Fuzzy logic

Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic that deals with surement for anti-lock brakes might have several sepa-
approximate, rather than fixed and exact reasoning. Com- rate membership functions defining particular tempera-
pared to traditional binary logic (where variables may ture ranges needed to control the brakes properly. Each
take on true or false values), fuzzy logic variables may function maps the same temperature value to a truth value
have a truth value that ranges in degree between 0 and in the 0 to 1 range. These truth values can then be used
1. Fuzzy logic has been extended to handle the con- to determine how the brakes should be controlled.
cept of partial truth, where the truth value may range be-
tween completely true and completely false.[1] Further- cold warm hot
more, when linguistic variables are used, these degrees 1
may be managed by specific functions.[2]
The term “fuzzy logic” was introduced with the 1965 pro-
posal of fuzzy set theory by Lotfi A. Zadeh.[3][4] Fuzzy
logic has been applied to many fields, from control theory 0
temperature
to artificial intelligence. Fuzzy logic had, however, been
studied since the 1920s, as infinite-valued logic—notably
Fuzzy logic temperature
by Łukasiewicz and Tarski.[5]

In this image, the meanings of the expressions cold,

warm, and hot are represented by functions mapping a
1 Overview temperature scale. A point on that scale has three “truth
values” — one for each of the three functions. The verti-
Classical logic only permits propositions having a value of cal line in the image represents a particular temperature
truth or falsity. The notion of whether 1+1=2 is an abso- that the three arrows (truth values) gauge. Since the red
lute, immutable and mathematical truth. However, there arrow points to zero, this temperature may be interpreted
exist certain propositions with variable answers, such as as “not hot”. The orange arrow (pointing at 0.2) may de-
asking various people to identify a colour. The notion of scribe it as “slightly warm” and the blue arrow (pointing
truth doesn't fall by the wayside, but rather on a means of at 0.8) “fairly cold”.
representing and reasoning over partial knowledge when
afforded, by aggregating all possible outcomes into a di-
mensional spectrum. 1.2 Linguistic variables
Both degrees of truth and probabilities range between 0
and 1 and hence may seem similar at first. For exam- While variables in mathematics usually take numerical
ple, let a 100 ml glass contain 30 ml of water. Then values, in fuzzy logic applications, the non-numeric are
we may consider two concepts: empty and full. The often used to facilitate the expression of rules and facts.[6]
meaning of each of them can be represented by a certain A linguistic variable such as age may have a value such
fuzzy set. Then one might define the glass as being 0.7 as young or its antonym old. However, the great utility
empty and 0.3 full. Note that the concept of emptiness of linguistic variables is that they can be modified via lin-
would be subjective and thus would depend on the ob- guistic hedges applied to primary terms. These linguistic
server or designer. Another designer might, equally well, hedges can be associated with certain functions.
design a set membership function where the glass would
be considered full for all values down to 50 ml. It is es-
sential to realize that fuzzy logic uses truth degrees as a
mathematical model of the vagueness phenomenon while 2 Early applications
probability is a mathematical model of ignorance.
The Japanese were the first to utilize fuzzy logic for prac-
tical applications. The first notable application was on
1.1 Applying truth values the high-speed train in Sendai, in which fuzzy logic was
able to improve the economy, comfort, and precision of
A basic application might characterize sub-ranges of a the ride.[7] It has also been used in recognition of hand
continuous variable. For instance, a temperature mea- written symbols in Sony pocket computers; flight aid for

1
2 4 LOGICAL ANALYSIS

helicopters; controlling of subway systems in order to im- y))*(sigmoid(z)+sigmoid(-z)) = 1

prove driving comfort, precision of halting, and power
economy; improved fuel consumption for auto mobiles;
single-button control for washing machines, automatic
motor control for vacuum cleaners with recognition of 4 Logical analysis
surface condition and degree of soiling; and prediction
systems for early recognition of earthquakes through the
In mathematical logic, there are several formal systems
Institute of Seismology Bureau of Metrology, Japan.[8]
of “fuzzy logic"; most of them belong among so-called
t-norm fuzzy logic.

