VIH

Clinical Infectious Diseases
MAJOR ARTICLE
Primary Care Guidance for Persons With Human

Immunodeficiency Virus: 2020 Update by the HIV Medicine
Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America
Melanie A. Thompson,1,a Michael A. Horberg,2,a Allison L. Agwu,3 Jonathan A. Colasanti,4 Mamta K. Jain,5 William R. Short,6 Tulika Singh,7 and
Judith A. Aberg8
1
AIDS Research Consortium of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 2Mid-Atlantic Permanente Research Institute, Kaiser Permanente Mid-Atlantic Permanente Medical Group, Rockville, Maryland,
USA, 3Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, 4Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA,
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5
Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA, 6Division of Infectious Diseases, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, 7Internal Medicine, HIV and Infectious Disease, Desert AIDS Project, Palm Springs, California, USA, and 8Division of Infectious Diseases, Mount Sinai Health
System, New York, New York, USA
Advances in antiretroviral therapy (ART) have made it possible for persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to live a near
expected life span, without progressing to AIDS or transmitting HIV to sexual partners or infants. There is, therefore, increasing em-
phasis on maintaining health throughout the life span. To receive optimal medical care and achieve desired outcomes, persons with HIV
must be consistently engaged in care and able to access uninterrupted treatment, including ART. Comprehensive evidence-based HIV
primary care guidance is, therefore, more important than ever. Creating a patient-centered, stigma-free care environment is essential for
care engagement. Barriers to care must be decreased at the societal, health system, clinic, and individual levels. As the population ages and
noncommunicable diseases arise, providing comprehensive healthcare for persons with HIV becomes increasingly complex, including
management of multiple comorbidities and the associated challenges of polypharmacy, while not neglecting HIV-related health con-
cerns. Clinicians must address issues specific to persons of childbearing potential, including care during preconception and pregnancy,
and to children, adolescents, and transgender and gender-diverse individuals. This guidance from an expert panel of the HIV Medicine
Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America updates previous 2013 primary care guidelines.
Keywords. HIV primary care; HIV care engagement; HIV monitoring; HIV comorbidities; sexually transmitted infections.
Although substantial inequities exist by region and popula- must be an overarching priority of HIV primary care. Ensuring
tion, with continuous engagement in high-quality human im- stigma-free, culturally appropriate, and patient-centered care
munodeficiency virus (HIV) care and uninterrupted access experiences is essential to maximize care engagement, treat-
to antiretroviral therapy (ART), people with HIV now have ment adherence, and viral suppression. While ART has be-
the possibility of an expected life span that approaches that come more potent, less toxic, and simpler, other aspects of
of persons not living with HIV, free of opportunistic diseases HIV care have become increasingly complex as people with
and without horizontal transmission to partners or vertical HIV live longer and experience increased comorbidities
transmission to infants [1–4]. Ending the HIV epidemic, across the life span, requiring additional attention to issues
however, has proven challenging in the United States, with associated with aging with HIV [6–10]. Recommendations
only 59.8% of those aware of their HIV diagnosis achieving that are affected by age are noted throughout this guidance.
viral suppression, and even lower rates among African- Noncommunicable diseases, including metabolic compli-
Americans, Hispanic/Latinos, transgender women, persons cations, require guidance for prevention and management,
aged 13–24 years, persons who inject drugs (PWID), and particularly as the population ages. Persons of childbearing
those who live in the South [5]. Identifying and overcoming potential, children, adolescents, and transgender and gender-
barriers to care engagement and continuous ART, therefore, diverse individuals experience unique clinical challenges. As
ever-increasing numbers of people are living with HIV and
require both HIV-specific and primary medical care, the need
Received 8 September 2020; editorial decision 9 September 2020; accepted 11 September
2020; published online 6 November 2020.
for updated recommendations necessitated this update to the
a
Co-chaired the HIV Primary Care Guidance Panel. 2013 HIV Primary Care Guidelines from the HIV Medicine
Correspondence: M. A. Horberg, Kaiser Permanente Mid-Atlantic Permanente Medical
Association (HIVMA) of the Infectious Diseases Society of
Group and Care Management Institute, 2101 East Jefferson Street, 3 East, Rockville, MD 20852
(michael.horberg@kp.org). America (IDSA) [11]. “People First” language that places
Clinical Infectious Diseases® 2021;73(11):e3572–605 the person before the disease is used in this document to ac-
© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press for the Infectious Diseases Society
knowledge the dignity of people with HIV, and gender-neu-
of America. All rights reserved. For permissions, e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.
DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciaa1391 tral language is used, where appropriate.
e3572 • cid 2021:73 (1 December) • Thompson et al

METHODS can fully anticipate these changes. In general, recommenda-
Panel Composition
tions from the most current versions of guidelines should be
Participants on the panel are HIVMA members who are experts followed.
in the care of persons with HIV and who volunteered to partic-
ipate. Two co-chairs (M. A. T. and M. A. H.) with experience in I. OPTIMIZING CARE ENGAGEMENT, MEDICATION
ADHERENCE, AND VIRAL SUPPRESSION
developing guidelines and guidance led the expert panel.
Recommendations
Literature Review, Analysis, and Consensus Development of Evidence- 1. All persons with HIV should be provided timely access to
based Recommendations routine and urgent primary medical care, including ap-
The expert panel conducted a literature review to iden- proaches to expand access such as extended/weekend hours
tify new contributions to the field from the date of the last or telehealth.
guideline publication in 2013/2014 to December 2019, except 2. HIV care sites should make every effort to provide care in a
where noted in the literature cited. Panel members respon- way that is linguistically and culturally appropriate.

sible for each section evaluated the evidence and developed 3. HIV care sites should implement programs that incor-
recommendations accordingly. The entire panel reviewed porate evidence-based and evidence-informed interven-
all recommendations, and decisions on final recommendations shown to improve HIV care engagement and viral
tions were made by consensus, based on the evidence. The suppression.
full panel participated in reviewing and editing the final doc- 4. HIV care sites should use a multidisciplinary model but
ument. A medical writer contributed to copy editing and identify a primary clinician for each patient and support
formatting prior to submission. the development of trusting long-term, patient–clinician
relationships.
Conflicts of Interest
All members of the panel complied with the IDSA policy on Evidence Summary
conflicts of interest, which requires disclosure of any financial The long-term effectiveness of ART is dependent on durable
or other interest that might be construed as constituting an ac- suppression of viral replication. Clinicians should emphasize
tual, potential, or apparent conflict. Members of the panel were that adherence to antiretrovirals not only improves the patient’s
provided with the IDSA’s conflict of interest disclosure state- health but prevents HIV transmission to others [12–16].
ment and asked to identify ties to companies that develop prod- Undetectable = Untransmittable messaging is welcomed and
ucts that might be affected by promulgation of the guidance. encouraged by communities with HIV and should be part of
Information for panel members and spouses was requested re- routine messaging in the clinic as a means to mitigate stigma.
garding employment, consultancies, stock ownership, honor- The primary reason for treatment failure, particularly among
aria, research funding, expert testimony, and membership on patients who take initial regimens, is suboptimal adherence to
company advisory committees. The panel made decisions on a care or treatment regimens [17, 18]. Adherence to care not only
case-by-case basis as to whether an individual’s role should be means medication adherence but also medical visit attendance
limited as a result of a conflict or potential conflict. No limiting and continual engagement in care [19, 20]. Low adherence to
conflicts were identified. visits and poor engagement in care have been found to predict
approximately 50% higher mortality among persons with HIV
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE PRIMARY CARE OF [21]. Thus, it is critically important that HIV care providers
PERSONS WITH HIV
and clinics have evidence-based and evidence-informed strat-
While these recommendations seek to provide optimal medical egies to effectively engage and assist patients in staying in care
care for persons with HIV, establishing a relationship of trust [22]. Drivers of poor treatment adherence are many and in-
should guide the structure of the medical visit, the order of as- clude inconsistent access to medications (eg, inability to afford
certainment of medical information, and the delivery of care medications, limited pharmacy hours, requirements to pick
and treatment. For persons who experience stigma and discrim- up prescription refills monthly), structural societal barriers
ination, optimal care outcomes are dependent on a stigma-free (eg, inadequate transportation; health system barriers to en-
and welcoming care environment. Attention to other barriers gagement; food or housing insecurity; stigma and discrimina-
that impact care engagement and continuous ART access is es- tion based on HIV status, race, and ethnicity; gender identity;
sential for successful outcomes. sexual orientation; disability; immigration status), clinic level
Many recommendations throughout this document refer to barriers (eg, stigmatizing or discriminatory language or prac-
other guidelines, with the recognition that these sources evolve tice by office staff or clinicians, restrictive hours, inaccessible
over time and that no single primary care guidance publication location, lack of an effective patient–clinician relationship),
HIV Primary Care Guidance • cid 2021:73 (1 December) • e3573

and patient-level barriers (eg, mental health and substance use critical to shaping clinical programs that prioritize access and
issues, pill fear, pill fatigue, stigma) [23–28]. Additionally, the care engagement.
postpartum period is a time when a high proportion of women Components that could provide a foundation for individual
are lost to follow-up, and these populations warrant dedicated care engagement programs include social engagement programs,
programs to assist with care engagement [29]. All of these fac- reminders around the clinic about the importance of retention,
tors must be considered when designing systems to improve patient navigation (eg, enhanced personal contacts), financial
care engagement. incentives, nutrition assistance, coordination with public health
A national expert panel in which HIVMA and IDSA par- surveillance data, and mobile health (mHealth) platforms that
ticipate has developed HIV quality-of-care performance met- leverage mobile devices to better engage patients [53–58]. Intake
rics [30]. These metrics are endorsed by the National Quality assessments and ongoing assessments of barriers to care should
Forum and the Center for Medicare & Medicaid Services and include social and economic factors such as stigma, violence, so-
have been adopted by many care organizations. Importantly, cial support, food insecurity, unstable housing, and transportation
mortality decreases when performance measures are met [31]. challenges. Lack of adequate food or safe housing can impact the

With few exceptions (such as in cases of cryptococcal men- ability to remain adherent to a treatment regimen and even in-
ingitis or tuberculosis), there is no reason to delay initiation of crease risk of death [59]. Early assessment by a qualified social
ART among newly diagnosed or ART-naive populations who worker or case manager is essential, and ongoing access to effec-
desire therapy. Ideally, patients should be initiated on ART on tive case management teams is necessary [60–62].
the day of diagnosis or as soon thereafter as feasible [32]. It
is clear that eliminating barriers to care engagement leads to II. INITIAL EVALUATION AND IMMEDIATE
shorter times to viral suppression, and there is increasing ev- FOLLOW-UP FOR PERSONS WITH HIV
idence that patients engaged through rapid entry programs Recommendation
have excellent retention and viral suppression upon longer- 5. A comprehensive present and past medical history that in-
term follow-up [33–38]. Rapid ART initiation approaches are cludes HIV-related information, medication/social/family
endorsed by the Department of Health and Human Services history (Tables 1 and 2), review of systems, and physical ex-
(DHHS) Adult and Adolescent Antiretroviral Guidelines Panel, amination (Table 3) should be obtained for all patients upon
International Antiviral Society–USA Antiretroviral Panel, and initiation of care, ideally at the first visit or, if not feasible, as
New York Department of Health AIDS Institute [39, 40]. Long soon as possible thereafter. In particular, in settings of rapid
waiting time for an initial appointment for HIV care has been ART initiation, clinicians may initially truncate parts of the
shown to be one predictor of failure to engage in care [40–42]. comprehensive history and physical and provide a more tar-
The quality of the patient–provider relationship is often geted exam but with close follow-up to complete the essential
cited as one of the most important factors in care engagement. and more comprehensive assessment. As many patients will
Having a provider with whom the patient feels comfortable and not be able to recall details of prior treatments and laboratory
can communicate effectively and honestly is key to developing results, medical records should be requested and reviewed,
this type of relationship [26, 43–45]. The multidisciplinary and the current medical record updated accordingly. Baseline
care model for care coordination often helps patients remain laboratory assessments should be obtained at the initial visit
in care, identifies unmet care needs, and improves adherence (Table 4).
to medications [46–49]. Having an HIV team that includes a
case manager, social worker, or staff with similar responsibilities Family Medical History
and skills has been shown to enhance adherence to care and en- A family medical history has become more important now that
gagement [50]. Other team members may include physicians, persons with HIV are living longer and are at increased risk
HIV clinical pharmacists, nurses, nurse practitioners, physician for age- and sex-specific conditions in addition to HIV- and
assistants, mental health professionals, social workers, health treatment-related complications. Clinicians should ask about
educators, patient navigators, and nutritionists. Culturally and family history of conditions that might predispose them to
linguistically competent care is critical to successfully engage malignancies, neurologic diseases, osteoporosis, and athero-
and retain patients in care. A broad range of components, from sclerotic disease and whether there is a family history of early
having staff of the same race, culture, or lifestyle to having coronary heart disease.
art and reading material in the clinic that reflects the culture
of the local community, may be useful in facilitating this goal Social History
[51, 52]. Dedicated attention to tailored programs that facilitate Clinicians should ask how the patient is coping with the diag-
care engagement is an essential component of effectively caring nosis of HIV, whom they have informed of their HIV status,
for persons with HIV. Ensuring the meaningful involvement and what support they have been receiving from family and
of people with HIV in program design and implementation is friends. If needed, patients should be offered assistance with the

