9) are called Breguet equations for range and endurance of jet airplanes.

On the other hand, a jet airplane may cruise at a constant true speed or Mach number. In this
case, Eq. (5) is directly integrated to give, with constant cj and CL/CD,

VC L / C D Wbegin
R= n (10)
cj Wend

Since V=MVa, where Va is the speed of sound, Eq. (10) can also be written as:

V MC L / C D  Wbegin
R= a  n (11)
 cj  Wend

Eq. (10) is frequently used to determine the combat radius of a fighter at a specified speed. Eq.
(11) is further used to determine the best cruise Mach number as shown in the figure below.

The constant speed endurance is still given by Eq. (9).

As shown in Eq. (8), to maximize the range, the ratio, C L / C D must be maximized. In cruise, a
parabolic drag equation is a valid assumption. Therefore, the following ratio is to be maximized:

CL
f =
C D 0 + kC L2

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where k = 1/πAe. By setting df/dCL to 0, it can be shown that

C D 0 = 3kC L2 (12)

On the other hand, if CL/CD is to be maximized, then

C D 0 = kC L2 (13)

Eq. (12) is used to determine CL for the maximum range and hence the speed through Eq. (6).
Based on Eq. (12), CL obtained tends to be small, and hence the flight speed is high. If the
corresponding Mach number exceeds the drag divergent Mach number, the flight speed must be
reduced to one corresponding to a Mach number slightly below Mdiv.

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Stall Speeds and Minimum Speeds

The 1-g stall speed is defined by

2W
Vs = (14)
ρSC L max,trim

However, if the airplane is not controllable at αstall, CLmax in Eq. (14) must be replaced with
CLmax, controllable. Because Vs affects greatly the performance of the airplane in take-off, landing,
approach and climb, it is required to determine it through flight test with the requirements that
the speed reduction to the minimum speed does not exceed one knot per second; the C.G. at the
most critical location (usually means the most forward); and at zero thrust. Of course, it is also
evaluated at various flap angles.

Level Flight Maximum Speeds and Ceilings

Maximum thrust is a function of altitude and Mach number: Tmax(δ,M), where δ=p/p0. With a
parabolic drag equation, Tmax(δ,M) can be written as:

Tmax (δ , M ) C D 0 ( M )q S W / δ
= + q = 1481.3δM 2 (15)
W /δ W /δ q SπAe

Eq. (15) can be used to graphically determine the maximum level flight Mach numbers and
absolute ceilings at a given weight and altitude.

Flight Envelope

A typical V-n diagram is presented in the following.

2WD
Vs = , C N max = (C L max ) 2 + C D 2 , CD at CLmax (16)
ρC N max S

VA is the design maneuvering speed and is estimated as

V A = Vs nlim

where nlim = Llim/W (the load factor) and is specified as 2.5 for a jet transport.

VC is the design cruising speed and is defined by the designer.

VD is the design diving speed and must satisfy:

VD ≥ 1.25VC

Maneuvering in a vertical plane

In an instantaneous pull-up maneuver, the lift is equal to nW. Therefore, from an aerodynamic
point of view,
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 L 0.5ρV 2C L max S V 2 C L max
nmax = max = = = (17)
W 0.5ρVs 2C L max S Vs2 CL

It is seen from Eq. (17) that when n is plotted versus speed, the curve is parabolic (i.e. varies
with V2). However, in a sustained pull-up maneuver, there must be enough thrust to overcome
the drag. In this case, “n” is solved from;

(nC L ) 2
T = D = (C D 0 + )q S (18)
πAe

At a high speed, a jet airplane is mostly limited by the available thrust in maneuvering.

Maneuvering in a horizontal plane

In a steady level and coordinated turn, the following equations are satisfied:

L cosφ = W (19)
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 W V2
L sin φ = = C.F . (20)
g Rt

Note that “coordinated turn” means there is no side force. From Eq. (19), the load factor in a
level and coordinated turn is therefore

L 1
n= = (21)
W cosφ

The radius of turn is obtained from Eq. (20):

V2 V2
Rt = = (22)
g tan φ g n 2 − 1

The turn rate is given by

V
ψ = (23)
Rt

Note that in any maneuver, the stall speed becomes a function of the load factor. Eq. (17) is still
valid:

V s (turn) = V s (1− g ) n (24)

Example 3 An airplane is flying straight and level at sea-level and at a speed of 300 ft/sec. The
pilot puts the airplane in a level, coordinated turn with a radius of 2,850 ft, while maintaining the
same angle of attack as the one the airplane had in the straight and level flight condition. The
pilot adjusts the engine thrust as required to maintain the speed at 300 ft/sec (i.e. sustained turn).
Determine the required thrust.

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