3 Example
4.1 Propositional fuzzy logics
3.1 Hard science with IF-THEN rules The most important propositional fuzzy logics are:-
Fuzzy set theory defines fuzzy operators on fuzzy sets. • Monoidal t-norm-based propositional fuzzy
The problem in applying this is that the appropriate fuzzy logic MTL is an axiomatization of logic where
operator may not be known. For example, a simple tem- conjunction is defined by a left continuous t-norm
perature regulator that uses a fan might look like this: and implication is defined as the residuum of the
IF temperature IS very cold THEN stop fan IF tem- t-norm. Its models correspond to MTL-algebras
perature IS cold THEN turn down fan IF temperature that are pre-linear commutative bounded integral
IS normal THEN maintain fan IF temperature IS hot residuated lattices.
THEN speed up fan
• Basic propositional fuzzy logic BL is an extension of
MTL logic where conjunction is defined by a contin-
There is no “ELSE” – all of the rules are evaluated, be- uous t-norm, and implication is also defined as the
cause the temperature might be “cold” and “normal” at residuum of the t-norm. Its models correspond to
the same time to different degrees. BL-algebras.
The AND, OR, and NOT operators of boolean logic ex- • Łukasiewicz fuzzy logic is the extension of basic
ist in fuzzy logic, usually defined as the minimum, max- fuzzy logic BL where standard conjunction is the
imum, and complement; when they are defined this way, Łukasiewicz t-norm. It has the axioms of basic fuzzy
they are called the Zadeh operators. So for the fuzzy vari- logic plus an axiom of double negation, and its mod-
ables x and y: els correspond to MV-algebras.
NOT x = (1 - truth(x)) x AND y = minimum(truth(x), • Gödel fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy
truth(y)) x OR y = maximum(truth(x), truth(y)) logic BL where conjunction is Gödel t-norm. It has
the axioms of BL plus an axiom of idempotence of
There are also other operators, more linguistic in nature, conjunction, and its models are called G-algebras.
called hedges that can be applied. These are generally • Product fuzzy logic is the extension of basic fuzzy
adverbs such as “very”, or “somewhat”, which modify the logic BL where conjunction is product t-norm. It
meaning of a set using a mathematical formula. has the axioms of BL plus another axiom for can-
cellativity of conjunction, and its models are called
product algebras.
3.2 Define with multiply
• Fuzzy logic with evaluated syntax (sometimes also
x AND y = x*y x OR y = 1-(1-x)*(1-y) called Pavelka’s logic), denoted by EVŁ, is a further
generalization of mathematical fuzzy logic. While
1-(1-x)*(1-y) comes from this: the above kinds of fuzzy logic have traditional syn-
tax and many-valued semantics, in EVŁ is evalu-
x OR y = NOT( AND( NOT(x), NOT(y) ) ) x OR y = ated also syntax. This means that each formula has
NOT( AND(1-x, 1-y) ) x OR y = NOT( (1-x)*(1-y) ) x an evaluation. Axiomatization of EVŁ stems from
OR y = 1-(1-x)*(1-y) Łukasziewicz fuzzy logic. A generalization of classi-
cal Gödel completeness theorem is provable in EVŁ.

3.3 Define with sigmoid 4.2 Predicate fuzzy logics

sigmoid(x)=1/(1+e^-x) sigmoid(x)+sigmoid(-x) = These extend the above-mentioned fuzzy logics by adding
1 (sigmoid(x)+sigmoid(-x))*(sigmoid(y)+sigmoid(- universal and existential quantifiers in a manner similar to
 3