Table 1. Initial Assessment: History of the Present Illness and Human Immunodeficiency Virus–specific History
History of the present illness

• Initial questions should focus on establishing rapport, putting the patient at ease, and ascertaining the patient’s primary reason for the visit, if not
simply to establish the patient in HIV care
• Assess the patient’s level of knowledge about HIV treatment and prevention, evaluate educational needs, and determine what ancillary and so-
cial support might be necessary (ideally, in collaboration with effective case management)
• If not previously treated with ART, assess the patient’s readiness to begin ART immediately, including on the day of the first visit if feasible
• If previously but not currently on ART, assess the patient’s readiness to reinitiate ART immediately, including on the day of the first visit if feasible
and if adequate information is available to choose an appropriate regimen
• Assess the need for assistance with social services, such as housing, transportation, and food access, and involve support staff early if appro-
priate
HIV-specific history
• Approximate date of HIV diagnosis
• Approximate date of HIV acquisition, which can sometimes be determined on the basis of prior negative test results, occurrence of symptoms
suggestive of acute retroviral infection, or timing of activities that may have resulted in exposure

• Prior HIV care
• Nadir CD4 cell count and highest viral load
• Current and past exposure to antiretroviral drugs
◦ Use of pre- or postexposure prophylaxis (including medications and date of last use)
◦ ART for prevention of perinatal transmission
◦ Prior antiretroviral treatment
• Drug regimens taken and HIV RNA level while on those regimens
• Duration of therapy
• Reasons for changing regimens (eg, virologic failure, tolerability, simplification) and adherence challenges
• Past medical record review (request records if not available)
◦ Results of all prior resistance testing
• Prior HIV-associated conditions
◦ Opportunistic infections and/or malignancies according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stage 3 definition
◦ Other HIV-related conditions (eg, thrush)
People who currently inject drugs
• Current drug-use practices
• Source of needles and needle-sharing practices
Abbreviations: ART, antiretroviral therapy; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus.
disclosure process. Work and educational histories should be Section VIII for further discussion of transgender and gender-
discussed, including whether these have been affected by the diverse health.
diagnosis of HIV. Other pertinent information includes insur-
ance issues, financial status, marital and family status, and plans Allergies and Medications
for having children. A discussion of allergies and intolerances should include ques-
It is critical to obtain a sexual history in an open, nonjudg- tions about hypersensitivity reactions to antibiotics and ART.
mental manner, asking about past and current practices [69]. Clinicians should ask about all current medications, including
Counseling and education should focus on attaining viral sup- dietary or herbal supplements, some of which have been shown
pression for optimal personal health and elimination of HIV to interact with ART. All prior ART regimens, including years
transmission to sexual partners (including education that Und of use, prior side effects, and reasons for switching, should be
etectable = Untransmittable), and risk reduction for other sex- recorded. It is also important to assess prior adherence to medi-
ually transmitted pathogens. Clinicians should ask about part- cations and document viral loads while on each regimen.
ners, sexual practices (including all exposure sites, condom and
contraceptive use), past sexually transmitted infections (STIs), Review of Systems
HIV status of partner(s), and whether the patient has informed The review of systems should be comprehensive and include
their partner(s) of their HIV status. Laws vary from state to questioning about common HIV-related symptoms (see Table 3).
state regarding the obligation of healthcare providers to notify Patients should be questioned about how their current weight
sex partners, and clinicians should be aware of laws in their own compares with their baseline, along with a dietary assessment.
jurisdiction. All clinicians should familiarize themselves with Depression is common among people with HIV, especially
basic discussions about gender identity, including communi- women, and the review of systems should include questions
cation about appropriate pronouns, and fundamentals of care that focus on changes in mood, libido, sleeping patterns, appe-
for transgender and gender-diverse individuals [70]. Please see tite, concentration, and memory. As part of the initial evaluation

Table 2. Other Medical and Surgical History
Comorbidities: current or past chronic medical conditions that might affect the choice of therapy or response to therapy
• Prior and present gastrointestinal disease
• Liver disease, including viral hepatitis
• Cardiovascular disease and risk factors, including hyperlipidemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking
• Osteopenia or osteoporosis
• Kidney disease
• History of receipt of blood products, organ transplant, or tattoos
Other past medical conditions that may have implications for persons with HIV
• History of chicken pox or shingles, measles
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis illness, exposure, treatment; prior testing or treatment for latent tuberculosis
• STIs, including syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes simplex, trichomoniasis, chancroid, HPV
• Abnormal anal cytology; past anorectal disease including warts, fissures
Gynecologic and obstetric history

• Past pregnancies and plans for future pregnancy; history of artificial insemination by an unidentified donor
• Birth control practices
• Last cervical Pap test, abnormal Pap test ever, colposcopy, loop electrosurgical excision procedure, biopsy (cone/knife)
• Menstrual history
• Other gynecologic conditions including pelvic inflammatory disease
Mental health history, current and past
• Previous or current psychotherapy and medication treatment
• Anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, depression, violent behavior
• Suicidal, homicidal ideation; history of hospitalization due to mental health issues
• History of trauma, including sexual and physical abuse, intimate partner and other violence; post-traumatic stress disorder (with apprecia-
tion for the sensitive nature of these inquiries and the emotional responses they may elicit)
Current or past use of psychoactive substances
• Tobacco including e-cigarettes; years of use and estimate of cumulative exposure
• Cannabis and cannabinoids (including vaping)
• Vaping (regardless of substance)
• Alcohol use: quantify weekly/monthly use
• Stimulants, including methamphetamine, cocaine, crack cocaine
• Opioids
• Other nonprescription drugs
• Misuse or overuse of prescription drugs
• Other substances primarily used with sex (amyl nitrate [poppers], erectile dysfunction drugs)
• Past injection drug use (regardless of substance used); history of needle sharing; hospitalizations related to injection drug use
Past hospitalizations, surgical procedures, transfusions or blood product receipt, especially during 1975–1985 or outside United States/Canada
Immunization status (obtain from past medical records if possible)
• Childhood vaccination including for measles, mumps, rubella
• Hepatitis A and B
• HPV
• Influenza
• Meningococcus
• Pneumococcus—13 valent and 23 valent
• SARS CoV-2
• Varicella zoster
• Tetanus/diphtheria or tetanus/diphtheria/pertussis
• Travel vaccinations
Travel and residential history pertinent to endemic infectious diseases that may be reactivated (eg, histoplasmosis [Ohio and Mississippi River
valleys] or coccidioidomycosis [southwestern deserts])
Pediatric
• Maternal obstetric and birth history
• Exposure to perinatal antiretrovirals
• Exposure to infectious diseases
• Growth and development
Family medical history
• Diabetes
• Early heart disease: myocardial infarction in a first-degree relative before the age of 55 years in male relatives and before the age of
65 years in female relatives
• Hypertension
• Hyperlipidemia

Table 2. Continued
• Cancer
Social history
• Race and ethnicity
• Gender identity and sexual orientation; pronouns
• Patient birthplace, residence, and travel history
• Employment history
• Incarceration history
• Education history
• Financial support
• Children: ages, plans for having children in the future; HIV status of children
• Pets
• Diet and exercise
• Sexual history: types of activity including partners and practices; sexual exposure sites; STI prevention including condom use; past STIs;

prior preexposure prophylaxis use
• Marital/relationship status
◦ Partner(s) health and HIV status
◦ Partner(s) access to healthcare, including HIV testing (if appropriate)
◦ Disclosure of HIV status to partner(s)
• Social support and participation in support groups
• Disclosure history: friends, family, work colleagues
• Access to stable housing, food, transportation
• For minors, review legal guardianship and consent/assent
Medications
• Current medications, including over-the-counter medications, supplements
• Use of complementary or alternative therapy or treatment
Allergies and intolerance: dates and types of reactions, including hypersensitivity reactions to antiretroviral therapy
Healthcare maintenance and preventative health screenings (as appropriate)
Dates of last
• Mammogram
• Bone density
• Colonoscopy
• Abnormal aortic aneurysm screening
• Dental visit
• Dilated eye exam
Abbreviations: HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HPV, human papillomavirus; STI, sexually transmitted infection.
and at periodic intervals thereafter, providers should assess the (eg, dorsocervical fat pad, gynecomastia, or visceral abdominal
presence of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and fat accumulation) and/or lipoatrophy (eg, loss of subcutaneous
sexual or physical abuse, including domestic violence, by means fat in the face, extremities, or buttocks). All adult patients with
of direct questions or validated screening tools (Patient Health advanced HIV disease (CD4 cell count <50 cells/µL) as well as
Questionnaire-9 [PHQ-9] and Generalized Anxiety Disorder infants and young children with profound immunodeficiency
2-item [GAD-2]) [71, 72]. Persons with HIV have high rates of should be referred to an ophthalmologist for a dilated
adult sexual and physical abuse and of childhood sexual abuse. funduscopic examination. Though persistent generalized lym-
phadenopathy is common among untreated persons with HIV,
Physical Examination it does not correlate with prognosis or disease progression.
A complete physical examination should be performed at the However, focal or rapidly progressive lymphadenopathy may
initial encounter or as soon afterward as possible. In addition require further evaluation, including biopsy. Additionally, if
to recording all vital signs (including height and weight), head lymphadenopathy does not quickly resolve with initiation of
circumference should be measured in children aged <3 years ART, diagnostic studies should be pursued. Neurology and/or
and plotted against standard growth curves. Furthermore, de- neuropsychology referral for assessment of neurocognitive dis-
velopmental assessment is important in infants and children. orders, dementia, and focal neuropathies may be indicated [73,
Older persons should be assessed for frailty. For all patients, the 74]. Cervical motion and uterine or adnexal tenderness on bi-
overall body habitus should be assessed, looking for evidence of manual pelvic examination suggest pelvic inflammatory disease
wasting, obesity, or, particularly in patients who have received and should prompt STI testing. An anorectal examination is im-
older ART regimens, evidence of drug-related lipohypertrophy portant to evaluate for anal warts, other STIs, and anal cancer,

Table 3. Initial Assessment—Review of Systems and Physical Examination
Review of Systems Physical Examination
A complete review of systems with special attention to the areas listed A complete physical examination should be performed, with special attention
below: to the following areas:
• General: unexplained weight loss or gain, night sweats, fever, changes in • Vital signs: including height and weight
body habitus
• Skin: discoloration, rash, ulcers, or lesions • General: including body habitus, evidence of obesity, wasting, lipodystrophy,
assessment of frailty, and ambulatory ability
• Lymph nodes: localized or generalized enlargement of lymph nodes • Skin: seborrheic dermatitis, ecchymoses, purpura, petechiae, Kaposi
sarcoma, herpes simplex or zoster, psoriasis, molluscum contagiosum,
onychomycosis, folliculitis, condylomata, cutaneous fungal infections,
acanthosis
• Eyes: vision change or loss • Lymph nodes: generalized or localized lymphadenopathy
• Mouth: gum disease, ulcers, oral lesions, or pain • Eyes: retinal exudates or cotton wool spots, hemorrhages, pallor, icterus
• Cardiopulmonary: chest pain, palpitations, wheezing, dyspnea, orthopnea • Cardiovascular: heart exam, peripheral pulses, presence/absence of edema

