Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

Review

The polymers and their additives in particulate plastics: What makes them
hazardous to the fauna?
Srinidhi Sridharan a,b, Manish Kumar b, Mahua Saha a,c, M.B. Kirkham d, Lal Singh a,b, , Nanthi S. Bolan e,
⁎ ⁎⁎
a
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur 440020, Maharashtra, India
c
CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula 403004, Goa, India
d
Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States of America
e
UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, M079, Perth, WA 6009, Australia

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• MNPs are generally perceived as a single

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Due to the increasing concerns on global ecosystems and human health, the environmental risks posed by
Received 6 January 2022 microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have become an important topic of research. Their ecological impacts
Received in revised form 7 February 2022 on various faunal species have been extensively researched and reviewed. However, the majority of those studies per-
Accepted 8 February 2022
ceive these micro(nano)-plastics (MNPs) as a single entity rather than a collective term for a group of chemically dis-
Available online 11 February 2022
tinct polymeric particulates. Each of the plastic polymers can possess unique physical and chemical behavior, which, in
Editor: Damia Barcelo turn, can determine the possible environmental impacts. Furthermore, many studies explore the adsorption, absorp-
tion, and release of other environmental pollutants by MNPs. But only a handful of them explore the leaching of addi-
Keywords: tives possessed by these polymers. Data on the environmental behavior and toxicity of individual additives associated
Microplastics with different polymer particulates are scarce. Knowledge about the leachability and ecotoxicity of the additives

Abbreviations: 1-Nnap, 1-nitronaphthalene; BP-3, benzophenone-3; DEHP, bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; BPA, bisphenol A; CTR, car tire rubber; CTAB, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide; DBP,
dibutyl phthalate; DiBP, diisobutyl phthalate; DnBP, di-n-butyl phthalate; EDI, estimated daily intake; HI, Hazard Index; HBCD, hexabromocyclododecane; LC-HRMS, Liquid Chromatography -
High Resolution Mass Spectrometry; MPs, microplastics; MNPs, micro(nano)-plastics; NPs, nanoplastics; PTA, paraphthalic acid; PFASs, perfluoroalkyl substances; POPs, persistent organic
pollutants; PPCPs products, pharmaceuticals and personal care; PHE, phenanthrene; PA, polyamide; PBDE, polybrominated diphenyl ethers; PBS, polybutylene succinate; PC, polycarbonate;
PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PE, polyethylene; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PHA, polyhydroxy alkanoates; PHB, polyhydroxy butyrate; PLA, polylactic acid; PMMA,
polymethyl methacrylate; PP, polypropylene; PS, polystyrene; PU, polyurethane; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; SDBS, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate; THQ, target hazard quotient; TBBPA,
tetrabromobisphenol A; UV, ultra-violet.
⁎ Correspondence to: L. Singh, Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
⁎⁎ Correspondence to: N. S. Bolan, UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, M079, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Singh), [email protected] (N.S. Bolan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153828
0048-9697/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

Nanoplastics associated with environmental MNPs (unlike large plastic particles) remains limited. The ecological impacts of differ-
Fauna ent MNPs together with their additives and the basis of their toxicity have not been explored yet. The present review
Ecotoxicity systematically explores the potential implications of environmentally predominant polymers and their associated ad-
Plastic additives
ditives and discusses their physicochemical characteristics. The review ultimately aims to provide novel insights on
Particulate plastics
what components precisely make MNPs hazardous to the fauna. The paper also discusses the major challenges pro-
posed in the available literature along with recommendations for future research to throw light on possible solutions
to overcome the hazards of MNPs.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Methodology for review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Types of polymers and their impacts on fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Role of physicochemical characteristics and aging of the plastic particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Challenges regarding characterization and analysis of MNPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3. Toxicity of MNPs to the aquatic biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4. Toxicity of MNPs to the terrestrial biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5. Data insufficiency and knowledge gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Types of additives and their impacts on fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1. Sources and applications of plastic-associated additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2. Additive exposure through plastic particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3. Environmental interactions and toxicity of the additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.4. Leachability and interactions of the plastic polymers with their additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.5. Characterization and analysis of MNP-associated additives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. Impacts on humans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.1. Exposure and health risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2. Available data on human toxicity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3. Plastic waste management and human health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6. Recent trends and prospects for future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1. Introduction in every ecosystem, including soil, water (marine or freshwater), and air.
Thus, they are deposited in every nook and corner of the planet. Due to
Plastics have an extensive range of key applications from packaging their omnipresence, MNPs have been acknowledged as a key stratigraphic
(Piccardo et al., 2021) to power cable insulation (Ouyang et al., 2021a). marker of the current geological period (Anthropocene), popularly termed
The ever-increasing global production of plastics in the last seven decades the Plasticene (Leslie and Depledge, 2020). MNPs are found in vegetables
has resulted in their vast circulation in the environment, and they have and fruits (Conti et al., 2020), milk and honey (Diaz-Basantes et al.,
emerged as a key geological indicator of the Anthropocene (Campanale 2020), meat (Kedzierski et al., 2020), salt (Vidyasakar et al., 2021; Lee
et al., 2020). These plastics further break down to smaller particles and et al., 2019a), seafood (Saha et al., 2021), edible algae (Menendez et al.,
end up as mesoplastics (10 mm), MPs (≤5 mm) and NPs (<1 μm) 2021), and potable water (Welle and Franz, 2018). MNPs can impact vital
(NOAA, 2015). As of 2015, humans have generated around 6300 million microbial communities in the environment or bioremediation systems,
metric tons of plastic waste (Lin et al., 2020). By 2050, 26,000 Megatons thus interfering with important nutrient cycling processes like nitrification
of plastic waste are projected to be dumped globally, at least 45% of (Qin et al., 2020b), manure composting (humification) (Zhou et al.,
which shall remain non-recyclable (Castan et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2022b), and carbon cycling, because they pose as a nature-identical recalci-
2020). Municipal landfill leachate can contain up to 11.4 ± 0.8 μg L−1 of trant carbon (Ladewig et al., 2021). MNPs are known to be hazardous to
27 different polymers of the MNPs (mostly <50 μm) (Sun et al., 2021), and various keystone species of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Sridharan
farmland soils used intensively can contain MNPs as high as 43,000 particles et al., 2021a). MNPs can directly impact organisms by entanglement, cell
kg−1 (Castan et al., 2021). Moreover, biosolids play a key role as a potential inflammation, gut blockage, and by causing ingestion-reduced energy
source for MNPs (microbeads) in soil (Wijesekara et al., 2018) through sludge reserves, or indirectly by adsorbing and transporting other chemical con-
applications from wastewater effluents enriched with particulate plastics taminants (organic or inorganic) in the environment (Fred-Ahmadu et al.,
(Golwala et al., 2021). MNPs get transported to distant places from their 2020). However, a much-debated question is whether or not MNPs inde-
source, and polar lakes may become their potential sinks (González-Pleiter pendently drive global biodiversity loss. Some studies state that there are
et al., 2020). However, MNPs are unevenly distributed across this planet, no significant impacts on fauna (Cunningham et al., 2021; Gambardella
and the distribution depends upon the distance from their source, geological et al., 2019) or humans (WHO, 2019), while some others contradict
and hydrological aspects (soil or sediment type, weathering) (Mendes et al., these reports and give substantial evidence (Cox et al., 2020;
2021), environmental compartments (air, soil, or water) (Kooi et al., 2021), Pannetier et al., 2020). However, the data available concerning the
anthropogenic disturbance or activity (Yin et al., 2021), and degree of urban- human exposure and toxicity of MNPs and their additives are too scarce
ization or industrialization (Wong et al., 2020). (WHO, 2019) to conclude that the concern is negligible (Leslie and
Based on their sources, MNPs can be either primary (intentionally Depledge, 2020). Moreover, specified bioassays to assess the toxicity
fabricated for suitable applications) or secondary (particulates formed by of MNPs to fauna and humans remain undeveloped and unstandardized
fragmentation of larger plastic materials) (Auta et al., 2018). MNPs occur (Karami, 2017).