the way that predicate logic is created from propositional , ¬x1 , x2 , ¬x2 and the corresponding function value
logic. The semantics of the universal (resp. existential) f (x2 ≤ ¬x1 ≤ x1 ≤ ¬x2 ) = ¬x1 .
quantifier in t-norm fuzzy logics is the infimum (resp. The task of synthesis of fuzzy logic function given in tab-
supremum) of the truth degrees of the instances of the ular form was solved in.[9] New concepts of constituents
quantified subformula. of minimum and maximum were introduced. The suffi-
cient and necessary conditions that a choice table defines
a fuzzy logic function were derived.
4.3 Decidability issues for fuzzy logic
The notions of a “decidable subset” and "recursively enu-
merable subset” are basic ones for classical mathematics 5 Fuzzy databases
and classical logic. Thus the question of a suitable ex-
tension of these concepts to fuzzy set theory arises. A Once fuzzy relations are defined, it is possible to de-
first proposal in such a direction was made by E.S. San- velop fuzzy relational databases. The first fuzzy relational
tos by the notions of fuzzy Turing machine, Markov nor- database, FRDB, appeared in Maria Zemankova’s disser-
mal fuzzy algorithm and fuzzy program (see Santos 1970). tation. Later, some other models arose like the Buckles-
Successively, L. Biacino and G. Gerla argued that the pro- Petry model, the Prade-Testemale Model, the Umano-
posed definitions are rather questionable and therefore Fukami model or the GEFRED model by J.M. Medina,
they proposed the following ones. Denote by Ü the set M.A. Vila et al. In the context of fuzzy databases, some
of rational numbers in [0,1]. Then a fuzzy subset s : S fuzzy querying languages have been defined, highlighting
→ [0,1] of a set S is recursively enumerable if a recur- the SQLf by P. Bosc et al. and the FSQL by J. Galindo et
sive map h : S×N → Ü exists such that, for every x in al. These languages define some structures in order to in-
S, the function h(x,n) is increasing with respect to n and clude fuzzy aspects in the SQL statements, like fuzzy con-
s(x) = lim h(x,n). We say that s is decidable if both s and ditions, fuzzy comparators, fuzzy constants, fuzzy con-
its complement –s are recursively enumerable. An exten- straints, fuzzy thresholds, linguistic labels and so on.
sion of such a theory to the general case of the L-subsets
is possible (see Gerla 2006). The proposed definitions Much progress has been made to take fuzzy
are well related with fuzzy logic. Indeed, the following logic database applications to the web and
theorem holds true (provided that the deduction appara- let the world easily use them, for exam-
tus of the considered fuzzy logic satisfies some obvious ple: http://sullivansoftwaresystems.com/cgi-bin/
effectiveness property). fuzzy-logic-match-algorithm.cgi?SearchString=garia
This enables fuzzy logic matching to be incorporated
Theorem. Any axiomatizable fuzzy theory is recursively into a database system or application.
enumerable. In particular, the fuzzy set of logically true
formulas is recursively enumerable in spite of the fact that
the crisp set of valid formulas is not recursively enumer-
able, in general. Moreover, any axiomatizable and com-
6 Comparison to probability
plete theory is decidable.
Fuzzy logic and probability address different forms of un-
It is an open question to give supports for a Church thesis certainty. While both fuzzy logic and probability theory
for fuzzy mathematics the proposed notion of recursive
can represent degrees of certain kinds of subjective be-
enumerability for fuzzy subsets is the adequate one. To lief, fuzzy set theory uses the concept of fuzzy set mem-
this aim, an extension of the notions of fuzzy grammar
bership, i.e., how much a variable is in a set (there is not
and fuzzy Turing machine should be necessary (see for necessarily any uncertainty about this degree), and prob-
example Wiedermann’s paper). Another open question
ability theory uses the concept of subjective probability,
is to start from this notion to find an extension of Gödel's i.e., how probable is it that a variable is in a set (it either
theorems to fuzzy logic. entirely is or entirely is not in the set in reality, but there is
It is known that any boolean logic function could be rep- uncertainty around whether it is or is not). The technical
resented using a truth table mapping each set of variable consequence of this distinction is that fuzzy set theory re-
values into set of values {0, 1} . The task of synthesis of laxes the axioms of classical probability, which are them-
boolean logic function given in tabular form is one of ba- selves derived from adding uncertainty, but not degree,
sic tasks in traditional logic that is solved via disjunctive to the crisp true/false distinctions of classical Aristotelian
(conjunctive) perfect normal form. logic.
Each fuzzy (continuous) logic function could be repre- Bruno de Finetti argues that only one kind of mathemat-
sented by a choice table containing all possible variants of ical uncertainty, probability, is needed, and thus fuzzy
comparing arguments and their negations. A choice table logic is unnecessary. However, Bart Kosko shows in
maps each variant into value of an argument or a negation Fuzziness vs. Probability that probability theory is a sub-
of an argument. For instance, for two arguments a row theory of fuzzy logic, as questions of degrees of belief
of choice table contains a variant of comparing values x1 in mutually-exclusive set membership in probability the-
4 9 SEE ALSO