or bruits
• Gastrointestinal: odynophagia, dysphagia, diarrhea, nausea, pain • Chest: lung examination
• Endocrinology: symptoms of hyperglycemia, thyroid disease, hypogon- • Breast: nodules, nipple discharge
adism
• Neurologic and psychiatric: persistent and severe headaches, memory • Abdomen: hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, masses, tenderness
loss, loss of concentration, depression, apathy, anxiety, mania, mood
swings, lower extremity paresthesias, pain, or numbness, paralysis or
weakness, cognitive difficulties, dizziness, seizures, sleep disorders
• Genitourinary: dysuria, urethral or vaginal discharge or lesions, hematuria • Genitourinary: ulcers, warts, chancres, rashes; gynecologic exam including bi-
manual exam, discharge; if born male: testicular exam; evaluation for hernia
• Orthopedic: hip pain, joint pain, fractures, diagnosis of or risk factors for • Anorectal: ulcers, warts, fissures, internal or external hemorrhoids, masses,
osteopenia/osteoporosis Kaposi sarcoma; prostate exam when appropriate
• Anorectal: anal discharge, rectal bleeding, rectal itching, pain or fullness in • Neuropsychiatric: depression, mania, anxiety, signs of personality disorder,
anal area difficulties in concentration, attention, memory, signs of dementia, speech
problems, gait abnormalities, focal deficits (motor or sensory), lower ex-
tremity vibratory sensation, deep tendon reflexes
• Developmental milestones: for infants and young children assess for
motor or speech delays
with screening for prostate abnormalities if born male (as age Evidence Summary
appropriate). Clinicians should be familiar with the current CDC HIV testing
algorithms and interpretation of results based on algorithm and
Baseline Laboratory Evaluation assays used [75, 76]. Confirming an HIV diagnosis is especially
A number of initial laboratory studies are indicated upon pre- important in patients who are asymptomatic and have a normal
sentation with a new HIV diagnosis or for persons who reengage CD4 cell count and an undetectable or very low viral load. In
in care (see Table 4). Other tests may be indicated depending addition, patients may present to care with misinformation re-
on the age and sex of the patient and/or symptoms. In settings garding previous test results.
where rapid initiation of ART is possible, it is important to ob-
tain baseline laboratory tests. However, ART initiation need not CD4 Cell Counts and Percentages
Recommendations
be delayed until results are received, including for HIV RNA,
CD4 cell count, resistance testing, and safety assessments. The 7. A CD4 cell count with percentage should be obtained upon
absence of results for human leukocyte antigen subtype B*5701 initiation of care.
(HLA B*5701), genotype, and hepatitis B surface antigen will 8. Measurement of the CD8 cell count and the ratio of CD4 cells
influence the choice of antiretrovirals for rapid initiation. HIV to CD8 cells are unnecessary, as the results are not used in
diagnosis should be ascertained, preferably using rapid testing clinical decision-making.
with a fourth-generation antigen/antibody test if results of HIV
screening are not available for review.
Evidence Summary
HIV-Specific Tests for All Persons With HIV and HIV Screening The initial CD4 cell count is used to stage HIV infection,
Recommendation to help establish the risk of specific HIV-associated compli-
6. Patients who have no documentation of their HIV status cations, and to determine the need for prophylaxis against
or who were tested anonymously should have an HIV an- opportunistic infections. It is important that the clinician
tigen/antibody screening test performed upon initiation of and patient be aware of the substantial variation in CD4 cell
care. counts, especially during acute illness. CD4 cell counts may be

Table 4. Recommended Initial Laboratory Screening and Other Studies in Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Test Comment(s)
HIV-specific tests for all persons with HIV

HIV antigen/antibody testing If written evidence of diagnosis not available or if viral load low or undetectable
CD4 cell count and percentage Assess need for OI prophylaxis
Plasma HIV RNA polymerase chain reaction (HIV Establish baseline and monitor viral suppression
viral load)
HIV resistance testing Baseline genotype for protease inhibitor, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, nucleoside/nucle-
otide reverse transcriptase inhibitor mutations for persons who have never initiated therapy or who are
reengaging in care and not on therapy or with inconsistent access to therapy. INSTI genotype is recom-
mended only if suspicion for INSTI mutation transmission.
HIV-related tests in select patients
Coreceptor tropism assay If use of C-C motif chemokine receptor 5 antagonist is being considered
Human leukocyte antigen subtype B*5701 If use of abacavir is being considered

Other laboratory tests
Complete blood cell count with differential Assess for anemia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia
Alanine aminotransferase, aspartate Assess for evidence of liver damage, hepatitis, or systemic infection (eg, elevated alkaline phosphatase
aminotransferase, total bilirubin, alkaline phos- with some OIs)
phatase
Total protein and albumin High total protein common with untreated HIV infection due to increased immunoglobulin fraction sec-
ondary to B-cell hyperplasia. Low albumin may indicate nutritional deficiency or nephrotic syndrome.
Electrolytes, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine Assess kidney function. Use creatinine to calculate estimated glomerular filtration rate.
Lipid profile and blood glucose; hemoglobin A1c Fasting not needed for initial lipid and glucose assessment; if abnormal, repeat fasting. Hemoglobin A1c
should be measured prior to ART initiation but is not used for diagnosis of diabetes in those on ART
[63–65].
Urinalysis Assess for evidence of proteinuria, hematuria
Screening for coinfections
Gonorrhea, chlamydia Nucleic acid amplification testing with sites based on exposure history (eg, urine, vaginal, rectal, oropha-
ryngeal; 3 site testing preferred for all patients)
Trichomoniasis In all persons who have vaginal sex
Syphilis Using local protocol (either rapid plasma regain or treponemal-specific antibody tests)
Latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculin skin test or IGRA; IGRA preferred if history of BCG vaccination
Varicella virus Anti-varicella IgG if no known history of chicken pox or shingles
Viral hepatitis A, B, and C HBsAg, HBsAb, HBcAb, HCV antibody; HAV total or IgG antibody. If HBsAg+, or HBcAb+, order HBV
DNA level; if HCVAb+, order HCV RNA level and HCV genotype. Screen for hepatocellular carcinoma
for all adult patients with cirrhosis and noncirrhotic patients with chronic HBV for an extended period
[66, 67].
Measles titer Adequate evidence of immunity includes being born in the United States before 1957, written documen-
tation of adequate vaccination, or serologic evidence of immunity [68]. Persons born in the 1960s may
have been vaccinated with a vaccine other than MMR and may have waning immunity. Patients may
opt to receive a booster MMR vaccine rather than check serology.
Tests that may be performed under certain circumstances
Chest radiography For patients with evidence of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Consider in patients with un-
derlying lung disease for use as comparison in evaluation of future respiratory illness.
Cytology: cervical and/or anal Pap test Cervical; anal if indicated. Abnormal results require follow-up with colposcopy or high-resolution anoscopy.
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase Screen for deficiency in appropriate racial or ethnic groups to avoid use of oxidant drugs including dap-
sone, primaquine, sulfonamides
Pregnancy test in persons of childbearing potential Pregnancy status is required to inform choice of ART and discussions about conception in persons of
childbearing potential
Serum testosterone level In cisgender males with fatigue, weight loss, loss of libido, erectile dysfunction, or depression or who
have evidence of reduced bone mineral density. Morning free testosterone preferred. See Section IV
for management of hypogonadism.
Tests that are not recommended for general screening purposes
HSV IgG, CMV IgG, toxoplasma IgG, biomarkers of In asymptomatic persons, routine testing for all persons is not recommended for HSV, CMV, and toxo-
inflammation plasma. Biomarkers of inflammation are not recommended. Toxoplasma IgG and cryptococcal antigen
should be obtained in the context of suspicion for clinical disease. Toxoplasma IgG may be obtained in
patients for whom prophylaxis is indicated. CMV IgG may be considered if blood transfusion is contem-
plated in a person at low risk for CMV exposure. A negative CMV IgG may support use of CMV-free
blood products.
Serum cryptococcal antigen in persons with CD4 cell Serum cryptococcal antigen may be considered for persons with CD4 cell count <100/mm3
count ≥100/mm3
Abbreviations: ART, antiretroviral therapy; BCG, Bacillus Calmette–Guérin; CMV, cytomegalovirus; HAV, hepatitis A virus; HBcAb, HBsAb, Hepatitis B core antibody; HBsAg, hepatitis B
surface antigen; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HCVAb, Hepatitis C antibody, HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HSV, herpes simplex virus; IgG, immunoglobulin G; IGRA,
interferon-γ release assay; INSTI, integrase strand transfer inhibitor; MMR, measles mumps rubella; OI, opportunistic infection.

affected by a variety of medications and intercurrent illnesses, Evidence Summary
so caution should be applied when interpreting CD4 cell Drug-resistant HIV can be transmitted from one person to
counts during these situations. Although the absolute CD4 cell another; however, this is currently less common with INSTIs
count is the number most often used in clinical practice, the [78]. The purpose of baseline genotypic resistance testing
CD4 cell percentage can also be used to assess immune func- is to assess for transmitted resistance that would compro-
tion and is somewhat less variable than the absolute count. mise the initial ART regimen. Currently, DHHS ART guide-
Total CD4 cell counts of 200 and 500 cells/µL generally corre- lines recommend baseline genotypic resistance testing for
spond to CD4 cell percentages of 14% and 29%, respectively. PI, NRTI, and NNRTI mutations for all persons beginning
In children aged <5 years, there is more variability in the ab- treatment [32]. A modeling study has suggested that, for pa-
solute CD4 cell count; therefore, CD4 percentage is generally tients starting bictegravir or dolutegravir-based triple-drug
preferred for monitoring immune status [77.] regimens, baseline genotype testing offers minimal clinical
benefit in persons newly diagnosed with HIV [79]. Lack of
Plasma HIV RNA Levels genotypic testing, however, limits the regimens that may be

Recommendation prescribed, including 2-drug regimens such as dolutegravir/
9. A quantitative HIV RNA (viral load) level should be obtained lamivudine fixed-dose combination, or other combinations
upon initiation of care. in which resistance to one drug would result in functional
monotherapy. In persons who reengage in care and who have
Evidence Summary
been off therapy for 4 or more weeks, resistance mutations
The initial HIV RNA level defines the patient’s baseline so
may be absent due to lack of selective pressure rather than
that response to therapy can be measured. The US Food and
absence of resistance, and results should be interpreted with
Drug Administration (FDA) has approved several viral load
this in mind [32].
assays for clinical use. Clinicians should be aware of changes
Patients who take a failing antiretroviral regimen (HIV
in the type of assay used, the associated variability, and differ-
RNA >200 copies/mL) should undergo resistance testing to
ences in interpretation of results between assays. Thresholds
guide interventions in order to improve viral control. In addi-
for lower limits of detection for the most commonly used
tion, those with prior ART history, quantifiable viral load >200
assays range from 20–50 copies/mL. Viral load should be
copies/mL, and no prior documentation of resistance results
measured during the initial evaluation of the untreated pa-
should undergo resistance testing.
tient upon establishing care or when a patient reengages in
Routine baseline testing for resistance to integrase inhibi-
care. Viral suppression is defined as a viral load persistently
tors is not currently recommended because of the low fre-
below the level of quantification of the assay; however, the
quency of transmitted resistance. However, that may change
threshold for prevention of HIV sexual transmission is con-
with the increasing use of integrase inhibitors in clinical prac-
sidered to be <200 copies/mL [32].
tice. Baseline integrase genotypes should be considered in pa-
HIV Resistance Testing tients who have evidence of transmitted reverse transcriptase
Recommendations or protease mutations or in patients who may have acquired
10. Patients should be assessed for transmitted drug resist- HIV infection from an individual known to have been taking
ance with a genotype assay for protease inhibitor (PI), an integrase inhibitor–based regimen [79, 80].
nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI),
and nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) mu- HIV-related Tests in Select Patients and Coreceptor Tropism Assay
tations upon initiation of care. Recommendation
11. Resistance testing should be obtained for patients who 14. Tropism testing should be performed if the use of a C-C
reengage in care and who are currently not on ART or who motif chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) antagonist is being
have not had consistent ART access, recognizing that the considered.
absence of resistance mutations does not guarantee the ab-
sence of resistance when no selective pressure is present. Evidence Summary
12. Resistance testing, including for integrase strand transfer Coreceptor tropism testing is needed to determine which pa-
inhibitor (INSTIs), if appropriate, is indicated for patients tients are appropriate candidates for therapy with a CCR5 an-
who are experiencing virologic failure to guide modification tagonist [32]. CCR5 antagonists should not be used in patients
of ART and should be performed while the patient is on the with X4- or dual/mixed-tropic (D/M) virus. The use of a CCR5
failing ART regimen or within 4 weeks of discontinuing the inhibitor in this population could increase the risk of virologic
ART regimen. failure and resistance to the other drugs in the regimen. Tropism
13. If transmitted INSTI resistance is suspected, genotypic screening may fail to detect X4 or D/M virus present at very
testing for INSTI resistance should be obtained. low levels, and patients may experience treatment failure with