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A few toxicity studies explore the direct impacts of synthetic polymers primary mechanism during the initial stages of plastic sheet or strip
(Mandiola et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2021b). It is widely perceived that virgin weathering in salt marshes (Weinstein et al., 2016). But this may vary
MNPs are inert compounds that are not toxic by themselves. Unfortunately, with the MNP shapes or the existing ecosystem.
plastics also contain other compounds (like phthalates, flame retardants, Moreover, the mechanisms causing the interactions between the MNPs
bisphenols), which are added during polymerization and processing and metallic elements or other chemical compounds in the environment
(Gunaalan et al., 2020). These functional additives play a major role in need to be explored further through modeling approaches (Binda et al.,
the toxicity of the MNPs (Beiras et al., 2021). Moreover, MNPs become po- 2021). For instance, Turner et al. (2020) identified <0.1 μg g−1 of lead
tential vectors of transport for several hazardous, environmental contami- (Pb) adsorbed to 70% of different MNP pellets on a beach with avian acces-
nants including heavy metals (Borges-Ramírez et al., 2021; Catrouillet sibility. To date, the majority of the research focuses on the physical aspects
et al., 2021), phenanthrene, nonylphenol, triclosan, and other organic com- of the ecotoxicological implications of MNPs. The biophysical or ecological
pounds including endocrine disruptors (Browne et al., 2013). Although en- impacts of MNPs are more likely to be caused by their physical characteris-
vironmentally exposed MNPs are observed to be more toxic (Alimi et al., tics (Lozano et al., 2021; Qin et al., 2021) than their chemical structure, be-
2021; Liu et al., 2020a), data are lacking to show the long-term pathways cause most conventional plastics are branded to be chemically stable and
and behavior of environmental MNPs. Some of the main, established path- inert. However, their additives exhibit more toxicity and health hazards
ways by which MNPs enter different ecosystems include runoff and erosion, to biota and humans upon contact or ingestion, which are mainly attributed
groundwater migration, hydrodynamics (flow direction, ocean waves, to their chemical nature (Liu et al., 2020b). The principal mechanisms by
tides), and atmospheric fallout (Alfonso et al., 2021). which MNPs exert toxicity to fauna include physical obstruction, transfer
After the Stockholm Convention (UNEP, 2020), MNPs were proposed to and mobilization of environmental co-pollutants, and leaching of additives
be persistent organic pollutants (POPs) due to increasing evidence concern- (Barrick et al., 2021).
ing their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range transfer, The types of MNPs and additive chemicals occurring in the environment
and impacts from exposure (Lohmann, 2017). Recently, Arp et al. (2021) highly depend on their source. Bringer et al. (2021) conducted a pilot study
and Duan et al. (2021) proposed that plastic litter from environmental along the French Atlantic coast to characterize the MNPs and their additives
weathering (macro, meso, micro, nano) and its leachates are a threat to [like dimethyl phthalate, naphthalene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
the planet due to their global exposure, irreversibility, non-degradability, (PAHs)] that were found on the beach, surface water, and coastal (semi-
and their known impacts on vital global processes like nutrient and biogeo- depth) sediments. They related their occurrence to the aquaculture tools
chemical cycles. However, there is only a handful of studies on aged MNPs used by fishermen. The authors showed that around 70% of the identified
(Luo et al., 2020b), and the weathering protocols followed to generate en- MNPs and chemicals represented the regionally predominant aquaculture
vironmentally relevant aged-MNPs are not standardized yet (Alimi et al., materials. However, Bergami et al. (2020) identified polystyrene (PS) par-
2021). Plastic aging, which refers to time-dependent modifications in the ticles (chiefly from long-range transport) in the gut of Cryptopygus
polymeric chemical bonds and physical structures, can be characterized antarcticus (Antarctic springtail), and thus they reported evidence of MNP
by temporal changes in the carbonyl (carbon‑oxygen) and hydroxyl ingestion by this most isolated collembolan of the Earth. Therefore, tracing
(hydrogen‑oxygen) bonds, bond index (a quantitative measure of atomic of sources is important to understand the possible routes and concentra-
bond structure), surface topography, crystallinity (particle brittleness), tions of environmental MNPs.
etc. (Brandon et al., 2016). However, discrepancies in the distribution, From selected literature (Fig. 1), the authors identified many research
polymer types, shapes, color, and sizes of MNPs documented in different studies (although they were fragmented) on the impacts of plastic additives
countries and climatic zones make it difficult to understand their practical (particularly bisphenols). But only a few research articles explored the com-
aging, fate, and possible interactions, and their impacts and toxicity on bined impacts of MNPs and their additives (Fig. 2). There is no dearth of re-
the regional biota. For instance, surface delamination is known to be the views on the additives linked with MNPs. To the authors' knowledge, in the

Fig. 1. Layout of the review methodology: database collection and scrutinizing process for this review article.

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Fig. 2. Bibliometric network visualization for the co-occurrence of the relevant keywords for the study using VOSviewer.

last decade (2010−21), there are 187 peer-reviewed papers dedicated to gap: environmental leachability of the MNP-associated additives in regard
the impacts of plastic additives, out of which 33 are review articles. to the combined toxicity of MNPs and additives on fauna.
Campanale et al. (2020) systematically reviewed the impacts of MNPs
and additives on human health. Hong et al. (2017) reviewed the available 2. Methodology for review
literature on the analytical methods and techniques for plastic-associated
chemicals. Barrick et al. (2021) reviewed the ecotoxicity of plastic addi- Potential literature for the present study was selected through a thor-
tives, and they mainly focused on the legislative differences between New ough screening of available peer-reviewed research, reviews, and reports
Zealand and the European Commission concerning these additive com- collected from well-known scientific databases like Web of Science, Google
pounds. Hahladakis et al. (2018) reviewed the fate, migration and the envi- Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect (Fig. 1). The final database
ronmental impacts of plastic additives in regard to their use, management was then analyzed using the bibliometric mapping tool, VOSviewer. A bib-
and recycling. However, the study did not cover the impacts of plastics liometric network was mapped to understand the co-occurrence of the key-
and MNPs or their toxicity to biological systems. Another review article words (MNPs and additives) in the selected literature (Fig. 2). In the final
(Gunaalan et al., 2020) addressed the environmental toxicity of the addi- database, the authors found that only three MNP polymers (terms: “polysty-
tives carried by MNPs. These authors discussed the leachate-preparation rene,” “polypropylene,” and “polyethylene”) had co-occurred with all the
protocols followed in toxicity-assessment studies. However, the review terms “plastic additives,” “toxicity,” “microalgae,” “human health,” and
was limited to only aquatic flora and fauna and the leachates (not the poly- “adsorption”. Notably, no term related to any fauna (specific or general-
mers). Mandal et al. (2020) addressed the distribution and impacts of ized) could be visualized, which highlighted the need for more research
weathering on the physicochemical characteristics and toxicity of particu- and review studies to bridge this knowledge gap. Hence, the present review
late plastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment. addresses the combined and individual impacts of MNPs and their additives
Yet, most of the available reviews and many research articles on the on fauna and highlights knowledge gaps and prospects for future studies in
leachates and additives have addressed them as a single entity or one mix- the field. It carefully considers the physical and chemical diversity of the
ture rather than focusing on the detailed possible impacts associated with MNPs. In all sections, this paper addresses MPs and NPs together as MNPs
different chemical compounds individually. Most importantly, to the au- for convenience (not generalization). However, NPs and MPs have diverse
thors' knowledge, no review is available that systematically discusses the transport properties, light and colloid interactions, surface areas, and hy-
ecological impacts of different MNPs and their additives together and ex- drophobicity. Also, the fraction of surface molecules available for additives,
plores the basis of their ecotoxicity. Moreover, knowledge of the ecotoxicity their bioavailability, and diffusion times all affect the release of additive
of MNPs is limited to a few polymers (Fig. 2). Unlike macro- and contaminants into the environment (Gigault et al., 2021).
mesoplastics, little or no data are available on the leachability and
ecotoxicity of the additives associated with environmental MNPs. The pres- 3. Types of polymers and their impacts on fauna
ent review discusses the available literature concerning the impacts (indi-
vidual and combined ecotoxicity) of MNPs and the associated additives MPs are not a single entity, but an ‘in toto' term used for several chem-
on terrestrial and aquatic fauna and humans, and it explores the basis of ical compounds (Rochman et al., 2019). Different polymers have different
their toxicity due to their chemical (polymeric backbone, leachability) functional groups, physical and chemical properties, and different types
and physical (size, shape, color, ductility, weathering) characteristics. of impacts on biota (Bolan et al., 2020; Palansooriya et al., 2020). Even
Furthermore, the present study aims to address an important knowledge the same MNP polymers characterized from the same geographical location

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Fig. 3. A diagrammatic representation of the mechanisms by which MNPs become a potential hazard to the wildlife and humans.