ory can be represented as certain cases of non-mutually- junction and rather opposing to them the idea that the
exclusive graded membership in fuzzy theory. In that increase or decrease of the truth value of the conjunction
context, he also derives Bayes’ theorem from the concept or disjunction caused by change the truth value of one of
of fuzzy subsethood. Lotfi A. Zadeh argues that fuzzy its components can be compensated with a correspond-
logic is different in character from probability, and is not ing decrease or increase in the other. This increase or de-
a replacement for it. He fuzzified probability to fuzzy crease in truth may be offset by the increase or decrease
probability and also generalized it to possibility theory. in another component. This notion makes the CFL log-
(cf.[10] ) ical and useful. There are cases in which compensation
is not possible. This occurs when certain thresholds are
More generally, fuzzy logic is one of many different ex-
tensions to classical logic intended to deal with issues of violated and there is a veto preventing compensation.
uncertainty outside of the scope of classical logic, the Compensatory Fuzzy Logic consists of four continuous
inapplicability of probability theory in many domains, operators: conjunction (c); disjunction (d); fuzzy strict
and the paradoxes of Dempster-Shafer theory. See also order; (or) and negation (n). The conjunction is the ge-
probabilistic logics. ometric mean and its dual as conjunctive and disjunctive
operators.[12]

7 Relation to ecorithms
9 See also
Leslie Valiant, winner of the Turing Award, uses the term
“ecorithms” to describe how many less exact systems and • Adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS)
techniques like fuzzy logic (and “less robust” logic) can
be applied to learning algorithms. Valiant essentially re- • Artificial neural network
defines machine learning as evolutionary. Ecorithms and
• Defuzzification
fuzzy logic also have the common property of dealing
with possibilities more than probabilities, although feed- • Expert system
back and feed forward, basically stochastic “weights,” are
a feature of both when dealing with, for example, dynam- • False dilemma
ical systems.
• Fuzzy architectural spatial analysis
In general use, ecorithms are algorithms that learn from
their more complex environments (Hence Eco) to gener- • Fuzzy classification
alize, approximate and simplify solution logic. Like fuzzy
logic, they are methods used to overcome continuous • Fuzzy concept
variables or systems too complex to completely enumer- • Fuzzy Control Language
ate or understand discretely or exactly. See in particular
p. 58 of the reference comparing induction/invariance, • Fuzzy control system
robust, mathematical and other logical limits in comput-
ing, where techniques including fuzzy logic and natural • Fuzzy electronics
data selection (à la “computational Darwinism”) can be
• Fuzzy subalgebra
used to short-cut computational complexity and limits in
a “practical” way (such as the brake temperature example • FuzzyCLIPS
in this article).[11]
• High Performance Fuzzy Computing

• IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems

8 Compensatory Fuzzy Logic
• Interval finite element
The CFL (Compensatory Fuzzy Logic) is a branch of
• Machine learning
Fuzzy Logic. This is a new multivalent system that breaks
with traditional axioms of such systems to achieve better • Neuro-fuzzy
semantic behaviour to classical systems.
• Noise-based logic
In processes involving decision making, trade with the ex-
perts leads to obtaining complex and subtle formulations • Rough set
and requires compound predicates. The truth values ob-
tained on these compound predicates must possess sensi- • Sorites paradox
tivity to changes in the truth values of basic predicates.
• Type-2 fuzzy sets and systems
This need is met by the use of the CFL, waiving com-
pliance of the classical properties of conjunction and dis- • Vector logic
 5