CCR5 antagonists because of the presence of preexisting X4 or declined with more effective ART [81, 82]. A calculated creat-
D/M virus not detected by the tropism assay. Routine tropism inine clearance or eGFR should be obtained to further assess
testing is not recommended prior to initiation of other regi- baseline renal function. The eGFR assists in prescribing anti-
mens because of cost and lack of demonstrated benefit. Patients retroviral agents and other commonly used medications that
who exhibit virologic failure while taking a CCR5 antagonist require renal dosing. Clinicians should be aware that some
may also be considered for tropism testing. medications such as cobicistat, dolutegravir, and trimethoprim
may affect creatinine secretion and elevate serum creatinine
HLA B*5701 without affecting renal function [83]. A screening urinalysis
Recommendations
for proteinuria should be considered at initiation of care and
15. HLA B*5701 testing should be performed before initiation
annually thereafter, especially in patients who are at increased
of abacavir therapy.
risk for developing kidney disease (eg, black patients; those
16. Patients who are positive for the HLA B*5701 haplotype
with CD4 cell counts <200 cells/µL or viral loads >4000 copies/
are at high risk for abacavir hypersensitivity reaction and
mL; and those with diabetes mellitus, hypertension, or hepa-

should never be treated with abacavir (this should be noted
titis C virus [HCV] coinfection) [32]. Patients with proteinuria
appropriately in the medical record).
of grade ≥1 by dipstick analysis or reduced kidney function
Evidence Summary
should be referred to a nephrologist for consultation and should
Screening for the HLA B*5701 haplotype is recommended in undergo additional studies, including quantification of protein-
patients being considered for abacavir therapy in order to iden- uria, renal ultrasound, and possible renal biopsy. Screening for
tify those who are at high risk for the abacavir hypersensitivity glucose intolerance and diabetes mellitus is recommended be-
reaction [32]. A negative test result does not rule out the pos- cause of the increased prevalence in this population [84]. In
sibility of a hypersensitivity reaction but makes it extremely young children, fasting blood studies are more problematic
unlikely. Patients who have negative test results should still be because of feeding schedules, and clinicians may obtain fasting
counseled about a hypersensitivity reaction before being treated levels when nonfasting levels are abnormal [77]. The lipid pro-
with abacavir. If HLA B*5701 screening is not available or the file is important because of high rates of cardiovascular disease
patient declines testing, it is reasonable to initiate abacavir with in this population and the importance of managing risk fac-
appropriate counseling and monitoring for symptoms or signs tors. Additionally, several antiretrovirals affect lipid levels (see
of a hypersensitivity reaction [32]. Section IV).
Laboratory Tests to Assess Safety and General Health Screening for Coinfections and Screening for STIs
Recommendations Rates of STIs have increased substantially in the United States
17. A complete blood count with differential white blood cell since 2014, and screening rates have been found to be suboptimal
count, chemistry panel with calculated creatinine clearance (or in clinical care settings [85]. All clinicians who care for persons
estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR]) and glucose level, with HIV should implement CDC STI screening and treatment
and urinalysis should be obtained upon initiation of care. guidelines as appropriate for their populations [86]. CDC also
18. Because many antiretroviral drugs, HIV infection itself, and provides detailed recommendations for quality STI clinical serv-
host factors are associated with increased cholesterol and ices in primary care and STI specialty settings [87]. Persons diag-
triglyceride levels, a lipid profile should be obtained upon nosed with an STI should be encouraged to inform partners in
initiation of care and repeated fasting, if appropriate. order to decrease further transmission. Expedited partner therapy
(EPT), that is, the delivery of STI treatment directly to sexual part-
Evidence Summary
ners by the person diagnosed with an STI, should be considered.
Anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia are common
among persons with untreated HIV. The complete blood count Chlamydia, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis
also is used to calculate the absolute CD4 cell count. A chem- Recommendations
istry panel (including electrolytes, glucose, creatinine, blood 19. Persons with HIV should be screened for gonorrhea and
urea nitrogen, total protein, albumin, total bilirubin, aspartate chlamydia infection at initial presentation. Screening should
transaminase, and alanine transaminase) is an important tool include all sites of contact (oral, anal, urethral [urine], and
to assess renal and hepatic function and to look for evidence of vaginal). Those found to have gonorrhea or chlamydia
preexisting liver injury or hepatitis. on initial screening should be treated and rescreened in
Kidney function is abnormal in up to 30% of persons with 3 months because of high reinfection rates.
untreated HIV, and HIV-associated nephropathy is a relatively 20. All persons who have receptive vaginal sex should be
common cause of end-stage renal disease, especially in black screened for trichomoniasis at entry into care. Those found
persons with HIV, although both rates and mortality have to have trichomoniasis on initial screening should be

treated and rescreened in 3 months because of high reinfec- confirmatory test [89, 90]. Biologic false-positive rapid plasma
tion rates. regain and Venereal Disease Research Laboratory test results
are generally of low titer (ie, <1:8). Expert opinion varies on
Evidence Summary the need for lumbar puncture in neurologically asymptomatic
persons with HIV and syphilis. There is a higher incidence of
Screening and treatment for chlamydia, gonorrhea, and cerebrospinal fluid abnormalities when the nontreponemal test
trichomonas should follow CDC STI guidelines [86]. Many result is positive at a high titer (ie, ≥1:32) or when the CD4 cell
STIs (often known to patients as sexually transmitted diseases count is ≤350 cells/µL, regardless of syphilis stage. Persons with
[STDs]) are asymptomatic. Screening for gonorrhea and chla- syphilis should be treated according to CDC guidelines [86].
mydia at all sites of sexual contact (oral, anal, genital [urine])
is recommended for all persons with HIV upon presentation to Latent Tuberculosis
Recommendations
care, regardless of sex. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs)
24. Upon initiation of care, persons living with HIV without
have the highest sensitivity for detecting gonorrhea, chlamydia,

a history of tuberculosis or a prior positive tuberculosis
and trichomoniasis and are preferred at all sites of contact, but
screening test should be screened for Mycobacterium tuber-
conditional on the clinical laboratory being Clinical Laboratory
culosis infection using either a tuberculin skin test (TST) or
Improvement Amendments–certified for the assay at each site
an interferon-γ release assay (IGRA). Those with positive
of testing. Vaginal swabs in women and urine in men are the
test results should be treated for latent M. tuberculosis infec-
preferred specimens for genital testing with NAATs. Other spe-
tion after active tuberculosis has been excluded.
cimens (eg, urethral swabs, endocervical swabs) are also appro-
25. Persons with HIV who are close contacts of persons with
priate. Whenever a person has received a diagnosis of a specific
infectious tuberculosis should be treated for latent M. tu-
STI for which there is curative treatment, immediate therapy
berculosis infection regardless of their TST or IGRA results,
should be given according to CDC guidelines. Sexual contacts
age, or prior courses of tuberculosis treatment; active tuber-
should be evaluated and presumptively treated, including use
culosis should be excluded first.
of EPT if allowed. All patients treated for gonorrhea and chla-
mydia or trichomoniasis should be retested 3 months later be-
cause short-term reinfection rates are high. Evidence Summary
All persons with HIV should be tested for M. tuberculosis in-
Syphilis
Recommendations
fection using TST or IGRA upon initiation of care [32, 85,
21. All patients should be screened for syphilis upon initiation 91]. A TST or IGRA should be performed any time there is
of care. concern of a recent exposure. For those with CD4 cell count
22. A lumbar puncture should always be performed for pa- ≤200/µL, testing should be repeated after the CD4 cell count
tients with a reactive syphilis serology who have neurologic increases to >200 cells/µL following initiation of ART. For a
or ocular symptoms or signs, irrespective of past syphilis person with HIV, induration of >5 mm by TST is considered
treatment history. a positive result and should prompt chest radiography and
23. A lumbar puncture should be performed in patients other evaluation, as warranted, to rule out active tuberculosis
who experience serologic treatment failure (ie, whose [92]. Annual testing should be considered for those who have
nontreponemal titers fail to decline 4-fold after stage- negative results by TST or IGRA but are at ongoing risk for
appropriate therapy or whose titers increase 4-fold if re- exposure [85, 93]. Routine cutaneous anergy testing is not
infection is ruled out). recommended because of lack of standardization of reagents
and poor predictive value and because prophylaxis provided
Evidence Summary to anergic persons has been shown to prevent few cases of
Serologic testing for syphilis should be performed at baseline. tuberculosis [94]. The QuantiFERON-TB Gold test, the
Between 2013 and 2017, the annual rate of reported primary QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-tube test (Cellestis Limited), and
and secondary syphilis increased 72.7%. Although the highest the T-SPOT TB test (Oxford Immunotech) are approved by
rates are in men who have sex with men and transgender the FDA as aids for detecting latent M. tuberculosis infection.
women, there was a 155.6% increase among women. Among A large meta-analysis suggests that IGRAs perform similarly
women and heterosexual men with primary or secondary to TST when identifying persons with HIV with latent tuber-
syphilis, methamphetamine, injection drug, and heroin use culosis infection [95]. However, prior vaccination with BCG
doubled during 2013–2017 [88]. Syphilis testing can be done vaccine may result in a positive TST result; whereas there is
by traditional algorithm or reverse-sequence algorithm. Both less cross-reactivity with IGRA. IGRAs that are reported as
treponemal and nontreponemal tests should be followed by a weakly positive should be repeated, as follow-up testing may

be negative. The CDC states that use of an IGRA is preferred immune to HAV and HBV should be immunized according to
over TST in patients with a history of BCG vaccination and in ACIP guidelines (see Section III).
patients with a low likelihood of returning to have their skin HCV RNA should also be measured in persons who are HCV-
test read. Advanced immunosuppression may be associated seronegative with a history of injection drug use or with unex-
with false-negative results in all types of immunologically plained increased serum transaminases because approximately
based tests used for detection of M. tuberculosis infection. 3%–6% of persons with HIV/HCV coinfection do not develop
The routine use of IGRA in children, especially those aged HCV antibodies [67]. The rate of mother-to-infant HCV trans-
<5 years, is currently not recommended due to limited data mission is up to 3-fold higher among women with HIV, ac-
and some evidence of lower sensitivity. cording to multiple studies [100]. Infants can be tested for HCV
RNA after age 2 months or for HCV antibody after age 18 months
Hepatitis A, B, and C [101]. All persons diagnosed with HCV should be offered cura-
Recommendations tive treatment. Eradication of HCV reduces but does not elimi-
26. Persons with HIV should be screened for evidence of hepa- nate the risk of HCC in persons with cirrhosis; therefore, ongoing

titis B virus (HBV) infection upon initiation of care by de- HCC screening in this group is warranted. Screening for HCC is
tection of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), hepatitis B recommended in all patients with cirrhosis due to hepatitis B or
surface antibody (HBsAb), and antibody to hepatitis B total C or other nonviral etiologies (ie, alcohol use, fatty liver disease)
core antigen (anti-HBc or HBcAb). If HBsAg is positive, [102].
HBV viral load should be ordered.
27. Persons with HIV should be screened for evidence of im- Measles, Mumps, and Rubella
munity to hepatitis A virus (HAV) with HAV immuno- Recommendations
globulin G (IgG). 31. All persons with HIV born in 1957 or after should be tested
28. Persons with HIV should be screened for HCV antibody for immunity to measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) by
upon initiation of care. If positive, HCV RNA should be or- measuring antibodies.
dered to assess for active HCV infection. Curative therapy 32. MMR vaccine should be given to protect against measles,
should be offered to all who are diagnosed with HCV. mumps, and rubella if persons were born in 1957 or after
29. Infants born to persons with HBV and/or HCV should be and have not received this vaccine or do not have immunity
tested for HBV and HCV transmission. to these infections.
30. Persons who are not immune to HAV and HBV should
Evidence Summary
be immunized according to Advisory Committee on
In 2019, 1282 individual cases of measles were confirmed in 31
Immunization Practices (ACIP) guidelines. Please see
states, the largest number of cases reported in the United States
Section III for further discussion.
since 1992 [103]. The majority were among people not vaccin-
ated against measles. Acceptable evidence of immunity against
Evidence Summary measles includes at least 1 of the following: written documen-
Screening and prevention of HAV, HBV and HCV are critical tation of adequate vaccination, laboratory evidence of immu-
in the management of HIV [96]. Persons with HIV who have nity, laboratory confirmation of measles, or birth in the United
HBV and/or HCV coinfection should be managed according to States before 1957 [68, 104].
published guidelines [85, 97, 98]. Hepatitis A vaccination is es-
pecially important in persons with unstable housing, for PWID, Varicella Zoster Virus
for men who have sex with men, for those with current or prior Recommendation
incarceration, and for those with chronic liver disease due to 33. Serologic screening for varicella zoster virus (VZV) may be con-
recent outbreaks in certain communities [99]. Prevaccination sidered for persons who have not had chicken pox or shingles
screening for HAV infection is cost-effective when there is a se- and who have not been previously vaccinated (see Section III).
roprevalence of >30% in the patient population [66]. Because
Evidence Summary
of worse outcomes for persons with HIV and HBV coinfection,
It is advisable to determine anti-varicella IgG levels for patients
persons with HIV who also have HBV should be adequately
who are unable to give a history of chicken pox or shingles [105,
treated for HBV [32]. Because many persons with HIV may
106].
be treated with tenofovir-based ART that also suppresses HBV,
stopping ART may result in a flair of HBV. Persons with HBV are Tests That May Be Performed Under Certain Circumstances: Chest
at higher risk for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) even in the Radiography
absence of cirrhosis. Screening for HCC in persons with HBV Recommendation
should be conducted according to the American Association 34. A baseline chest radiograph should be obtained in all per-
for the Study of Liver Diseases guidelines [97]. Persons not sons with HIV who have a positive tuberculosis screening

test result in order to rule out active tuberculosis. It may also infection remains a major risk factor for the development of
be useful in other patients who are likely to have preexisting cervical dysplasia and invasive cervical cancer. HPV acquisition
lung abnormalities. occurs through sexual transmission. The majority of infections
are transient and resolve without intervention or treatment.
Evidence Summary HPV, specifically oncogenic strains (16,18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51,
Persons with HIV are susceptible to a variety of pulmonary 52, 56, 58, and 59), may persist, a necessary but not sufficient
complications. PWID are especially likely to have radiographic step in the development of cervical dysplasia and ultimately
abnormalities that may be mistaken for infiltrates. A radiograph cervical cancer.
obtained at baseline in persons with a history of pulmonary di- The Pap and HPV tests are the principal components of
sease may be useful for comparison in the evaluation of future screening. The Pap test should be performed with liquid-based
respiratory complaints [107–109]. cervical cytology to improve reliability and should be re-
ported according to the Bethesda system [112]. Cervical cancer
Cervical Cancer Screening screening can be performed by cytology alone or, for those aged