can have dissimilar chemical compositions depending on how long the par- bioaccumulation of additives (PHE and 1-Nnap) by the earthworm Eisenia
ticles have undergone environmental weathering (aging) (Cormier et al., fetida. The study provided new insights on the vital role of hydrophobic in-
2021). For instance, Lozano et al. (2021) found that the impacts of MNPs teractions on reversible sorption of organic compounds to MNPs, where the
on terrestrial systems (plant growth, microbial activity, soil biota) varied, non-polar PP MNPs showed higher sorption (and additive bioaccumula-
not just with the polymer type [polypropylene (PP), polyurethane (PU), tion) than the other polar MNPs.
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), PS, polycarbonate Li et al. (2021b) demonstrated that the oxidative stress exhibited by
(PC)] and concentration, but also with the shape. For example, fibers in- E. fetida when exposed to high-density PE and PP MNPs was size-
creased the water holding capacity, films decreased soil bulk density, and dependent, and the worms showed inflammation and neurodegeneration
foams and fragments increased soil aeration and porosity. Therefore, the when treated with the MNPs. Hüffer et al. (2018) observed that environ-
physicochemical properties of MNPs play an important role in their mental aging of PS MNPs could cause polymeric surface oxidation, increas-
ecotoxicity (Lambert et al., 2017). The mechanisms by which MNPs can ing the possibility of their interactions with biota or sorption of other
be toxic to fauna and humans are shown in Fig. 3. organic contaminants. However, in a recent study, Castan et al. (2021) eval-
uated the partitioning and diffusion coefficients for PE and tire-wear MNPs-
3.1. Role of physicochemical characteristics and aging of the plastic particulates bound contaminant migration (agrochemicals or pesticides like hexachlo-
robenzene, endrin, aldrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, trans-
Weathering of a plastic polymer and the generation rate of MNPs vary nonachlor and additives like polychlorinated biphenyls) in soil, and they re-
with the polymeric chemical composition and the prevailing environmental ported rapid desorption. They strongly questioned the potential of MNPs to
conditions (Duan et al., 2021). For instance, PS can fragment into micro- facilitate contaminant migration or mobility. Usually, fish communities
sized particles much faster than PE in the ocean under erosional or inter- that are swallowing-feeders tend to ingest more MNPs than sucking-
tidal conditions (Rizzo et al., 2021). MNPs can be light enough for wind feeders or filtering-feeders (Li et al., 2021a), and this specifies a serious
transportation to distant areas, or hard enough for compaction and fossili- risk of MNPs and their additives on bioaccumulation in the food chain.
zation like rocks (Campanale et al., 2020). Therefore, the texture (crystal- Aging of MNPs is a principal factor influencing their physical and chem-
linity, ductility) of the polymers influences the environmental behavior ical interactions with the environment. The aging depends on environmen-
and fate of the MNPs. The particle size of the MNPs plays a vital role in tal factors like ultra-violet (UV) radiation and mechanical or biological
the toxicity of the adsorbed contaminants (Qin et al., 2021; Wang et al., disintegration (Binda et al., 2021; Duan et al., 2021). Moreover, natural ca-
2019a). For instance, Cui et al. (2022) reported that the surface adsorption lamities, like typhoons, cyclones, and tsunamis, can increase the environ-
of benzophenone-3 (BP-3) on PS, PE, and PP MNPs under gastrointestinal mental response of the MNPs and the plastisphere due to increased
(lab-simulated) conditions was highly size-dependent. The polymeric den- turbulence, transport, and redistribution (Chen et al., 2021a). Wu et al.
sity also plays a crucial role in the migration of the MNPs in terrestrial eco- (2021) reported that photo-aging (under simulated conditions) rates of vir-
systems or the sinking rates in aquatic ecosystems. Chen et al. (2022) gin PP (pure) particles were higher than the PP particles from a tea cup and
observed surface modifications and enhanced sinking rates of MNPs during meal-box products in a simulated ocean environment. The antioxidant ad-
the pre-oxidation processes (KMnO4 treatment) in drinking-water treat- ditives (Irgafos 168) in the molded plastics inhibited the aging process,
ment plants. Moreover, the polymeric composition of MNPs influences but caused yellowing of the plastic surfaces upon reaction with sunlight
the sorption (absorption or adsorption) of various co-pollutants (heavy (UV rays). Moreover, despite delaying the plastic weathering, the additives
metals or organic pollutants) in the environment. Xu et al. (2021) investi- leached out into the seawater, underwent degradation under sunlight (UV),
gated the sorption of 4 different MNPs [PP, polylactic acid (PLA), and generated intermediary degradation products. These observations
polybutylene succinate (PBS), polyhydroxy alkanoates (PHA)] onto phen- highlighted the influence of additives on the weathering-related environ-
anthrene (PHE) and 1-nitronaphthalene (1-Nnap). They also studied the mental impacts of MNPs in the open ocean. Therefore, the aging rate of

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particulate plastics needs to be considered as a parameter for their charac- South Georgia). Wang et al. (2021a) identified PP and PET fibers from
terization and analysis. the stomachs (78–2498 μm, 1196 ± 671 μm) and intestines (small intes-
tine: 51–3609 μm, 706 ± 753 μm; large intestine: 87–3369 μm, 904 ±
3.2. Challenges regarding characterization and analysis of MNPs 825 μm) of 2 dead cubs of Phoca largha (spotted seal).
Initially, toxicity studies of MNPs concerning aquatic fauna used a well-
Analytical and instrumental tools and techniques, as well as methodolo- established model organism, Danio rerio (zebra fish) (Lu et al., 2016). In
gies, remain underdeveloped and unstandardized, particularly for smaller- these studies, ingestion of MNPs by lab-grown zebra fish over a 7-day expo-
sized MPs (<10 μm) and NPs. This is due to the limitations on the sampling sure is observed, which is followed by determining hepatotoxicity using
protocols, sensitivity and resolution of the available sampling and analytical fluorescent-tagged PS MNPs (20 μm, 5 μm, 70 nm). When the ingested
systems. For instance, Schirinzi et al. (2019) developed a real-time, robust MNPs enter the host's gut, these particles can support pathogenic biofilms
quantification method for trace analysis of PS MNPs (resolution up to 20 that can disrupt or interact with the gut microbiota (Li et al., 2022). For in-
pg) from the aquatic environment using Liquid Chromatography-High Reso- stance, Xie et al. (2021) exposed D. rerio for 24 h to 10–1000 μg L−1 of MPs
lution Mass Spectrometry (LC-HRMS). However, the methodology and instru- (8 μm, PS) and NPs (80 nm, PS) and found greater gut inflammation and
mental setup were specifically designed for PS (one particular polymer), gut-microbial community disruption by PS NPs than MPs. When the fresh-
while slight to major modifications were required for other predominant water amphipod crustacean Hyalella azteca was exposed to PE and PP MNPs
polymers. The aging of different MNPs is influenced by different environmen- (fibers and particles) for 10 to 42 days, they showed retarded growth and
tal factors. Many studies have focused only on PS MNPs mainly because of energy levels (Au et al., 2015). Surprisingly, the MNP fibers showed more
their poor heat-resistance and the commonly associated carcinogenic addi- toxicity than the particles. Cole et al. (2015) observed significant impacts
tives (antioxidants, stabilizers, flame retardants). of PS MNPs on the feeding behavior, growth, and reproduction of a pelagic
A study in China showed that photo-fragmentation of terrestrial PET copepod, Calanus helgolandicus. Exposure to PS MNPs can impact the feeding
MNPs can be influenced by certain components (iron oxide, clay, organic and shoaling behavior of the marine jacopever, Sebastes capensis (Yin et al.,
carbon) in the prevailing soil (Ding et al., 2022), and the study provided 2018). Within 96 h of exposure, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) MNPs
novel insights into polymeric photochemical behavior. Photo-degradation could induce muscular antioxidant stress and retard the growth of the Atlantic
by UV and solar radiation is another important factor in MNP generation. gilt-head bream, Sparus aurata (Balasch et al., 2021). Moreover, PS MNPs
Photo-degradation is not characterized as “degradation” but just light- alter the growth patterns of phytoplankton, microalgae, and dinoflagellates
induced fragmentation of plastic particulates, which brings about surface (Alexandrium pacificum) (Liu et al., 2021a) through oxidative stress and phys-
morphology changes in the exposed MNPs (Sait et al., 2021). PP particles, ical damage (Mao et al., 2018). These organisms are the major oxygen pro-
under UV irradiation, can leach dissolved organic matter in the environ- ducers and vital nutrient sources for aquatic fauna. Long et al. (2017)
ment at a much faster rate than PE particles due to the reaction of long- observed that PS MNPs formed clusters (hetero-aggregates) with the marine
chain alkyl groups present in PP with UV radiation generating free alkyl phytoplankton, Chaetoceros neogracile, but it had negligible impacts on algal
radicals (Lee et al., 2020b). UV radiation plays a key role in the photo- morphology or growth. MNPs can also favor taxonomically distinct microbial
aging of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Ouyang et al., 2021b). Ouyang et al. biofilms, thus altering natural microbial communities in aquaculture ponds,
(2021b) found an increased photo-aging of PVC particles under UVC which, in turn, can alter the overall content of extracellular polymeric sub-
(generally used in sterilization applications) irradiation than under UVA stances (Deng et al., 2021a). These biofilms further may influence the health
and UVB. However, most of the various commercial UV food and aquacul- of the cultured organisms, ultimately impacting the nutrient content they
ture sterilization chambers (domestic or industrial disinfection boxes) use offer to human consumers. Zhang et al. (2021d) observed that MNPs induced
only PVC, which can become a potential source of MNPs for humans. a significant rise in the abundance of the gene intI1 (antibiotic resistance
Therefore, research and reviews concerning the impacts of MNPs on biota gene) on the bacterial hosts in an aerobic sludge digestion plant.
need to address ecotoxicity with respect to different polymers rather than In natural marine sediments, even bioplastic MNPs can favor microbial
grouping them under a single tag as MPs or NPs. strains carrying antibiotic or metal-resistant genes (Di Cesare et al., 2021),
which exposes susceptible aquatic fauna to pathogenic or virulent microbes.
3.3. Toxicity of MNPs to the aquatic biota Within 14 days of exposure, PS MNPs accumulated in the brain, liver, gut,
and gills of Oreochromis niloticus (freshwater red tilapia) and induced oxida-
In the past decade, various studies have documented the presence of tive stress and neurotoxicity (inhibition of acetylcholinesterase in the brain)
MNPs in aquatic fauna. MNPs are currently perceived to be more toxic to (Ding et al., 2018). Intramuscular exposure to PE MNPs for 7 days induced ox-
the early life stages (embryonic to juvenile) of the aquatic fauna than the idative stress and reduced the survival rate of the Pacific white shrimp,
mature or adult stages (Cormier et al., 2021) possibly due to increased Litopenaeus vannamei (Hsieh et al., 2021). Another study using acute exposure
host sensitivity (susceptibility), bioavailability and residence time (from (2 days) on the same species reported microfloral dysbiosis (disruption to the
larvae to juveniles) of the MNPs leading to an amplified exposure of the em- microbiota resulting in an imbalance of the microflora) at low concentrations
bryos to the particulates and leachates. Pannetier et al. (2020) showed that (50 μg L−1) of PE (fluorescent-tagged) MNPs; eventually death of the shrimps
both juveniles and larvae of the Japanese Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) read- occurred at high concentrations (5000 μg L−1) (Wang et al., 2021d). Artemia
ily ingest MNPs. MNPs are usually perceived to be of greater threat to pred- parthenogenetica (brine shrimp) readily ingested PS MNPs, which did not
atory fauna than the prey, because they are highly vulnerable to exposure show any significant impact on shrimp growth, development, or survivability,
(Huang et al., 2020). For instance, Sanchez et al. (2014) identified but the ingestion caused abnormal morphological structures in their digestive
microplastics (MPs) in the digestive tracts of wild gudgeons Gobio gobio, a tract (Wang et al., 2019b). Ecotoxicological impacts can also be species-
freshwater benthic feeder (secondary consumer) in French streams, and specific. For instance, the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) showed more
they highlighted possible biomagnification from their prey. The authors vi- toxic responses to PET MNPs than PE, because the former interfered in path-
sually inspected the suspected particles under a dissection microscope to ways responsible for lipid metabolism (vital for oysters) (Teng et al., 2021). In
observe hard-colored and transparent fibers and pellets. However, they a mesocosm of a nematode-plant-soil system, the presence of PE MNPs and as-
did not analyze the polymeric composition of the identified MPs. In an in- sociated organic compounds (mixture) impacted the growth, biomass, and
door mesocosm experiment, PE MNPs disrupted the community structure microflora of a plant, maize (Zea mays), but not the nematode
of benthic macroinvertebrates (Silva et al., 2021), and the study provided (Caenorhabditis elegans) (Fajardo et al., 2022). In the study, the MNPs were es-
important insights into the potential ecological risk to grazers and deposit tablished to have been the soil contaminant-carriers through bioassays
feeders. Bessa et al. (2019) identified MNPs (fibers, fragments: 76–4945 (growth, reproduction, antioxidant stress). The black rockfish (Sebastes
μm) from the scats of a polar top predator, the gentoo penguin (Pygoscelis schlegelii), when exposed to PS MNPs (0.5–15μm), showed decreased mobility
papua) of Antarctica (Bird Island, South Orkney Islands, Signy Island, and swimming speed and increased ammonia excretion and dissolved oxygen