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12 External links
• Formal fuzzy logic - article at Citizendium
• Fuzzy Logic - article at Scholarpedia

• Modeling With Words - article at Scholarpedia

• Fuzzy logic - article at Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
• Fuzzy Math - Beginner level introduction to Fuzzy
Logic

• Fuzzylite - A cross-platform, free open-source

Fuzzy Logic Control Library written in C++. Also
has a very useful graphic user interface in QT4.
• Online Calculator based upon Fuzzy logic – Gives
online calculation in educational example of fuzzy
logic model.
8 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text
• Fuzzy logic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy%20logic?oldid=655200038 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Tarquin, Ap, Rjstott,
Christian List, Heron, Stevertigo, RTC, Michael Hardy, Pit, Ixfd64, Eric119, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Harry Wood, AugPi, Andres, Pal-
frey, EdH, Loren Rosen, Zoicon5, Markhurd, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Omegatron, Traroth, Robbot, Academic Challenger, Rursus, Blainster,
Ruakh, Cedars, Giftlite, Zaphod Beeblebrox, Duniyadnd, Jason Quinn, Gyrofrog, Lawrennd, Quackor, Marcus Beyer, L353a1, Gauss,
Icairns, Zfr, TreyHarris, Ohka-, Clemwang, Kadambarid, Xezbeth, Mani1, Paul August, Guard, Elwikipedista, Mr. Billion, El C, Chalst,
Moilleadóir, Causa sui, Smalljim, R. S. Shaw, Nortexoid, Adrian, Abtin, Aronbeekman, JesseHogan, Mdd, Denoir, Andrewpmk, Am-
ram99, Samohyl Jan, Ajensen, Virtk0s, Oleg Alexandrov, Joriki, Velho, Woohookitty, Linas, Aperezbios, Olethros, Kzollman, Ruud
Koot, WadeSimMiser, Brentdax, Smmurphy, BlaiseFEgan, Junes, Palica, Turnstep, MC MasterChef, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Lese, Arabani,
Williamborg, Yamamoto Ichiro, FlaBot, Ultimatewisdom, Mathbot, Gurch, Intgr, Predictor, Scimitar, Chobot, YurikBot, Wavelength,
Borgx, KSmrq, Manop, Ihope127, Trovatore, Srinivasasha, SAE1962, Expensivehat, Dhollm, Ndavies2, Dethomas, EverettColdwell,
Dragonfiend, Crasshopper, S. Neuman, Brat32, CLW, Andreasdr, Paul Magnussen, K.Nevelsteen, JimBrule, Closedmouth, Arthur Ru-
bin, Scriber, LanguidMandala, Mastercampbell, Acer, Peyna, Allens, Nekura, Jeff Silvers, SmackBot, RedHouse18, Mneser, Slashme,
Shervink, Eskimbot, Sebesta, Xaosflux, Ignacioerrico, Mhss, Snespeca, Saros136, Catchpole, Thumperward, Oli Filth, Nbarth, DHN-
bot, Mladifilozof, JonHarder, JustAnotherJoe, Cybercobra, Alca Isilon, StephenReed, Ck lostsword, Evert Mouw, SashatoBot, Lambiam,
Srikeit, Kuru, T3hZ10n, Jaganath, Bjankuloski06en, Ptroen, BenRayfield, Hargle, Ace Frahm, Passino, Hu12, Iridescent, Igoldste, Bairam,
George100, Megatronium, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, Gbellocchi, Dgw, Requestion, Leujohn, Vizier, Gregbard, AndrewHowse, Rgheck,
Peterdjones, Blackmetalbaz, Omicronpersei8, Jadorno, Letranova, Thijs!bot, Lord Hawk, Saibo, Amitauti, Klausness, Seaphoto, Mdot-
ley, Vendettax, Gökhan, Kariteh, JAnDbot, Em3ryguy, MER-C, Dricherby, Typochimp, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Gerla314, Hkhan-
dan, Crunchy Numbers, Boffob, Pkrecker, Oicumayberight, Oroso, EyeSerene, Arjun01, Rohan Ghatak, Honglyshin, Andreas Mueller,
Sahelefarda, Aydos, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Maurice Carbonaro, Gurchzilla, SuzanneKn, Jchernia, Jack and Mannequin, Gerla, DASonnen-