Recommendations
>30 years, cytology may be combined with HPV testing. HPV
35. Persons with a uterus and who are aged <30 years should
testing can detect oncogenic HPV types in clinical specimens.
have a cervical Pap test performed within 1 year of the
Some commercially available tests specify HPV subtype in-
onset of sexual activity but not later than age 21 years.
cluding HPV 16 and/or 18. The Pap results should include a
Persons with HIV aged between 21 and 29 years and who
statement on specimen adequacy and a general categorization
have a uterus should have a cervical Pap test at diagnosis,
(negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy, epithelial cell
if not performed within the last year. Routine human
abnormality, or other), and those reported as unsatisfactory for
papillomavirus (HPV) testing is not recommended for
evaluation should be obtained again.
women with HIV aged < 30 years, unless the Pap test is
abnormal. Anal Cancer Screening
36. Persons with a uterus and who are aged >30 years should Recommendation
have a cervical Pap test performed at diagnosis. A Pap 39. Persons with a history of receptive anal intercourse or ab-
test alone or in combination with HPV testing can be normal cervical Pap test results and all persons with genital
performed. warts should have an anal Pap test if access to appropriate
37. Persons with atypical squamous cells of unknown referral for follow-up, including high-resolution anoscopy,
significance on cytology or negative cytology with posi- is available.
tive high-risk HPV (HRHPV) may have the Pap smear re-
peated in 1 year or should undergo colposcopy. If the Pap Evidence Summary
test shows negative cytology but HRHPV 16 or 18, atypical Persons with HPV are at increased risk for anal dysplasia and
squamous cells and cannot rule out high-grade squamous cancer. Currently, there are no national screening guidelines for
intraepithelial lesion (ASC-H), atypical glandular cells, the use of anal Pap tests. HPV-related anal dysplasia is seen at
low-grade or high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion, a lower frequency among heterosexual men. If anal cytologic
or squamous carcinoma noted by Pap testing, the patient screening using an anal Pap test is performed and indicates atyp-
should undergo colposcopy and directed biopsy, with fur- ical or abnormal cells, then high-resolution anoscopy should
ther treatment as indicated by results of evaluation. be performed with biopsy of abnormal areas and appropriate
38. Following hysterectomy for benign disease, routine therapy based on biopsy results [85, 113]. Access to appropriate
screening for vaginal cancer is not recommended for per- referral and follow-up is necessary if anal Pap screening is per-
sons with HIV. Those with a history of high-grade Cervical formed. See Section III for discussion of HPV immunization.
intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) adenocarcinoma in situ or
invasive cervical cancer should be followed with annual va- Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase
Recommendation
ginal cuff Pap tests.
40. Screening for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
(G6PD) deficiency is recommended before starting
Evidence Summary therapy with oxidant drugs such as dapsone, primaquine,
Cervical cancer screening is an essential component of care or sulfonamides in patients with a predisposing racial or
for all persons with HIV who have a uterus. Patients with HIV ethnic background.
are at a greater risk for cervical cancer than the general pop-
ulation, especially those with low CD4 cell counts. However, Evidence Summary
despite this association, the impact of ART on cervical dys- G6PD deficiency is a genetic condition that may result in he-
plasia and cervical cancer remains uncertain [110–111]. HPV molysis after exposure to oxidant drugs. Black individuals and

men from the Mediterranean, India, and Southeast Asia have So-called direct free testosterone (analogue) assays are unreliable
higher risk for these genetic variants. Dapsone, primaquine, and should not be used. If a diagnosis of hypogonadism is estab-
and sulfonamides are often used to treat persons with HIV and lished, measurement of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimu-
can lead to hemolysis in the presence of G6PD deficiency [114]. lating hormone is recommended to determine whether the source
of dysfunction is primary (testicular) or central (pituitary or hy-
Pregnancy Testing pothalamic) in origin. Hypogonadism should be treated by clin-
Recommendation
icians familiar with monitoring patients on androgen replacement
41. All persons of childbearing potential should have a preg-
therapy (see Section IV).
nancy test upon initiation of care or reengagement in
care.
Tests Not Recommended for General Screening Purposes
Recommendations
Evidence Summary
44. Routine testing for herpes simplex virus (HSV) IgG, cyto-
The pregnancy status of all persons of childbearing potential
megalovirus (CMV) IgG, toxoplasma IgG, and biomarkers
should be assessed at the initial visit. In addition, the intent to

of inflammation is not recommended.
have children, intent or ability to use consistent birth control, and
45. Testing for serum cryptococcal antigen may be considered in
timing of potential conception should be discussed. Although pre-
persons with CD4 cell count <100 cells/mm3 or in symptomatic
liminary data suggested that neural tube defects were associated
patients.
with dolutegravir use during conception, updated data found the
small increase was not statistically significant [115]. The DHHS
Evidence Summary
perinatal guidelines provide ART recommendations for pregnant
Routine screening for HSV is not recommended [118]. Routine
individuals [116]. The DHHS ART guidelines provide recom-
screening for CMV IgG is not generally useful because CMV se-
mendations for individuals who are planning to conceive or those
roprevalence is extremely high and generally not actionable [85].
unable to use reliable contraception [32] (see Sections III and IV).
Testing for CMV IgG may be considered, however, if blood trans-
fusion is contemplated in a person at low risk for CMV exposure.
Serum Testosterone Level
Recommendations The identification of seronegativity would prompt the use of CMV-
42. Morning serum testosterone levels are recommended in adult negative or leukocyte-reduced blood products when transfusions
cisgender men with decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, re- are needed, thus reducing the risk of iatrogenic infection. Testing
duced bone mass or low trauma fractures, hot flashes, or sweats. for toxoplasmosis should be reserved for patients with advanced
43. Obtaining testosterone levels in women at baseline in immunodeficiency with suggestive clinical findings or if prophy-
nonresearch settings is not recommended. laxis is being considered. Testing for serum cryptococcal antigen
may be considered in persons with CD4 cell count <100 cells/
Evidence Summary mm3. There are no data supporting the use of inflammatory bio-
Cisgender men with HIV, especially those with advanced disease, markers for risk assessment of comorbidities [119].
are at risk for hypogonadism. Interpretation of testosterone values
must be made in clinical context, as all currently available assays
(including measures of total, free, and bioavailable testosterone) III. ROUTINE HEALTHCARE MAINTENANCE
are associated with technical issues that may result in significant CONSIDERATIONS FOR PEOPLE WITH HIV
variability. Testing should be performed on a specimen obtained Effective HIV primary care requires regular health mainte-
in the morning (ideally before 10:00 AM) and confirmed with nance in addition to HIV monitoring, including HIV RNA viral
repeat testing if the result is below the lower limit of normal. load testing (Table 5).
Recommendations differ regarding the optimal assay to use for
initial testing in the setting of HIV. Because testosterone circu- HIV-specific Monitoring Following the Initial Assessment
lates primarily bound to plasma proteins (including sex hor- Recommendations
mone–binding globulin and albumin), if total testosterone is 46. After initiation of ART, HIV RNA should be rechecked after
used for initial testing, a determination of sex hormone–binding 2 to 4 weeks but no later than 8 weeks and then every 4
globulin and/or free testosterone is strongly recommended when to 8 weeks until suppression is achieved. Afterward, viral
alterations of binding proteins are suspected (eg, patients with load should be monitored every 3 to 4 months to confirm
cirrhosis and hepatitis, hyper- or hypothyroidism, nephrotic syn- maintenance of suppression below the limit of assay de-
drome). Free testosterone may be obtained by equilibrium dialysis tection. This interval may be prolonged to every 6 months
(most reliable but most expensive) or determined using the free for adherent patients whose viral load has been suppressed
online testosterone calculator, developed by the Hormonology for more than 2 years and whose clinical and immuno-
Department, University Hospital of Ghent, Belgium [117]. logic status is stable. Viral load should be monitored more

Table 5. Routine Healthcare Maintenance for People With Human Immunodeficiency Virus After Initial Assessment
Intervention Recommendation Comments
HIV-specific monitoring
HIV RNA Should be performed every 4–6 weeks after initiation of ART until
<50 copies/mL and then every 3–4 months. In patients with
consistent viral suppression and stable CD4 cell count for more
than 2 years, can be measured every 6 months [32].
CD4 cell count Every 3–6 months for the first 2 years after starting ART, or if
viremia develops, or if CD4 cell count <300/mm3. If CD4 cell
count 300–500/mm3 and HIV RNA suppressed for 2 years,
can be measured every 12 months. If CD4 cell count >500/
mm3 and HIV RNA suppressed for 2 years, measurement is
optional [32].
Screening for mental health and substance use issues
Depression screening Perform at least annually and when clinically appropriate Use standard depression screening tool such as Personal Health

Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) or Generalized Anxiety Disorder 2-iterm
(GAD-2) [71, 72]
Substance use screening General messages regarding risk reduction should be provided at
all healthcare encounters, regardless of risk behaviors reported
by the patient or perceived risk on the part of the healthcare
provider. Such messages can be delivered by the provider, by
others in the healthcare setting, or via educational materials (eg,
pamphlets, posters, and videos) in the healthcare setting.
Screening for and monitoring of metabolic disorders (also see Section IV)
Blood pressure screening Perform at every visit
Weight measurement Perform at every visit
Screening for Lipid profile: perform every 5 years if normal; more frequently Follow the atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk calculator.
hyperlipidemia if abnormal or other cardiovascular risk factors present Consider testing 1–3 months after starting or changing ART. See
(every 6–1 2 months); if abnormal, repeat fasting Section IV for further discussion.
Screening for diabetes Serum glucose: perform annually; if abnormal, obtain fasting Consider testing 1–3 months after starting or changing antiretroviral
mellitus and glucose in- glucose. Hemoglobin A1C should be obtained prior to initia- medications. Hemoglobin A1c is not used to diagnose diabetes
tolerance tion of ART, if possible. in persons on ART. It may be used for screening and monitoring.
In persons with diabetes, repeat at least every 6 months (more Consider threshold cutoff of 5.8%. See Section IV for further
frequently if clinically indicated). Urine microalbumin or urine discussion.
protein/creatinine ratio: in patients with diabetes, repeat at
least every 6 months (more frequently if clinically indicated).
Screening for bone mineral Baseline bone densitometry by dual-energy X-ray absorpti- See Section IV for further discussion.
density ometry (bone densitometry) should be performed in all
postmenopausal women and men aged ≥50 years.
Screening and vaccination for infectious diseases
Syphilis screening Perform at least annually in asymptomatic persons; repeat every Acquisition risk depends on sexual activities, use of barrier protec-
3–6 months in asymptomatic persons if risk of acquisition is high tion, and local prevalence.
Gonorrhea and chlamydia Perform at least annually in asymptomatic persons; can repeat Screening using NAAT at all sites of sexual contact (rectal, oropha-
screening every 3–6 months in asymptomatic persons if risk of acqui- ryngeal, vaginal, urine/urethral) is recommended for all sexually
sition is high active persons with HIV. Acquisition risk depends on sexual
activities, use of barrier protection, and local prevalence.
Trichomoniasis screening Perform annually for persons having vaginal sex Screen using NAAT testing
Hepatitis A, B, and C Hepatitis C: in sexually active, HCV negative men having sex In those with new abnormal liver function test, check for acute hep-
screening with men, transgender women, and people who inject atitis A, B, and C virus.
drugs. Screen annually.
Tuberculosis screening Perform annually in patients at risk for tuberculosis Either tuberculin skin test or interferon-γ release assay
Vaccinations Pneumococcus (PCV13 and PPV23): repeat PPV23 once 5
For most current vaccination years after first vaccination. Give a third and final dose of
recommendations, con- PPV23 after age 65. All patients with HIV should receive 1
sult current vaccination dose of PCV13. If not vaccinated previously, this should be
schedules [85, 120, 121] the first dose, If previously vaccinated, 1 dose of PCV13 at
least 1 year after PPV23.
Influenza: administer annually Avoid live influenza vaccine if CD4 cell count <200/µL
Tetanus-diphtheria-whooping cough: administer Tdap once fol-
lowed by tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, or Tdap
every 10 years and as indicated for wound management
Meningococcal vaccine (series of serogroup A, C, W, and Y
meningococcal vaccine) × 2 doses; booster every 5 years
depending on risk
Hepatitis A and B: administer if not immune Check Hepatitis B Surface antibody 1–2 months or next scheduled
visit after completion of series
Administer hepatitis A and B boosters based on immune status

Table 5. Continued
Intervention Recommendation Comments

HPV vaccine: administer if aged ≤26 years. Consider adminis- HPV vaccine now recommended for persons up to age 45 years
tering if aged 27–45 years and unvaccinated or inadequately
vaccinated.
SARS CoV-2 vaccine: Regardless of CD4 or HIV RNA level
Varicella zoster: Shingrix vaccine × 2 doses if aged >50 years The Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices has not made
and CD4 cell count >200/µL a recommendation for CD4 cell count ≤200/µL.
Screening for and prevention of cancer
Smoking Recommend cessation (if presently smoking) at every visit Provide resources per local guidelines, including classes, agents
that facilitate smoking cessation
Low-dose chest computed Recommended for smokers with 30+ pack-years smoking Patients aged between ages 55 and 80 years who have 30 pack-
tomography scan or have quit in last 15 years years of smoking and are current smokers or have quit in the last
15 years should have an annual low-dose computed tomography
scan of their lungs until smoking has been discontinued for
15 years.