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S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

consumption, and thus the fish had impaired exploration competence and in aquaculture fish, when they are combined with feed as a supplement
hunting behavior (Yin et al., 2019). (Sayed et al., 2021). Imhof et al. (2017) exposed the freshwater crustacean,
Daphnia magna, to MNPs (40 μm) for 2 days. The adults showed altered
3.4. Toxicity of MNPs to the terrestrial biota gene expression and juveniles showed subtle alterations in morphological
traits like spine length and width. Additionally, the authors saw that the im-
In terrestrial ecosystems, fauna can be exposed to MNPs through ingestion pacts were dependent on the shape, size, and type of the MNPs, which
(active exposure) or translocation (passive exposure) (Büks et al., 2020). Pol- would be important to know in a multi-stressor environment.
linators like bees (both rural and urban hives) can accumulate and sample
MNPs from a flower's surface or nectar. For instance, a study in Copenhagen, 3.5. Data insufficiency and knowledge gaps
Denmark, identified MNPs adhered to the bodies of honeybees from 19 differ-
ent rural and urban apiaries (Edo et al., 2021). They interpreted that static There is insufficient documentation of the polymeric properties that influ-
electricity was a key factor in attracting microparticles (negatively charged) ence the environmental behavior and interactions of virgin or aged particu-
from the flowers along with the pollens toward the corbiculae (hairy recesses) late plastics. As highlighted in Fig. 2, Büks et al. (2020) aptly highlighted
on the body (positively charged) of bees. In soil, MNPs can be transported by the underrepresentation of fibrous MPs in soil-impact assessment studies,
microarthropods (collembola) (Maaß et al., 2017). Maaß et al. (2017) used and they pointed out that most studies use only PS. The authors also empha-
Folsomia candida and Proisotoma minuta (both are springtails) to observe sized that the concentrations selected in most studies were either impracti-
their interactions with PET fibers and urea-formaldehyde, when no ingestion cally high or expected only in heavily contaminated soils. Therefore,
observed. However, the particles adhered to the springtails' surface and got research on the emerging contaminants must collect environmentally rele-
translocated to the soil food web. vant data to reflect their practical impacts on the environment in which
Jiang et al. (2020) demonstrated the toxicity (histopathological and they occur. Because global documentation studies on MNPs have been
DNA damage; oxidative stress) of PS MNPs (100 nm, 1300 nm) to a popular reporting diverse sizes and shapes, analytical and sampling techniques have
vermicompost earthworm, E. fetida, and the authors observed significant been including a broader size range based on the defined limit for character-
impacts even at low concentrations (100 μg/kg). Moreover, LDPE MNPs ization (Rochman et al., 2019). Therefore, analytical techniques for faunal-
(< 400 μm) are ingested and egested (in worm casts) by E. fetida (Chen toxicity assessments must include not just the concentrations of MNPs but
et al., 2020). However, Ding et al. (2021) observed a clear avoidance be- also their shapes and sizes. However, available data for shapes and sizes are
havior by E. fetida toward MNPs [PLA, PE, polypropylene carbonate currently lacking, especially for fibrous MNPs. Tanoiri et al. (2021) developed
(PPC)] at concentrations greater than 40 g kg−1. The study reported that a 3D model for mass quantification of MNPs and highlighted the prevailing
biodegradable polymers, which also carried the same toxic additives, exclusion of shape (irregular, plate-like) as a characterization parameter.
were as toxic as the conventional PE MNPs, throwing light on the potential Hence, they described a new shape for fibrous MNPs called “artificial grass”
ecological impacts of bioplastics. After 72 h of exposure, Muhammad et al. to enhance the quantification accuracy. Kooi et al. (2021) parameterized
(2021) studied the immunological and physiological impacts of PS MNPs the environmental distribution of particle size, length, width, mass, volume,
on the silkworm, Bombyx mori. The authors observed a significant bioaccu- and area through an in-depth meta-analysis on the properties of more than
mulation of NPs in the silkworm's gut, but no accumulation of MPs, which 60,000 particulate plastics in the environment. The study highlighted the
highlighted the importance of the size of the MNPs on their ecotoxicity. need for inclusion of multidimensionality for the dose of the MNPs in order
The presence of PE and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) can modify the structure to determine their risk in the environment. MNPs indirectly impact the soil
of the soil microbiome and hinder ammonia volatilization, which, in turn, micro-, meso-, and macro-fauna by influencing the soil physical and chemical
can alter the nitrogen cycle in terrestrial ecosystems (Feng et al., 2022b). characteristics and the taxonomy and functions of the soil microbiota, which,
Prendergast-Miller et al. (2019) exposed the common soil earthworm, consequently, impairs their overall productivity (Feng et al., 2022a; Rillig and
Lumbricus terrestris, for 35 days to PS MNPs (fibers) and observed no avoid- Lehmann, 2020). As discussed above, to understand the effects of MNPs on
ance behavior or mortality, but stress levels (hsp70) (hsp70 stands for fauna, we must explore the toxicity of their additives as well. The commonly
70 kDa heat shock proteins) were increased and cast production was de- documented additives associated with different MNP polymers are listed in
creased. Similarly, Baeza et al. (2020) exposed L. terrestris to various concen- Table 1.
trations (2.5%, 5%, 7% w/w) of different MNPs (LDPE, PS, PET, PP) for 48 h
and identified MNPs from all the earthworm segments (notably in the hind- Table 1
gut), which suggested significant ingestion and no avoidance. However, ef- Overview of the major MNP polymers with their predominant additives.
fects and accumulation in the above study were more evident only at the Polymers Possible additives References
highest concentration (7% MNPs w/w), which might not reflect the practical
PS Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) Jang et al. (2017)
environmental toxicity, because the chosen concentration (7%) could be un- PP Polystyrene-b-poly Ouyang et al. (2021a)
realistically high. Coley et al. (2021) used the soil nematode, Caenorhabditis (ethylene-co-butylene)-b-polystyrene (SEBS)
elegans, as a biological model to study the acute ecotoxicity (24-hour expo- Irgafos 168 (tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) Wu et al. (2021)
sure) of primary marine MNP pellets (from 2 Colombian beaches where tour- phosphite)
PVC Dimethyl phthalates, naphthalene Bringer et al. (2021)
ists went). The pellets adsorbed co-contaminants from water and induced
Diisonyl phthalate Schrank et al. (2019)
oxidative stress, which interfered with somatic processes and reproduction. Plasticizers: dioctylphthalate esters; pigments: Allen and Edge (2021a)
Hu et al. (2018) evaluated MNPs (PP, polyester fibers and fragments) titanium dioxide, carbon black; UV-stabilizer:
from tadpoles of Yangtze River Delta in China. The types of MNPs identified lead oxide, barium or cadmium carboxylates,
in the tadpole tissues resembled the ones characterized from the water sam- organotin stabilizers, dialkyltin maleates,
barbituric or thiobarbituric acid,
ples, which showed an important link in the aquatic-to-terrestrial food
2-Benzimidazolylacetonitrile.
chain. MNPs can be ingested and transported longitudinally by anecic (deep PET Phthalimide, benzophenone, benzothiazole, Sørensen et al. (2021)
burrowing) earthworms like Lumbricus terrestris (Yu et al., 2019). The com- phthalide, tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP),
mon soil nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, showed a wide range of acute, triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), tripropyl phosphate
(TPP)
toxic responses to 13 polymers of MNPs (0.001–1% w/w), with the highest
Irgafos 168 (tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) Wang et al. (2021c)
toxicity from PET and no toxicity from PE, which suggested a key role by phosphite)
the extractable polymer additives in causing the ecotoxicity (Kim et al., HDPE Metal catalysts, halogens, calcium stearate Allen and Edge (2021a)
2020). Chlorella, lycopene, and citric acid protected the African catfish, Clarias LDPE Irgafos 168 (tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) Wang et al. (2021c)
gariepinus, from the toxicological effects of MNPs, which provided new in- phosphite)
Phenols (antioxidants), halogens, calcium stearate Allen and Edge (2021a)
sights on their potential to revert MNP-induced hematobiochemical changes