feld, Spellcast, Babytoys, Philip Trueman, Mkcmkc, TXiKiBoT, Aylabug, Rei-bot, Atabəy, Anonymous Dissident, Fullofstars, Almadana,
LBehounek, Swagato Barman Roy, Kilmer-san, Ululuca, VanishedUserABC, Sebastjanmm, Katzmik, GideonFubar, Hypertall, SieBot,
Mathaddins, Malcolmxl5, BotMultichill, Phe-bot, Dawn Bard, Flyer22, Topher385, Panadero45, Allmightyduck, Ioverka, Cesarperma-
nente, Vanished user oij8h435jweih3, Fratrep, OKBot, Melcombe, Rabend, Jcrada, Francvs, ClueBot, Fyyer, Drmies, Cryptographic hash,
Ronaldloui, Excirial, Jbruck, Teutonic Tamer, Qwfp, Vansskater692, JHTaler, Cnoguera, Gerhardvalentin, PeterFisk, Avoided, Addbot,
Paper Luigi, DOI bot, Betterusername, LaaknorBot, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Wireless friend, Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, Fraggle81, H11,
Legobot II, ArchonMagnus, SparkOfCreation, Gelbukh, AnomieBOT, Felipe Gonçalves Assis, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Riyad parvez, Lynx-
oid84, Flewis, Materialscientist, 90 Auto, Citation bot, Diegomonselice, ArthurBot, Pownuk, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Jbbyiringiro, Grim23,
Mechanic1c, Maddie!, J04n, Pickles8, False vacuum, Aiyasamy, Charvest, T2gurut2, Kingmu, Drwu82, Sector001, FrescoBot, Mark
Renier, Spirographer, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Elockid, Tinton5, Skyerise, C2math, Lars Washington, Alarichus, Gryllida, Serpent-
dove, Lbhales, Callanecc, ISEGeek, Chronulator, TankMiche, VernoWhitney, BertSeghers, Digichoron, EmausBot, Faolin42, ThornsCru,
H3llBot, Tolly4bolly, Labnoor, Donner60, Eulenreich, Tijfo098, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Sfgrieco, Loopy48, ScottSteiner, Widr, Help-
ful Pixie Bot, Anidaane, Repep, Alex E. Clarke, Sqzx, Drift chambers, Sn1per, M.r.ebraahimi, Colbert Sesanker, Xca777, Flaminchimp,
Diglio.simoni, ShashankSharma2511, Barakafrit, Illia Connell, Керен, Aklnih, Suraduttashandilya, Jochen Burghardt, Funnyperson22,
Phmresearch, , Eknigge, Pdecalculus, Jumpulse, Zsoftua, Maple2013, Julaei, RudiSeising, Wangbo66653, Jptvgrey, Bilorv, Monkbot,
Gregusmihai, ‫בשלני‬, Renates45, Dexalkaline, Sairp, Mrityunjaykr02, TranquilHope, William Zachary Runyon, Brewstoo, Analplays, Aan-
gell123, Mcconnellsc58, Sigma.4292, SocraticOath, Charlottecourtleeds and Anonymous: 447

13.2 Images
• File:Acap.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Acap.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work
Original artist: F l a n k e r
• File:Brain.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_
brain.png License: GPL Contributors: http://www.loria.fr/~{}rougier Original artist: Nicolas Rougier
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Fuzzy_logic_temperature_en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Fuzzy_logic_temperature_en.svg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: original (gif): Image:Warm fuzzy logic member function.gif Original artist: fullofstars
• File:Logic_portal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Logic_portal.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contrib-
utors: Own work Original artist: Watchduck (a.k.a. Tilman Piesk)
• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?

13.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0