Prostate cancer screening Digital rectal exam: considered primary evaluation before PSA The impact of HIV on prostate cancer risk is not yet known. African
screening; consider for men aged 55–69 Americans and people with a relative with prostate cancer have
PSA screening: a higher burden of prostate cancer. Clinicians should follow US
Age 50–69 years: discuss risks and potential benefits with Preventative Services Task Force or American Cancer Society
patient guidelines and consider patient wishes [122, 123].
Age ≥ 70 years: PSA screening is not recommended
Colon cancer screening Age 50–75 years: begin screening at age 50 if average risk. Screening tests include stool-based screening (guaiac-based
Ages 76–85 years: individualize screening based on overall fecal occult blood testing, fecal immunochemical test, fecal
health and prior screening. Consider screening earlier if immunochemical test–DNA) every year, or colonoscopy every
first-degree relative diagnosed with colon cancer prior to age 10 years if normal, or more frequently if polyps are identified
50 years. [124].
Breast cancer screening Age 50–75 years: mammography performed at least every Age 40–49 years: inform the patient of the potential risks and bene-
2 years fits of screening and offer screening every 2 years. See Section
IV for further discussion.
Cervical cancer screening Age <21 years: Pap within 1 year of sexual activity, no later Abnormal Pap and/or HPV follow-up similar to general population.
than age 21 See Section II for further discussion.
Age 21–29 years: Pap at diagnosis of HIV, repeat yearly × 3,
then if all normal, Pap every 3 years
Age <30 years: no HPV testing unless abnormalities are found
on Pap test
Age ≥30 years: Pap only, same as 21–29 years or Pap with HPV
testing, if both negative then Pap with HPV every 3 years.
Note: In general, continue screening past 65 years.
Anal cancer screening Digital anorectal exam: perform at least annually if asympto- Abnormal anal Pap should prompt referral for high-resolution
matic. Anal pap: there are no national guidelines at this time. anoscopy.
Some experts recommend anal cytology for persons with
HIV who have receptive anal sex, but only if high-resolution
anoscopy is available.
Hepatocellular carcinoma Alpha-fetoprotein and liver ultrasound every 6 months For patients with cirrhosis for any cause or with chronic hepatitis B
screening
Other healthcare maintenance
Complete blood count and Perform as needed based upon underlying conditions and need
chemistry panel for toxicity management for ART and other medications
Contraceptive management All persons with HIV should be asked about their reproduc- Plans for conception may influence the choice of ART. See Section
tive desires. Persons capable of bearing children should IV for further discussion.
be routinely asked about their plans and desires regarding
pregnancy.
Oral health examination All persons with HIV should have oral health examinations
semiannually.
Patient education Provide regularly for all patients, particularly sexual risk re- General messages regarding sexual risk reduction should be
duction to prevent STIs (and HIV transmission if not virally provided at all HIV primary care encounters, including need for
suppressed) and importance of medication adherence for maximal viral control to improve personal health and eliminate
personal health and to eliminate HIV transmission to sexual HIV transmission to others (Undetectable = Untransmittable).
partners. Those patients who report high-risk behaviors or those who pre-
sent with repeated STIs should be offered brief counseling and
tailored interventions to reduce their subsequent risk. Attempts
should also be made to refer the patient to programs that offer a
more extensive intervention program.
Abbreviations: ART, antiretroviral therapy; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HPV, human papillomavirus; NAAT, nucleic acid amplification test; PCV, pneumococcal
conjugate vaccine; PSA, prostate-specific antigen; STI, sexually transmitted infection; Tdap, tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and reduced acellular pertussis.

frequently after initiation or change in ART, preferably Screening and Vaccination for Infectious Diseases: Screening for
within 2 to 4 weeks, with repeat testing every 4 to 8 weeks Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, Trichomonas and Syphilis
Recommendations
until viral load becomes undetectable.
47. CD4 cell count should be monitored to determine the need 50. Screening for syphilis, chlamydia, and gonorrhea in asymp-
for prophylaxis against opportunistic infections. CD4 cell tomatic persons should be repeated at least annually after
counts should generally be monitored every 3 to 6 months initial screening or every 3–6 months depending on sexual
for the first 2 years or if the virus is not suppressed. For pa- activities, presence of other STIs in the patient or their
tients on suppressive ART regimens with CD4 cell counts partner, and local community STI prevalence.
300–500/µL, CD4 cell count can be monitored every 51. All persons who have vaginal sex should be screened for
12 months unless there are changes in the patient’s clinical trichomonas annually.
or virologic status. If the CD4 cell count rises above 500 52. Tailored messages are critical for patients who report
cells/µL, CD4 monitoring is optional. persistent high-risk behavior or who have symptoms or
signs of STIs. In nearly all situations, the provider should

Evidence Summary offer brief counseling. In general, persons who exhibit
Frequency of HIV RNA monitoring depends on the response to ongoing risk behaviors should be referred to programs
therapy and duration and consistency of viral suppression. Once capable of offering more extensive interventional
ART has been initiated, HIV RNA is monitored to confirm response treatment.
to therapy and attainment of viral suppression. After HIV RNA has
Evidence Summary
become undetectable, monitoring is approximately quarterly but
can be every 6 months for persons with at least 2 years of continuous Periodic follow-up screening for chlamydia, gonorrhea,
suppression and stable clinical and immune status. Measurement of trichomonas, and syphilis in asymptomatic persons should
CD4 cell count is initially helpful to assess the need for opportun- follow CDC guidelines [86]. Screening should occur at least
istic infection prophylaxis as well as to choose ART. Once ART is annually. The frequency of screening should take into account
initiated and sustained virologic suppression is achieved, CD4 cell the patient’s reported sexual activities, past history of STIs, and
count can be monitored less frequently. Once the virus is suppressed community STI prevalence. For example, more frequent STI
for at least 2 years and CD4 cell count rises above the levels associ- screening (ie, at 3- to 6-month intervals) is indicated for per-
ated with risk for opportunistic diseases, monitoring can occur an- sons who have multiple or anonymous partners, who have had
nually or not at all if >500/µL [32]. The recommended frequency recent past STIs, or who live in an area with a high STI prev-
of HIV RNA and CD4 monitoring is not the only determinant of alence within their demographic group. In addition, persons
how frequently patients should be seen for overall healthcare needs. who have sex in conjunction with drug use (particularly meth-
Patients with concurrent medical conditions may need to be seen amphetamine use) or whose sex partners participate in these
more frequently, as may those needing ancillary services, such as activities should be screened more frequently [86]. Sexually
treatment adherence counseling, mental health and substance use active gay and bisexual men and transgender women with HIV
treatment services, STI screening, HIV education, case manage- should be screened every 3 months [89, 130, 131]. Routine se-
ment services, or harm reduction counseling. rologic screening for syphilis is recommended at least annu-
ally for sexually active women with HIV, with more frequent
Screening for Mental Health and Substance Use Issues screening (every 3 to 6 months) in those with multiple part-
Recommendations ners, a history of condomless intercourse, a history of sex in
48. Screening for substance use should be done at all healthcare conjunction with drug use including methamphetamine use,
encounters. or for sexual partners who participate in such activities [86].
49. Screening for depression using validated screening tools
should be conducted at least annually and as needed. Screening and Vaccination for Other Infectious Diseases
Recommendations
Evidence Summary 53. Tuberculosis screening should be performed annually for
People with HIV should be screened for drug and alcohol use persons at risk for infection (see Section II).
[125, 126]. Self-reported substance use screening tools can be in- 54. Repeat testing is recommended in patients with advanced
corporated into electronic health records [127]. Those who are HIV disease who initially had negative TST or IGRA results
found to have substance misuse or substance use disorder should but subsequently experienced an increase in the CD4 cell
be offered treatment. Co-location of substance use treatment with count to >200 cells/µL on ART and who may thus have de-
HIV care is ideal [128]. Brief interventions that include use of mo- veloped sufficient immunocompetence to mount a positive
tivational interviewing can be provided by trained healthcare per- reaction.
sonnel [129]. Screening for depression should include the use of 55. Vaccinations for pneumococcal infection, influenza,
validated screening tools such as PHQ-9 and GAD-2 [71, 72]. tetanus-diphtheria-whooping cough, and meningococcus

should be offered according to CDC Opportunistic transgender persons with chronic liver disease, travelers
Infection and ACIP guidelines. to countries with high endemicity, or persons who are in-
56. Asymptomatic persons with CD4 cell count >200 cells/mm3 fected with hepatitis B and/or C). HAV IgG antibody testing
who travel internationally should receive required vaccin- should be repeated 1–2 months or at the next scheduled
ations, including live vaccines. visit after the second vaccine to assess for immunogenicity.
A repeat vaccine series is recommended in those who re-
Evidence Summary main seronegative.
Annual testing should be considered for those who have neg-
ative results by TST but are at ongoing risk for exposure [85, Evidence Summary
93]. A TST or IGRA should be performed any time there is Responses to both HAV and HBV vaccines are reduced in pa-
concern of a recent exposure or after an increase of CD4 cell tients with CD4 cell count <200 cells/ µL and detectable HIV
count to >200 cells/µL following initiation of ART. Routine cu- RNA level. Decisions to delay HAV and HBV vaccination
taneous anergy testing is not recommended as previously dis- until immunologic and virologic response on ART should be

cussed. The likelihood of a response to any vaccine is greatest individualized based on the potential benefits of the vaccine
in patients with higher CD4 cell counts and in patients who re- weighed against the patient’s risk of exposure to HAV and HBV
ceive suppressive ART. Persons with HIV should be immunized infection. Persons without immunity to HBV should receive
against pneumococcus upon diagnosis, regardless of age, with Recombivax HB 40 µg per dose, Enerix-B 20 µg per dose (both
both 13- and 23-valent vaccines. Initial and periodic revacci- require a 3-dose series over 6 months), or Heplisav-B 20 μg per
nation should follow ACIP guidelines [120]. Persons with HIV dose (2-dose series over 1 month), similar to recommendations
should receive annual influenza vaccinations, but live influenza for other immunocompromised patients [120, 133]. HBsAb
virus vaccine is not recommended. Recommendations for tet- should be repeated 1 to 2 months or at the next scheduled
anus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and reduced acellular visit after completion of the vaccine series to assess for immu-
pertussis (Tdap) are the same as for the general population. nogenicity. HBV vaccination should be administered to those
Individuals who are pregnant should receive Tdap during each persons who have a positive anti-HBc with a negative HBsAg
pregnancy between 26 and 37 weeks’ gestation [120]. Adults and HBsAb [134]. Patients who fail to respond to HBV vaccine
with HIV should receive a 2-dose primary series of serogroup should be revaccinated with a complete series and after virologic
A, C, W, and Y meningococcal vaccine at least 2 months apart suppression on ART. An additional dose might be administered
and be revaccinatd every 5 years. Serogroup B meningococcal if standard doses are used [85, 120, 135]. The measurement of
vaccine is not routinely recommended but may be given to per- HBV DNA may be misleading if below quantification limits. All
sons aged 16–23 years in certain circumstances [85]. Live virus infants born to HBsAg-positive women should receive hepatitis
vaccines may pose a risk to persons with HIV who have ad- B immune globulin and hepatitis B immunization, preferably in
vanced immunosuppression, defined as CD4 cell count <200 the first 12 hours of life. Routine vaccination for HAV and HBV
cells/mm3 or an AIDS-defining illness, and should be discussed is recommended for all infants [77, 120, 133]. Serologic testing
with an expert before administration [132]. for viral hepatitis should be repeated if suspected exposure oc-
curs or there are newly elevated transaminase levels.
Hepatitis A and B (HAV, HBV)
Recommendations
Human papillomavirus
57. Those who are susceptible to infection should be vaccinated
Recommendation
against HBV. For those whose HBsAb levels are negative
61. Persons aged between 9 and 26 years should be vaccinated
or <100 mIU/mL after a primary vaccine series, a second
against HPV and persons with HIV aged 27–45 years who
series is recommended using higher doses or an additional
were not vaccinated or inadequately vaccinated should be
dose. Ideally, revaccination should be attempted after sup-
offered the vaccination series if appropriate.
pression of HIV viral load and improvement in CD4 cell
count. Evidence Summary
58. Vaccination should be recommended for nonimmune A preventive 9-valent HPV vaccine (9vHPV) is routinely recom-
sexual partners of patients who are positive for HBsAg. mended in a 3-dose schedule for all persons aged 9–26 years.
59. Patients who are negative for HBsAg and HBsAb but posi- According to ACIP, catch-up vaccination can be offered to those
tive for HBcAb should receive vaccination. aged 27–45 years based on shared decision-making [120, 136–
60. Vaccination for HAV is recommended for all nonimmune 142]. This preparation is safe and highly effective in preventing
individuals especially those with indications for hepatitis infection with the HPV subtypes associated with genital warts
A vaccine (eg, PWID, those unstably housed, those with and those responsible for approximately 70% of cervical can-
current or prior incarceration, gay and bisexual men or cers and most anal cancers. Evidence shows a decrease in the