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Table 2
Available data on the purpose of the major additives and associated plastics along with their applications.
Types of Examples Purpose and Possibly associated References
additives applications polymers

Catalysts Pb, Cu, Pd, Hg, Cd (metals), zeolites Processing: To increase the Any polymer associated with packaging, Allen and Edge (2021a)
rate of polymerization recycled plastics through pyrolysis may contain
reactions traces of catalysts
Antiblocking Silica, zeolites, talc, amides To prevent sticking of plastic Plastic sheets and films (PE, PC) and synthetic Allen and Edge (2021b)
agents films rubber (PU)
Antioxidants Phenols, thioesters, amine, phosphite compounds To inhibit oxidation or Packaging materials (PE), plastics with long Zhao et al. (2020)
oxo-degradation (to delay shelf-life
weathering)
Flame-retardants Halogens (mainly bromine): To prevent ignition or All non-inflammable applications (PS, PVC, Kitahara and Nakata (2020)
Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) combustion of the polymers PMMA, polyester)
Plasticizers Esters: Glycerides, adipates, phthalates (phthalic To enhance the elasticity and All moldable applications (mainly PVC, PC) Bejgarn et al. (2015)
acid esters) or acetates, bisphenol, polyhydric plasticity of the polymers
alcohols, azelate or benzoate compound
Stabilizers Heat and light stabilizers: Metallic (Cd, Zn) salts, To prevent or delay thermal All plastics intended for outdoor applications Allen and Edge (2021b)
benzophenones, triazoles and optical fragmentation of and long-term environmental exposure (mainly
the target plastics PVC, PAN, recycled plastics)
Antimicrobial Biocides and preservatives: Sodium benzoate, To prevent microbial growth Sterile applications (PP, PET: food packaging, Strasakova et al. (2021)
compounds phenolics, potassium sorbate on the surface, to maintain laboratory consumables, disposable surgical or
surface sterility clinical items)
Compatibilizers Interfacial adhesives: reactive compounds, blending To adhere immiscible or Recycled plastics and resins (polyacrylic, Allen and Edge (2021a)
materials like terpolymers incompatible polymers PMMA), PS
Lubricants Viscous compounds like polyurea, To promote smooth flow of the Moldable or flexible plastics Tonkonogov et al. (2021)
dialkyldithiophosphoric acid, or even molebdenum molten polymers through the
molding machine
Fillers Minerals (clay or silica, carbonates), talc, sulfates To enhance the physical Fibers, composites, resins Allen and Edge (2021a)
properties
Color pigments Synthetic dyes (anthraquinones, TiO2) To induce colors to the Any colored plastic product (syntetic fibers, Allen and Edge (2021b)
polymeric products PVC, PP, PET, etc.)
Cross-linking Curing agents: amines, peroxides, silicones To increase the molecular Any flexible plastics (Rubber, PVC) and Klitting et al. (2021)
compounds stability of the polymers coatings
Anti-shrinking Low profile compounds: polyoxyalkylene alkyl To even out, smoothen or Thermoplastics, foam (PS), plastics with Allen and Edge (2021a)
agents ethers, oxygenated compounds, stearates (glycerol protect the polymeric surface distinct surface properties
monostearate)
Surfactants Sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS), To reduce surface tension Polymeric surfactants (PE, PP, acrylates) Jiang et al. (2021b)
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) through cationic or anionic
surface-active compounds

4. Types of additives and their impacts on fauna hydrophobic in nature (Kwon et al., 2017), which can enhance the hydro-
phobicity of the surface of the associated MNP particulates (Table 3), and
4.1. Sources and applications of plastic-associated additives hence can potentially increase the sorption of toxic organic compounds to
the MNPs.
Plastic polymers are known to contain more than 400 intentionally In the marine environment, the commonly identified contaminants re-
added compounds (Gunaalan et al., 2020; Mandal et al., 2020). There are sulting from MNPs are hydrophobic, organic compounds like phthalates,
various types of additives used in plastics: plasticizers; catalysts (metals); bisphenol A (BPA), nonylphenols, polybrominated diphenyl ethers
anti-blocking, antifogging, and antistatic agents; compatibilizers; diluents; (PBDE), and other antioxidants (Hermabessiere et al., 2017). Plastic-
fillers; flame retardants; surfactants; heat or light (mostly UV) stabilizers; associated chemicals are widely known to interfere with hormonal modula-
thickening, curing, and wetting agents; antimicrobials; antioxidants; phe- tion (endocrine mimics) and detoxification processes (enzyme inhibition,
nols; thixotropic compounds; and pigments (Allen and Edge, 2021a; Zhao oxidative stress) and cause apoptosis (cell death) (Liu et al., 2020b). More-
et al., 2020). The purpose of these intentional additives is shown in over, these additives are not only found in conventional plastic particulates
Table 2. The chemical origin of the major polymeric additives and their en- but also in bioplastics or biodegradable polymers. These additives are usu-
vironmental risks are outlined in Table 3. Most of the organic additives are ally not chemically bound to the plastic compounds and, hence, readily

Table 3
Overview of the sources of major polymeric additives and their environmental impacts.
Additives Chemical origin Environmental significance: Why are they hazardous? References

Plasticizers Reaction of organic acids and alcohol Esters: low molecular weight, decreases viscosity (friction): Odorless Vieira et al. (2011)
and colorless, readily ingested by organisms
Flame retardants Inorganic minerals + nitrogen, chlorine, bromine, or These compounds form a fire-preventive layer at the surface of a Jang et al. (2021)
phosphorus material: Easily leachable in the environment
Stabilizers Pb salts, acetylation or atmospheric oxidation of benzyl Prevents oxidation: Delays or prevents the degradation of plastic and Allen and Edge (2021b)
compounds bioplastic particulates in the environment
Surfactants Alkylation of fats or petrochemicals Ionizes the plastic surface: Enhances binding of MNPs to metals or Jiang et al. (2021b)
oppositely charged compounds and surfaces
Synthetic dyes and Oxidation of petrochemicals (coal tars): Traces of toxic Synthetic pigments are usually hydrophobic: Increases the Allen and Edge (2021b)
pigments inorganic and organic compounds: Hg, Cr, toluene, etc. hydrophobicity of plastic surface
Anti-shrinking agents Usually, mixtures of alkyl ethers and urea: Promotes Hygroscopic, water soluble: Easily assimilated by organisms that Allen and Edge (2021a)
(expansive additives) surface expansion and micelles to reduce cracks and ingest MNPs, makes the plastic particulates more stable in the
shrinkage environment

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S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