prevalence of HPV infections, anogenital lesions, and precan- Screening for smoking should be done at every healthcare
cerous cervical neoplasia [142, 143]. Studies show safety of encounter.
HPV vaccine in women, men, and children [144]. However, the 66. Screening for prostate, breast, lung, and colon cancer should
data on HIV are limited, with one study showing no efficacy be conducted according to the US Preventative Services
and others showing modest impact, perhaps due to immuno- Task Force (USPSTF) and American Cancer Society guide-
genicity [145–148]. The vaccine is not expected to impact the lines for the general population.
development of cancer in those already harboring oncogenic 67. Biennial screening mammography is recommended for
subtypes. All persons with HIV should receive 3 rather than 2 persons aged 50–74 years, as per USPSTF guidelines.
doses of vaccine, regardless of age [149]. 68. Persons with HIV aged between 21 and 29 years should
have a cervical Pap test annually. If the results of 3 consecu-
Varicella zoster virus tive cervical Pap tests are normal, follow-up Pap screening
Recommendations
should be in 3 years.
62. Patients who are susceptible to VZV (those who have not
69. For persons aged 30 years or greater, cervical Pap tests

been vaccinated, have no history of varicella or herpes
should be done annually. If the results of 3 consecutive
zoster, or are seronegative for VZV) should receive
Pap tests without an HPV test are normal, a follow-up Pap
postexposure prophylaxis with varicella zoster immune
should be performed in 3 years. If the Pap test is done with
globulin (VariZIG) as soon as possible (but within 10 days)
HPV testing and both the cytology and HPV testing are
after exposure to a person with varicella or shingles.
negative, follow-up cervical cancer screening can be done
63. Varicella primary vaccination may be considered in VZV-
in 3 years after a single Pap smear.
seronegative persons aged >8 years with CD4 cell counts
70. Anal cancer screening: periodic anal cytology by anal Pap
>200 cells/µL and in children with HIV aged 1–8 years with
test should be performed if access to referral and high-
CD4 cell percentages >15%.
resolution anoscopy is available.
64. Recombinant zoster vaccine, 2-dose series, should be given
71. Screening for hepatocellular carcinoma every 6 months
to those aged >50 years on ART with CD4 cell count >200
by ultrasound with or without alpha-fetoprotein is recom-
cells/µL to prevent herpes zoster.
mended for those with cirrhosis from any cause.
Evidence Summary
Varicella vaccination may be considered (2 doses of single-
antigen varicella vaccine, not measles/mumps/rubella/ Evidence Summary
varicella, administered 3 months apart) for adults and ado- Healthcare systems should maintain a record of current smoking
lescents with HIV with a CD4 cell count >200 cells/µL on status of patients. All clinicians should advise patients to stop
suppressive ART who do not have evidence of immunity to smoking and document this message at least yearly in the health
varicella [120, 150, 151]. Children should also receive the record. Referrals should be made for smoking cessation [155,
vaccine if aged >8 years and with a CD4 percentage ≥15% 156]. Although persons with HIV have increased rates of certain
[101]. Persons without evidence of immunity who have no cancers, recommendations for screening (prostate, breast, colon,
history of varicella or shingles and no history of vaccination lung) are not different than for the general population. Screening
against VZV and who are at risk of developing severe disease for hepatocellular carcinoma every 6 months by ultrasound with
or complications should receive VariZIG within 10 days or without alpha-fetoprotein is recommended for those with cir-
after exposure [101, 151, 152]. VariZIG can be obtained only rhosis from any cause [157]. Breast cancer is the second leading
under a treatment investigational new drug protocol (con- cause of cancer-related death in women in the United States after
tact FFF Enterprises at 1-800-843-7477). VariZIG is not in- lung cancer [158]. It does not appear to be increased in prevalence
dicated for persons who received 2 doses of varicella vaccine among women with HIV, although unusual clinical presentations
and became immunocompromised later in life [101, 120, and rapid progression have been reported, suggesting that breast
151]. Recombinant zoster vaccine should be administered to cancer may behave more aggressively in this setting (bilateral di-
adults aged >50 years using 2 doses 2 to 6 months apart for sease, poorly differentiated carcinoma, and early metastasis) [159].
the prevention of herpes zoster [153, 154]. Studies in HIV At present, screening mammography in persons with HIV should
have found the vaccine to be safe and immunogenic after 2 follow standard USPSTF guidelines [160].
doses. For persons aged between 21 and 29 years, cervical cancer
screening should be performed within 1 year of sexual debut
Screening for and Prevention of Cancer but not later than age 21 years or at the diagnosis of HIV. If the
Recommendations initial Pap smear is negative, some experts recommend a repeat
65. All patients who smoke should be strongly encouraged to Pap smear be performed within 6 to 12 months. If the results of
stop smoking and offered smoking cessation assistance. 3 consecutive Pap tests are normal, a follow-up Pap test should

be performed at 3 years. The use of HPV cotesting in this age medical conditions and the need to monitor for ART toxicities,
group is not recommended [85]. For persons aged >30 years, depending upon the regimens chosen. Chronic kidney di-
cervical cancer screening should commence at diagnosis and sease is a common comorbidity in persons with co-occurring
be continued throughout a women’s lifetime and not stopped at diabetes, hypertension, HCV, nephrotoxic medication,
age 65 as recommended for the general population. In this age genetic predisposition, or advanced HIV disease [162].
group, Pap testing can be done with cytology alone or with the Biannual monitoring for renal function and urinary abnor-
addition of HPV cotesting. Some experts recommend a repeat malities is warranted for patients who receive tenofovir [81]
Pap test be done 6 months after the initial Pap test. If the re- (see Section V for contraception management). Clinicians
sults of 3 consecutive Pap tests are normal, a follow-up Pap test should engage in effective patient education for maintenance
should be done in 3 years. If testing is done with Pap and HPV of physical, emotional, spiritual, and sexual health. Barriers
cotesting and if the results of both tests are normal, the next to adherence and care engagement should be repeatedly as-
screening can occur in 3 years [85]. sessed (see Section I).
There are no national screening guidelines for the use of anal

Pap tests in healthcare maintenance. Additional data are needed IV. METABOLIC AND OTHER NONCOMMUNICABLE
to prove whether identification and treatment of persons with COMORBIDITIES ASSOCIATED WITH HIV,
a history of receptive anal intercourse or abnormal cervical Pap ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY, AND AGING
test results and all persons with genital warts should have a peri- Now that approximately 50% of the global population with
odic anal Pap tests if access to appropriate referral for follow-up, HIV is aged >50 years, concern has heightened about increased
including high-resolution anoscopy, is available [114]. rates of common comorbidities associated with age [163, 164],
The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services and the including long-term cardiovascular morbidity, especially
USPSTF recommend that adults aged between 55 and 77 years in those with traditional risk factors such as dyslipidemia,
with a history of heavy smoking (>30 pack-years) receive a glucose intolerance or diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and
low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) if currently smoking smoking. The benefits of ART used in accordance with pub-
or have quit in the last 15 years [108, 161]. Persons with HIV lished guidelines outweigh the risks of cardiovascular disease
may receive the same mortality benefit from LDCT screening and other comorbidities associated with long-term exposure
as those not living with HIV if the CD4 cell count is >500 cells/ [165]. Multiple guidelines are available to assist providers in
µL and the patient is ART-adherent [109]. the identification and management of lipid abnormalities, di-
abetes mellitus, and other comorbidities [63–65, 166]. People
Other Healthcare Maintenance with HIV also are at higher risk for loss of bone mineral den-
Recommendations
sity (BMD), hypogonadism, and neurocognitive disorders.
72. Complete blood count and chemistry panels should be
monitored on a regular basis as needed to assess medica-
tion toxicity and to monitor potential or existing comorbid Recommendations
conditions (eg, chronic kidney disease, hepatitis). 77. Lipid levels should be obtained prior to and within
73. Urinalysis should be monitored annually among those at 1–3 months after starting ART. Patients with abnormal
risk for kidney disease. lipid levels should be managed according to the National
74. All persons with HIV should be asked about their repro- Lipid Association Part 2 and 2018 Multispecialty Blood
ductive desires. Persons capable of bearing children should Cholesterol Guidelines.
be routinely asked about their plans and desires regarding 78. Random or fasting blood glucose and hemoglobin A1c
pregnancy. (HbA1c) should be obtained prior to starting ART. If
75. Patient education should be provided at every visit, tailored random glucose is abnormal, fasting glucose should be
to the patient’s current needs. In particular, the clinician obtained. After initiation of ART, only plasma glucose cri-
should evaluate the need for education on optimizing teria should be used to diagnose diabetes. Patients with dia-
sexual health and the importance of medication adherence betes mellitus should have an HbA1c level monitored every
to maximize personal health and to eliminate HIV trans- 6 months with an HbA1c goal of <7%, in accordance with
mission to sexual partners. the American Diabetes Association Guidelines.
76. All persons with HIV should have semiannual oral health 79. Baseline bone densitometry (DXA) screening for osteo-
examinations. porosis should be performed in postmenopausal women
and men aged ≥50 years. There is insufficient evidence to
Evidence Summary guide recommendations for bone density testing in trans-
The frequency of monitoring complete blood counts and gender or nonbinary individuals. Screening for transgender
chemistry panels depends on the presence of underlying people should follow national recommendations based

upon their sex at birth and individualized based on risk for level of ≥200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) during an oral glucose tol-
osteoporosis. erance test conducted with a standard loading dose of 75 g or an
80. Testosterone replacement therapy for cisgender men should HbA1c ≥6.5% [64]; however, the National Health and Nutrition
be prescribed with caution and only in those with symp- Examination Survey and others endorse a cutoff of ≥5.8%, as
tomatic hypogonadism given the long-term side effects. See it improves the sensitivity for diagnosis for patients with HIV
Section VIII for discussion of hormone therapy for trans- on ART [176]. In the 2019 ADA Standards, the ADA recom-
gender men. mends against the use of HbA1c to diagnose diabetes in persons
with HIV on ART. Although data are lacking on the effects of
Evidence Summary integrase inhibitors on HbA1c, the NRTIs, NNRTIs, and PIs do
Dyslipidemia has been associated with traditional risk factors, affect HbA1c; therefore, combination therapy with an integrase
HIV infection itself, and antiretroviral drugs (ARVs). HIV is inhibitor may also result in misleading HbA1c results. The ADA
now a recognized independent atherosclerotic cardiovascular does state that in cases of HbA1c and fasting glucose discord-
disease (ASCVD) risk enhancer in the 2018 American College ance, the abnormal laboratory test should be repeated, and the