migrate to the polymeric surface and leach out to the environment (2016) identified marine Styrofoam debris as a potential source of
(Gunaalan et al., 2020). For instance, fluorescent pigments associated hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and flame retardants that the regional
with MNPs, which are usually toxic to aquatic algae, can easily get released fauna could be exposed to. Therefore, plastic waste in the environment
into the environment (Luo et al., 2019). Some of these additives like surfac- can transport hazardous additives or other co-pollutants in the food
tants, if released into the environment, can also aid in the transport of the chain. However, a model that Koelmans et al. (2014) developed to under-
associated MNP particles. For instance, PE and PP MNPs in water can easily stand plastic additive exposure to marine organisms through plastic particle
get suspended by their surfactant-additives like sodium dodecylbenzene ingestion showed that additive exposure by MNP ingestion was only rele-
sulfonate (SDBS) (anionic) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) vant to marine worms and not much for fish. Tracing the additives associ-
(cationic) (Jiang et al., 2021b). ated with the MNP polymers can indirectly track the MNP levels in the
The available literature on the possible impacts of different categories of environment. For instance, Kitahara and Nakata (2020) sampled road-
additives, along with the associated polymers, on fauna is shown in Table 4. dust particles of 3 Japanese cities (Tokyo, Okinawa, Kumamoto) and, inter-
The type and quantity of the additives in plastics are solely dependent on estingly, detected the same type of additives (plasticizers, flame retardants)
the nature of their applications. For instance, PVC products can contain in the dust as well as in the MNPs (PVC, PMMA, polyester) in the dust,
around 60% of additives, added in the proper proportion to impart UV sta- which implied that MNPs were the source for these additive compounds
bilization, enhanced elasticity, and other performance parameters (Lee in the urban atmosphere. Álvarez-Ruiz et al. (2021) evaluated the bioaccu-
et al., 2020a). However, migration of the additives in the environment mulation by mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, grown for 58 days with and
highly depends on the irradiation (UV and solar intensity) and the stability without PE MNPs of 20 chemical compounds, including pesticides,
of the additive (chemical structure) (Wang et al., 2021c). perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), pharmaceuticals, and personal care
MNPs can also adsorb or desorb metals (or any co-pollutant) in the en- products (PPCPs). The PE MNPs acted as a potential vector for the PFASs
vironment. For instance, pristine PLA particles can adsorb Cu(II), while sur- by inhibiting their elimination from the mussels' system, but they reduced
face biofilms and fulvic acid reduce the adsorption rate (Sun et al., 2022). the accumulation of pesticides and PPCPs.
Many factors affect the adsorption or release of additives by MNPs in the en-
vironment. Generally, pH and organic matter are proposed to be the major 4.3. Environmental interactions and toxicity of the additives
driving forces. However, Liu et al. (2019) reported salinity (NaCl, CaCl2)
played a key role in increasing the MNP (PS, PE, PVC) sorption rates of It has often been shown that the additives can be more toxic to the fauna
phthalates, and natural organic matter and pH played only a negligible than the MNPs themselves. For instance, Beiras et al. (2021) reported that
role. They interpreted that salinity triggered the effect of salting-out, polyamide (PA), PE, and PVC MNPs were harmless to plankton systems,
which decreased the solubility and separated out the dissolved organic but their interaction with their additives made them toxic to the aquatic
compounds from water, and increased their sorption to MNPs. fauna. However, the same study also suggested that a biopolymer (polyhy-
droxy butyrate: PHB) could be equally toxic (embryotoxic or teratogenic)
4.2. Additive exposure through plastic particulates when compared to the polymer-associated additives. E. fetida (red wriggler
earthworm), exposed to BPA (a known endocrine disruptor) for 28 days
When ingested by organisms, MNPs can release these additives into showed modified endocrine pathways in the male organs along with al-
their biological systems (Jang et al., 2021). For instance, Jang et al. tered gene expression (Novo et al., 2018). PS MNP-associated phenolic

Table 4
Available literature on the species-specific (individual and combined) impacts that link different classes of additives with their source polymers.
Classes of additives Source Species Impacts observed References

Pigments or colorants PU MNPs Flora: Chlorella vulgaris, a crucial Reduced photosynthetic efficiency Luo et al. (2019)
(fluorescent pigments) food source for aquatic fauna
Flame retardants (HBCD) Expanded PS Mytilus galloprovincialis (marine Significant ingestion and bioaccumulation Jang et al. (2021)
(styrofoam) mussels) PS MNPs were a potential source of HBCD intake in the Jang et al. (2016)
mussels
perfluoroalkyl substances PE MNPs M. galloprovincialis (marine MNPs inhibited the elimination of PFAS additives from Álvarez-Ruiz et al. (2021)
(PFASs) mussels) the mussels' system
Lixiviates PA, PE, PVC and PHB Planktons (Tisochrysis lutea), MNPs were harmless to the planktons, but chemical Beiras et al. (2021)
MNPs crustaceans (Acartia clausi), compounding with their additives (lixiviates) made
echinoderms (Paracentrotus lividus) them toxic (population growth, survival, reproduction).
Plasticizers PVC MNPs (flexible) D. magna (crustacean) No impacts (morphology and lifecycle changes) of PVC Schrank et al. (2019)
(diisononylphthalate) (rigid) in the absence of the additive.
Plasticizers (BPA, PTA) 19 different polymers Caretta caretta (Mediterranean Significant ingestion and accumulation in the Di Renzo et al. (2021)
loggerhead turtle) abdominal fat tissues.
Plasticizers (phthalates: DBP, Solitary ascidians (Herdmania Vered et al. (2019)
DEHP) momus, Microcosmus exasperates)
Flame retardants and stabilizers PE MNPs Fish (Myoxocephalus brandti) and Potential tissue accumulation and inflammation. Hasegawa et al. (2021)
crustaceans (Neomycis spp.)
Plasticizers (phthalates: DEHP, _ General (marine aquaculture Potential bioaccumulation risks in benthic fauna. Zhang et al. (2021c)
DnBP, DiBP) system)
Plasticizers (7 phthalates, 9 MNPs (sampled, Zooplanktons (sampled from the Alarming risk of trophic transfer. Schmidt et al. (2021)
organophosphate esters) uncharacterized) sea using manta nets)
Mainly plasticizers (mixture) 21 different polymers Copepod (Nitocra spinipes) Toxicity of the leachates increased with the source Bejgarn et al. (2015)
(mainly PVC) particle’s aging.
Plasticizers (DEHP) – Earthworm (E. fetida) Impaired total protein content, antioxidative capacity, Ma et al. (2017)
cell signal transduction
Metals: Cadmium (adsorbed PET (fibers, granules) Danio rerio (zebrafish) Inhibition of embryonic development and hatching Cheng et al. (2021)
from the environment)
UV stabilizers PE MNPs D. magna Oxidative stress, acute hepatotoxicity Na et al. (2021)
(benzophenone-3)
Flame retardants (DBDPE) _ E. fetida Impaired soil microbial activity while significant Jiang et al. (2021a)
biotransformation by the earthworms.

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S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

antioxidants, like butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), can exert a combined foam material) (Jang et al., 2017). Under simulated weathering and artificial
(PS + BHA) toxicity on the metabolism and development in juveniles of sunlight, Bejgarn et al. (2015) studied the leaching properties of twenty-one
Danio rerio (zebra fish) (Zhao et al., 2020). Schrank et al. (2019) exposed plastic products containing different polymers. They then did a toxicity assess-
D. magna to flexible and rigid PVC MNPs containing diisononylphthalate ment using a copepod (Nitocra spinipes) as the model. The authors observed
as the prominent additive. The Daphnia exposed to the flexible PVC with acute toxicity in the leachates produced by eight of the tested polymers
the additive had a changed morphology and life-history parameters, (38%). The leachate produced by PVC was a complex mixture of many chem-
while the Daphnia exposed to the rigid PVC particles with additive showed ical compounds (mainly plasticizers). The study highlighted the potential in-
no significant impact. The difference in toxicity between these two (flexible crease in toxicity through aging. DEHP can impact the total protein content,
and rigid) PVC MNPs was attributed to the presence of diisononylphthalate, antioxidative capacity, oxidative stress, and cell signal transduction of the
which suggested that the cause for toxicity was not the MNP particles them- earthworm E. fetida (Ma et al., 2017).
selves but their additives. The adsorption capacity of the MNPs is also im- PET granules and fibers entered the chorion membrane and inhibited
pacted by weathering. For instance, Wu et al. (2020) observed in an embryonic development and hatching of zebra fish (Danio rerio) (Cheng
aquatic environment that aged PP MNP particles possessed greater adsorp- et al., 2021). The PET granules and fibers also adsorbed cadmium (Cd)
tion capacity for triclosan (organic additive compound) than new, pristine from the media. In contrast to the granules (deposited in the chorion),
ones. A similar effect was observed by Luo et al. (2020a) on the adsorption PET fibers were dispersed in the culture media, and, hence, upon adsorp-
of lead chromate pigments by pristine and aged PE MNPs. However, some- tion, they decreased the Cd-toxicity inside the chorion. The study provided
times hydrophobic organic chemicals that are already being accumulated important insight into the influence of different shapes and forms of MNPs on
by fauna from the environmental media (reduced bioaccumulation with in- faunal exposure and toxicity. Zhang et al. (2021a) indicated that an important
creasing MNP ingestion) do not accumulate further through MNP ingestion additive, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), impaired the motility, growth,
(a dilution effect) (Lee et al., 2019b). photosynthesis, and glycolysis of two microalgal species (Platymonas
PE plastic bag-derived fragments, when exposed to the gastric juice of subcordiformis, Dicrateria zhanjiangensis), which are the major food source
the Japanese Medaka fish, leach out their organic additives, thus inducing for various marine consumers. Capolupo et al. (2021) exposed edible Mediter-
sublethal endocrine disruption and acute reproductive problems (Chen ranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) to leachates from different plastics
et al., 2021b). Mediterranean loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) can ingest (PVC, PP, PS, PET) and synthetic car tire rubber (CTR) for a week. They ob-
and accumulate around 19 different polymers of MNPs and additives served that different leachates (Capolupo et al., 2020) had different impacts
[mainly BPA and paraphthalic acid (PTA)] in their abdominal fat tissues and levels of toxicity on the adult mussels. The leachates (organic, metallic)
(Di Renzo et al., 2021). Two of the major filter-feeding, solitary ascidians from PVC were neurotoxic, while many others induced lipid peroxidation
(Herdmania momus, Microcosmus exasperates) in the Red Sea and the eastern and lysosomal dysfunction. The authors observed that the toxicity of the
Mediterranean region are highly susceptible to MNPs (50–540 μm) and ex- leachates from PVC (phthalide, zinc), CTR (benzothiazole, cobalt, zinc), and
posure to phthalate (Vered et al., 2019). Vered et al. (2019) found high con- PP (acetophenone, lead) was greater than those from PS and PET (antimony,
centrations of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) (6 mg/L) and bis (2-ethylhexyl) cobalt). The above study reported lower stress responses by the leachates of
phthalate (DEHP) (36 ppm) in the ascidians at almost all the sampled PS, the most studied type of MNPs in toxicity assessments, in comparison to
sites, which suggested that ascidians could be used as a potential in-situ those from PVC, PP, and synthetic rubber.
model to monitor marine MNP pollution. A recent lab-scale study has pro-
vided direct evidence for the tissue accumulation of hazardous chemical ad- 4.4. Leachability and interactions of the plastic polymers with their additives
ditives (brominated flame retardants and UV-stabilizers) in fish and
crustaceans when exposed to PE MNPs (Hasegawa et al., 2021). To understand the nature of the interactions between MNPs with their ad-
Sucharitakul et al. (2021) showed that jellyfish (both ephyra, which is the ditives and biota, there is a need to explore the interactions between MNPs
larval phase, and medusa, which is the sexual phase) can ingest PS MNPs and their additives. For instance, Na et al. (2021) observed a prominent syn-
through trophic transfer, and the uptake increased upon light incubation, ergy in the ecological risk and toxicity (lethal and sub-lethal) of PE particles
which led to increased photodegradation and potential release of additives. and their additives (benzophenone-3) on the freshwater crustacean,
Zhang et al. (2021c) identified phthalate esters in a popular marine D. magna. The study also found a higher (80 times higher) acute toxicity and
aquaculture area of Xiangshan Bay, China, and the predominant ones oxidative stress caused by MNP fragments compared to beads due to the
were DEHP, di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), and diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP). high specific surface area and shape irregularity in the fragments. MNPs mod-
The study threw light on the potential ecological risks to the predatory ified or inhibited neurotransmitters (with an impact on neurobehavior) of the
(high trophic levels) benthic fauna via bioaccumulation. Zooplankton, discus fish, Symphysodon aequifasciatus, which altered the serotonergic syn-
sand sediments, and surface water of the Northwest Mediterranean Sea apse pathways of the brain and the neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction
have been contaminated with organophosphate esters and phthalates (Huang et al., 2022). The popular vermicompost earthworm E. fetida
leached out from the plastic debris (Schmidt et al., 2021), which indicates biotransformed decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), a brominated flame re-
a large risk of trophic transfer. The available pieces of evidence are suffi- tardant, in a soil-earthworm-microbe system in China, where the authors also
cient to suggest that MNPs are bioaccumulated and biomagnified at every observed slight impacts on the soil microbial activity by DBDPE (Jiang et al.,
trophic level of the aquatic and terrestrial food chain. But whether the 2021a).
same processes apply to the MNP-associated chemicals in the ecosystem re- Even bio-based and biodegradable plastics carry toxic and leachable
main unclear (Miller et al., 2020). additive compounds. For instance, Rodgers et al. (2021) created 4 bio-
Jang et al. (2017) detected HBCD, a brominated flame retardant associ- based plastic polymers (PLA, polycaprolactone, polyvalerolactone,
ated with PS, in the marine debris across the coasts of South Korea (Asia-Pa- polypentadecalactone) through ring-opening polymerization (ROP),
cific). Interestingly, the authors found HBCD only in Styrofoam (PS)- weathered them in marine water, and identified some toxic leachates, in-
contaminated areas, which suggested that the polymeric particulates were cluding triphenylmethane (carcinogenic) and oxacyclohexadecan-2-one
their major source. The study highlighted that the reported long-range (hepatotoxic), which were comparable to those from weathering of conven-
ocean transport of PS debris occurs, which can introduce hazardous addi- tional plastics. Zhang et al. (2018) identified PS and PP MNPs (flakes) on
tives like HBCD into marine waters and the food web. Moreover, expanded the North Chinese beaches and found high concentrations of organophos-
PS MNPs (generated from Styrofoam) can bind highly toxic, dioxin-like phorus esters, like tris-(2-chloroethyl)-phosphate (TCEP), tris (1-chloro-2-
chemicals (DLCs), and then they are leached out to induce dioxin-like propyl) phosphate (TCPP), and phthalates (DEHP), in the beached MNPs.
impacts on the marine organisms (Chen et al., 2019). Being a lightweight in- Huuskonen et al. (2020) exposed PS MNPs (90 μm spheres) along with zoo-
sulator thermoplastic, expanded PS (lightweight insulating thermoplastic) plankton to whitefish, Coregonus lavaretus, and reported a positive covari-
can leach and bind more toxic chemicals than the extruded PS (conventional ance of the ingestion rate between zooplankton and MNPs, which showed

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the conflict between natural feeding and avoidance of MNPs. Seuront et al. average human being can ingest around 203 items/week of MNPs (predom-
(2021) observed that constant exposure to MNP leachates (mixture) by 4 dif- inantly PS, PP, PE, PET) via synthetic, take-away containers alone (Du et al.,
ferent species of edible, intertidal mussels (Mytilus edulis, M. galloprovinciallis, 2020). Humans are susceptible to MNP and additive exposure from various
Choromytilus meridionalis, Perna perna) reinforced one trait (byssal thread for- sources including drinking from mineral-water bottles (Welle and Franz,
mation) while others (like motility, aggregation) remained unaffected. The 2018) and by breathing air (Abbasi and Turner, 2021; Deng et al.,
study highlighted that various species might have different competitive 2021b). Upon ingestion, MNPs can induce cytotoxicity and oxidative stress,
abilities to cope with exposure to MNPs and their leachates. and they get translocated to other tissues (Rahman et al., 2021). Barboza
et al. (2020) reported the livers and muscles of 3 major, edible commercial
4.5. Characterization and analysis of MNP-associated additives fish species (Scomber colias, Dicentrarchus labrax, Trachurus trachurus) of the
Northeast Atlantic Ocean were contaminated with 7 different bisphenols
More studies need to focus on the instrumentation and analytical methods associated mainly with plastic debris, which indicates possible lifetime
for MNP-associated additives. Guedes-Alonso et al. (2021) proposed human exposure and health risks. The study showed evidence of a much
ultrasonic-assisted extraction as a sustainable method to analyze (or even re- higher hazard index (HI), estimated daily intake (EDI), and target hazard
move) endocrine-disrupting chemicals (organic additives) associated with quotient (THQ), particularly for bisphenol A, B, and E, than the norms es-
MNPs. Fikarová et al. (2019) developed a fully automated, on-line monitoring tablished by the European Food Safety Authority, which highlighted poten-
method of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to mimic real- tial health risks for consumers. The possible routes of exposure and
time additive leaching (flow method) from plastic fragments under natural implications of MNPs and additives on human health are shown in Fig. 4.
marine or freshwater settings. As discussed, all the pieces of evidence suggest MNPs are commonly detected in drinking-water treatment plants, and
that the additives associated with MNPs are often more toxic than the MNPs the predominant polymers are PE, PET, PVC, and PS (Chen et al., 2022).
themselves. Therefore, the leachability of the MNPs under environmental Song et al. (2022) developed efficient degradation processes for plastic
conditions needs to be studied, because it is an important parameter for packaging waste recycling, which decomposed packaging additives includ-
ecotoxicity assessment. Understanding the chemical composition and real- ing BPA and DEHP. However, the study mainly targeted a particular type of
time behavior of various leachable additives from the associated MNPs is a polymer (PE), and their methods might not be efficient for other plastic
herculean challenge, but in great need. Particularly, unintentionally added polymers. Mohsen et al. (2022) identified 10 different MNP polymers
compounds (during the manufacturing process) associated with environmen- from the edible organs of the sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus (both
tal MNPs are difficult to track or characterize and, hence, pose a serious, processed and live), which is a common seafood in Southeast and East Asia.
concealed threat, not just to the biota but also to humans.
5.2. Available data on human toxicity
5. Impacts on humans
In an in-vitro study, Hwang et al. (2019) assessed the impacts of PP par-
5.1. Exposure and health risks ticles (20–200 μm) on human-derived cell lines (HMC-1, PBMCs, Raw
264.7 cells), and they observed increased local, immune-response cytokines
A study in the USA reported that average American children and adults (IL-6, TNF alpha) and histamine. Virgin PS-MNPs reduced the cardiac fre-
consume around 74,000 to 113,000 MNPs every year (Cox et al., 2020). An quency of ventricular contraction in zebra fish (Danio rerio) (Dimitriadi

Fig. 4. Outline of the modes of exposure and potential implications of the MNPs to human health.

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S. Sridharan et al. Science of the Total Environment 824 (2022) 153828

et al., 2021). PS MNPs are known to be hepatotoxic, because they induce that processing of the recycled polymers requires more additives (plasti-
liver-cell apoptosis due to Ca2+ overload in the hepatocytes (Li et al., cizers: Table 2) than virgin ones. Recycling and reuse of plastic litter depend
2021d). Recently, using a model of a lipid bilayer, Fleury and Baulin on the type of polymers, the additives and pigments, and the environmental
(2021) demonstrated the mechanism of mechanical stretching upon MNP exposure of the particles. For instance, PVC plastics can be recycled into an
absorption. The experiment reported that membrane stretching was inde- efficient metal-ion adsorbent as sulfonated, hydrothermally treated
pendent of any biological, oxidative, or inflammatory reactions, even at hydrochar (Xu et al., 2022). Xu et al. (2022) sulfonated waste PVC pipes
low MNP concentrations. The study threw light on the potential of MNPs to generate hydrochar that efficiently removed Cu(II) and Cr(VI) ions. How-
to enter the lipid membranes of a cell and impair the cell machinery. The ever, the authors failed to demonstrate if the proposed treatment processes
observed membrane relaxation time was much slower than the MNP ad- to generate PVC-hydrochar released PVC MNPs into the air. As MNPs can
sorption rate, which reduced the membrane area available for biomole- contribute to the particulate-matter pollution in the air and lead to several
cules, thus increasing membrane tension, which, in turn, led to a strong health concerns (Sridharan et al., 2021b), it is important to understand the
reduction of membrane lifetime. However, the degree of such physical im- individual implications and interactions of different polymers (both biode-
pacts may differ more with the shapes and sizes of the polymers rather than gradable and conventional plastics) regarding human health. Rochman
with the polymers of the MNPs. There is a need to examine whether the tox- et al. (2019) highlighted the need to consider MNPs as a separate class of
icity of a certain plastic can be correlated with the toxicity of their additive environmental contaminants (just like flame retardants or pesticides) due
compounds. As discussed, many plastic-associated additives are known to to the diversity (from molecular structure to mechanical strength) of
be toxic to humans, but little is known about the impacts of realistic concen- these polymeric compounds.
trations of MNPs associated with their leachable additives on human Bioremediation is being proposed as a possible solution for plastic and
health. MNP waste (Zhou et al., 2022a). Microbes exposed to synthetic polymers
Modeling approaches can throw light on human exposure and associ- for a long period could develop mechanisms to utilize them as a carbon
ated toxicological impacts. Jeong and Choi (2020) developed deep- source. A well-established Japanese bacterial strain of Idionella sakaiensis
learning models (artificial neural networks) based on the established global has evolved to produce PETase enzyme to depolymerize PET (Fecker
molecular toxicity database, ToxCast™, to predict the possible mechanisms et al., 2018). The gut microbiomes of Zophobas atratus (superworms) and
of toxicity of around 50 commonly documented additives eluted from par- Tenebrio molitor (yellow mealworms) have evolved to depolymerize and
ticulate plastics. The models traced 15 potential mechanisms (predicted biodegrade PP (Yang et al., 2021a). However, knowledge on the bioremedi-
from the gene targets) including cancer, neurotoxicity, altered lipid metab- ation of MNPs remains at a basic level and is limited to a handful of poly-
olism, and inflammation. Similar approaches are needed in the future to de- mers. Therefore, the feasibility on a large scale (for example, municipal
termine if the mechanisms of toxicity of any MNP-associated additive may plastic waste treatment) of management of unsegregated polymeric waste
change with the size, shape, or age of the MNP particle. remains questionable and future research needs to address the problem.
Interdisciplinary and combined approaches are needed to find potential
5.3. Plastic waste management and human health solutions for the recycling and treatment of macroplastics and MNPs. For
instance, Zhang et al. (2021b) reported 54.70% removal of PET particles
Deme et al. (2022) stated that, in Africa, the top-down implementation from wastewater by coagulation through sweep flocculation and adsorp-
of policy on banning of single-use plastics has failed to reduce MNP pollu- tion. But the study did not address what could be done to treat the retained
tion or even manage the macroplastic waste. This is due to the extensive PET particles. For example, the retained particles can be treated with
lack of legislative acceptance and insufficient public-private partnerships. PETase producing microbes. There are unanswered questions on what addi-
Moreover, all of the global MP regulations only focus on the primary tional contaminants are present along with PET, and the degradation condi-
MPs, and they neglect the management of secondary MPs and NPs (Jiang, tions and cost efficiency, and all of these issues can be addressed by future
2018). Many countries across the world still use conventional approaches research. Recently, Wang et al. (2021b) have developed “cellulose
to manage plastic waste, which involve open dumping and incineration. cinnamate,” which is a bio-based, hydroplastic polymer with a high tensile
However, the bottom ash of incineration plants (even advanced fluidized strength (92.4 MPa) and polymer stability (16 months). Such sustainable
bed incinerators) becomes a significant source of MNPs and produces hydrosetting approaches are needed to minimize the further accumulation
around 360–102,000 particles per metric ton of non-segregated waste of non-biodegradable plastics in the environment. Moreover, the applica-
(Yang et al., 2021b). In fact, Hu et al. (2021) observed that burnt or incin- tion of natural and biodegradable additives to plastics has been proposed
erated (250 °C) PP particles, when exposed to environmental forces, pro- as a potential, sustainable solution to prevent the leaching of toxic
duced a higher (over 105 particles/kg) abundance of MNPs than did chemicals from plastic particles (Ong et al., 2021; Strasakova et al.,
natural weathering. They observed significant changes in the relative stiff- 2021). As many non-toxic plant-based extracts and phytochemicals natu-
ness, surface characteristics and chemical composition of the plastic parti- rally possess UV-shielding, anti-corrosion, antifouling, antimicrobial and
cles under artificial fire simulation (heat-treatment), and cited fire as a other functional characteristics besides being absolutely biodegradable,
potential source for MNP generation. Besides incineration, even bushfire they pose a promising replacement for synthetic coatings on bioplastics
and forest fire are a potential source for airborne MNPs (Sridharan et al., (Ong et al., 2021). However, more research is needed to enhance their effi-
2021b), which significantly enhance the generation of MNPs under exter- ciency, feasibility and shelf-life so that these biodegradable additives may
nal forces. The research on MNPs is still being mainly done by only a few become a part of sustainable solution to avert the conventional toxic
countries, including China and some developed countries (USA, England, additives.
Germany) (Qin et al., 2020a), national research on MNPs must increase in
developing countries to determine human exposure and health concerns. 7. Recommendations

6. Recent trends and prospects for future research The review has explored the available literature on the faunal
ecotoxicity of MNPs and their additives, with a focus on what makes
Pyrolysis has been suggested as a way to recycle plastic waste. Hetero- them hazardous to the fauna. The functional additives play a key role in
geneous or unsegregated plastics (high molecular weight) can be used as MNPs toxicity to the biota. Environmental age of MNPs play a key role in
a fuel or chemical feedstock. The plastic waste then is converted into usable the leachability of these additives. The majority of the studies explore
hydrocarbon products (low molecular weight), thus leading to a carbon- only the physical aspects of MNPs in regard to ecotoxicity as they are per-
efficient circular economy (Li et al., 2021c). A circular economy has been ceived to be chemically inert. However, the chemical characteristics of
proposed to be a sustainable solution to manage the plastic waste problem MNPs can play an important role in their aging, leachability and the com-
(Kumar et al., 2021; Sarkar et al., 2021). However, it is important to note bined ecotoxicity (MNPs + additives). The toxicity and leaching of MNPs

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vary, not just with the type of polymers (chemical structure), but also with nanoplastics: what are we missing? J. Hazard. Mater. 126955. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.jhazmat.2021.126955.
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Xavier, J.C., 2019. Microplastics in gentoo penguins from the Antarctic region. Sci.
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Srinidhi Sridharan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – origi- Binda, G., Spanu, D., Monticelli, D., Pozzi, A., Bellasi, A., Bettinetti, R., Carnati, S., Nizzetto, L.,
nal draft. Manish Kumar: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. 2021. Unfolding the interaction between microplastics and (trace) elements in water: a
Mahua Saha: Supervision, Writing – review & editing. M.B. Kirkham: critical review. Water Res. 117637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117637.
Bolan, N.S., Bolan, S.S., Karthikeyan, P.K., Kirkham, M.B., Kim, K.-H., Hou, D., 2020.
Writing – review & editing. Lal Singh: Supervision, Writing – review &
Chapter 5: an introduction to the chemistry and manufacture of plastics. In: Bolan, N.S.
editing, Funding acquisition. Nanthi S. Bolan: Supervision, Writing – re- (Ed.), Particulate Plastics in Terrestrial and Aquatic Environments. CRC Press, Boca
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Declaration of competing interest loids in microplastics found in regurgitated pellets of black vulture from Campeche,
Mexico. Sci. Total Environ. 801, 149674. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial inter- 149674.
Brandon, J., Goldstein, M., Ohman, M.D., 2016. Long-term aging and degradation of
ests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the microplastic particles: comparing in situ oceanic and experimental weathering patterns.
work reported in this paper. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 110, 299–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.06.048.
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Acknowledgment ture materials. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 167, 112286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.
2021.112286.
The authors are grateful to CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Browne, M.A., Niven, S.J., Galloway, T.S., Rowland, S.J., Thompson, R.C., 2013. Microplastic
moves pollutants and additives to Worms, reducing functions linked to health and biodi-
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and facilities. This represents the CSIR-NIO contribution number 6884. Ms. Büks, F., Loes van Schaik, N., Kaupenjohann, M., 2020. What do we know about how the ter-
Srinidhi sincerely acknowledges the Academy of Scientific and Innovative restrial multicellular soil fauna reacts to microplastic? Soil 6, 245–267. https://doi.org/
10.5194/soil-6-245-2020.
Research (AcSIR), CSIR-HRDG, and this work is a part of her Ph.D. thesis
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under AcSIR. study on potential effects of microplastics and additives of concern on human health. Int.
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