of Cardiology/American Heart Association (ACC/AHA) diagnosis of diabetes should be made only if repeat testing is
multispecialty cholesterol management guidelines. At this time, again above the diagnostic cut-point [64].
there are no validated cardiovascular risk assessment tools for use Random or fasting serum glucose and HbA1c should be
in persons with HIV, and the default is to use the pooled cohort obtained prior to starting ART. If random blood glucose is
equations from the 2013 ACC/AHA guidelines, understanding abnormal, fasting blood glucose should be obtained. After in-
the limitations of such [65]. The frequency of follow-up testing itiation of ART, only plasma glucose criteria should be used
and response to therapy should be based on the current National to diagnose diabetes. A random glucose >200 mg/dL should
Lipid Association Recommendations for Patient-Centered prompt further testing with a fasting blood glucose. Therefore,
Management of Dyslipidemia: Part 2 and the 2018 Multispecialty either a random or fasting glucose should be obtained at entry to
Blood Cholesterol Guidelines [63, 65]. All patients should be as- care and annually thereafter for screening of diabetes. Patients
sessed for ASCVD risk, and those with elevated low-density lipo- with diabetes mellitus should have their HbA1c level moni-
protein cholesterol and/or risk should be further evaluated and tored every 6 months, with a HbA1c goal of <7% in accordance
managed according to established guidelines. with the ADA guidelines. Though controversial, the American
Caution should be used when prescribing statins with PIs, College of Physicians recommends less stringent control, with
cobicistat, and NRTIs due to potential serious drug–drug an aim to achieve an HbA1c between 7% and 8% [179]. Given
interactions (Table 6). Most PIs and cobicistat inhibit the me- the potential for over- or underestimation of HbA1c in patients
tabolism of statins, thereby increasing the potential for statin on ART, it is prudent to assess the correlation of blood glucose
toxicity. However, there are exceptions such as pitavastatin and levels with HbA1c values on an individual basis in order to de-
pravastatin, which are metabolized by glucuronidation, thereby termine the appropriate HbA1c target.
having little effect when coadministered with a PI or cobicistat. Lifestyle intervention such as weight loss, increased exercise,
Pravastatin may adversely interact with darunavir, and dose and dietary modification remain the cornerstone to diabetes
modification may be needed. In addition, atorvastatin and prevention and management. Incident diabetes was reduced by
rosuvastatin may be used in patients on a PI but should be initi- 27% in the lifestyle group and by 18% in the metformin group
ated at low doses and titrated carefully according to tolerability compared with placebo in the Diabetes Prevention Program
and effect. Efavirenz induces statin metabolism, resulting in Outcomes Study of more than 2700 individuals at risk for di-
lowering of statin levels. Nevirapine, etravirine, and rilpivirine abetes followed for 15 years [180]. However, if treatment is
have not been extensively studied. Doravirine does not af- needed, insulin-sensitizing agents are preferred. Patients should
fect levels of atorvastatin [169]. Cobicistat is expected to have be managed according to the ADA guidelines [64]. No data sug-
similar interactions as ritonavir with statins; however, these gest that switching ARVs is beneficial in patients with impaired
interactions have not been fully studied. There may be other glucose tolerance associated with HIV infection itself or tradi-
pathways that affect drug metabolism and lead to unexpected tional risk factors.
interactions, and it is advisable to refer to the package insert of Baseline bone densitometry by DXA should be performed
the ARV before prescribing lipid-lowering agents. in all postmenopausal women and men aged ≥50 years, based
HbA1c is no longer the preferred method for diagnosing on expert opinion with limited supporting evidence [166, 181–
diabetes among persons with HIV on ART given the impact 185]. If the DXA demonstrates osteopenia or the patient has
of HIV treatment on the HbA1c levels [64, 176–178]. The a history of fragility or fracture, intervention with vitamin D,
American Diabetes Association (ADA) established the diag- calcium, and a bisphosphonate or other medical therapy may
nostic criteria of diabetes mellitus of a fasting plasma glucose be warranted. A vitamin D level should be measured if the DXA
level of ≥126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) or a 2-hour plasma glucose reveals osteopenia or osteoporosis. Bisphosphonates appear

Table 6. Effect of Protease Inhibitors and Nonnucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors on Statins
Statin Protease Inhibitor Nonnucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor
Atorvastatin Caution (moderately increase atorvastatin’s Acceptable with appropriate dosing and monitoring; efavirenz [167] and
AUC) etravirine [168] decrease atorvastatin’s AUC; no data for nevirapine
Use lowest starting atorvastatin dose May need higher atorvastatin starting dose; doravirine does not affect levels of
atorvastatin [169]
Fluvastatin Not recommended with nelfinavir Acceptable with appropriate dosing and monitoring
Use of other protease inhibitors is allowed Etravirine may increase fluvastatin’s AUC [168]
with appropriate dosing and monitoring
May need lower fluvastatin starting dose with etravirine
No data on doravirine
Lovastatin Contraindicated (greatly increases lovastatin’s Acceptable with appropriate dosing and monitoring
AUC [170])
Decreases simvastatin’s AUC, so may need higher lovastatin starting dose

No data on doravirine
Pitavastatin Acceptable with appropriate dosing and No data for nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
monitoring
No significant change in pitavastatin’s AUC
with lopinavir/ritonavir [171]
Pitavastatin’s mean AUC decreased 26%
with darunavir [172]
Pravastatin Acceptable with appropriate dosing and Acceptable with appropriate dosing and monitoring
monitoring, except with darunavir
Decrease in pravastatin’s AUC, except with Efavirenz decreases pravastatin’s AUC [167], but no change with etravirine [168]
darunavir, which increases pravastatin’s
AUC by 81% [173]
No data for nevirapine, rilpivirine, doravirine
May need higher pravastatin starting dose with efavirenz
Rosuvastatin Acceptable with appropriate dosing and Acceptable with appropriate dosing and monitoring
monitoring; lopinavir/ritonavir and tipranavir
+ ritonavir increase rosuvastatin’s AUC
[174]
May need to start rosuvastatin at lower dose No data on doravirine
with lopinavir/ritonavir
No dose adjustments with cobicistat;
cobicistat increases peak concentration
(Cmax) 89% and AUC by 38% [175]
Simvastatin Contraindicated (greatly increases Acceptable with appropriate dosing and monitoring
simvastatin’s AUC [168])
Efavirenz [167] and etravirine [168] decrease simvastatin’s AUC; no data for
nevirapine, doravirine; may need higher simvastatin starting dose
Abbreviation: AUC, area under the curve.
to be effective in improving BMD in small studies of persons In a meta-analysis that include 6 cross-sectional and 14 pre-post
with HIV, but the data are limited. It is important to exclude hormonal therapy studies, with a total of 487 transgender men
osteomalacia prior to initiating a bisphosphonate, as this could and 812 transgender women, hormone therapy had a neutral
lead to increased fragility and fracture. Common reasons for effect on BMD at all body sites evaluated, except for the lumbar
osteomalacia in this population are tenofovir-induced renal spine of transgender women, where a modest but significant in-
phosphate wasting and vitamin D deficiency, which have been crease was detected [186]. At this time, some programs recom-
reported in 40%–80% of persons with HIV. The spectrum and mend transgender people (regardless of birth-assigned sex) begin
severity of metabolic complications associated with vitamin D BMD screening at age 65. Screening between ages 50 and 64 years
deficiency among adult persons with HIV remain to be better should be considered for those with established risk factors for os-
characterized. Patients with vitamin D deficiency and osteo- teoporosis. Transgender people (regardless of birth-assigned sex)
penia by DXA should be treated with vitamin D and calcium who have undergone gonadectomy and have a history of at least
without bisphosphonates until the vitamin D deficiency has 5 years without hormone replacement should also be considered
resolved. A follow-up DXA should be repeated 1 year later to for BMD testing, regardless of age. Transgender people without
monitor the response to therapy. gonads who are not using hormone replacement should follow
There is insufficient evidence to guide recommendations for guidelines for agonadal or postmenopausal women, regardless of
BMD testing specific to transgender or gender-diverse individuals. birth-assigned sex or gender identity [187].

Routine screening for vitamin D deficiency is not recom- multiple neurocognitive effects of HIV and associated in-
mended given the lack of data among persons with HIV. The flammation on the central nervous system, resulting in
USPSTF concludes that the evidence on screening for vitamin D deficits that range from asymptomatic neurocognitive im-
deficiency in asymptomatic adults to improve health outcomes pairment to dementia [201]. While there are no specific
is insufficient [188]. Patients, however, should be counseled treatments for HAND at this time, clinicians should be aware
about the health benefits of regular exercise and normal dietary that some persons with HIV may experience neurocognitive
calcium and vitamin D intake and the harmful risks of ciga- decline that is out of proportion to their age and should pro-
rette smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. Secondary vide an appropriate work-up when such symptoms present.
causes of decreased BMD, such as hypogonadism, alcoholism,
glucocorticoid exposure, and vitamin D deficiency, should be V. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CISGENDER
investigated and treated. WOMEN AND TRANSGENDER MEN OF
In persons with HIV, avascular necrosis (AVN) was reported CHILDBEARING POTENTIAL AND FOR
PREVENTION OF PERINATAL HIV TRANSMISSION
to be associated with exposure to tenofovir for longer than

1 year in one study [189]. Other more common causes of AVN People with HIV who are of childbearing potential are living
include moderate to high alcohol consumption, hyperlipidemia, long, healthy lives, and the need for routine gynecological care
and corticosteroid use [189, 190]. Routine radiographic moni- has increased. They have the same reproductive health needs
toring for AVN in asymptomatic persons is not recommended. and concerns as those not living with HIV infection. As part
However, for patients who present with persistent hip pain who of the initial assessment, a comprehensive gynecologic and ob-
have normal standard radiologic studies, magnetic resonance stetrical history should be obtained that consists of menstrual
imaging is the preferred method of diagnosis, and both sides history, sexual practices, contraception history and current
should be imaged. Most patients with symptomatic AVN will use, male or female condom use and consistency of use, pre-
ultimately require surgical intervention, including hip replace- vious STIs and other genital tract infections, prior abnormal
ment [190, 191]. Pap test results including subsequent evaluation and treatment,
The prevalence of hypogonadism among cisgender men history of gynecologic conditions (ie, uterine fibroids, endo-
with HIV has been reported to be high prior to the intro- metriosis, and infertility) or surgery, and current gynecologic
duction of ART; however, screening for hypogonadism is re- symptoms (ie, abnormal vaginal discharge, abnormal vaginal
commended only for men who have symptoms [192, 193]. In bleeding, amenorrhea, and pelvic pain). Recommendations for
2014, the FDA released safety alerts that warned of potential care during menopause do not differ from those for persons not
increased cardiac risk associated with testosterone replacement diagnosed with HIV.
products [194–196]. Subsequently, a large systematic review
and meta-analysis failed to demonstrate an increased risk of Contraception and Preconception Care
cardiac events; however, caution remains [197]. Although the Recommendation
Endocrine Society Guidelines recommend short-term testos- 81. All persons with HIV who are of childbearing potential
terone replacement therapy (TRT) for cisgender men with HIV should be asked about their plans and desires regarding
with low testosterone, many patients have remained on TRT pregnancy upon initiation of care and routinely thereafter.
long term. It is unclear whether those who were diagnosed Clinicians should ensure that informed decisions are made
with hypogonadism at the time of their HIV diagnosis need to about contraception to prevent unintended pregnancy and
remain on TRT after immune recovery on ART. Since the FDA offer counseling if pregnancy is desired.
advisory, the percentage of cisgender men overall using TRT
has declined, but less so among those with HIV [198, 199]. As Evidence Summary
the population of men with HIV ages, clinicians should balance Any patient encounter with a nonpregnant person with repro-
the benefits against the harms of continuing TRT that may no ductive potential is an opportunity to counsel about wellness
longer be indicated. TRT may result in testicular atrophy and and healthy habits that may improve reproductive and obstet-
permanent inability to produce natural hormone. Men may ex- rical outcomes if they decide to reproduce [202]. An in-depth
perience “withdrawal” when TRT is stopped given the steroidal discussion about childbearing is indicated if the patient ex-
effects of testosterone as well. Therefore, initiating TRT should presses the desire for future pregnancy, is not trying to conceive
be prescribed with caution and only in cisgender men with but is not using appropriate contraception, or expresses uncer-
symptomatic hypogonadism given the long-term side effects. tainty about reproductive plans. Regardless of the patient’s sex,
Neurocognitive impairment is more common in older the goal is to ensure that informed decisions are made about
people with HIV than those not living with HIV [200]. HIV- contraception with prevention of an unintended pregnancy
associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) encompasses and to offer counseling if pregnancy is desired. Patients should

explicitly be asked to communicate with their provider if their If an individual in labor presents for delivery without
plans change, when they are ready to consider pregnancy, or having antenatal HIV testing, and a rapid HIV test is posi-
when they have questions related to reproduction. In persons tive, ART should be initiated immediately without waiting for
who are at risk for pregnancy (ie, are trying to conceive or are confirmatory tests. Person who are pregnant and who have
not using effective and consistent contraception), providers an HIV viral load that is unknown or >1000 copies/mL at
should carefully review all medications, including over-the- or near delivery, independent of antepartum ART, should be
counter medications, and avoid drugs with potential repro- counseled regarding the potential benefit of cesarean delivery
ductive toxicity. The time of greatest risk to the fetus is early in and, if consenting, should be offered a scheduled cesarean de-
pregnancy, often before the pregnancy has been recognized. In livery at 38 weeks’ gestation to reduce the risk of perinatal
these settings, choice of ART may be influenced by discussions transmission [117]. The use of postexposure prophylaxis in
about the association of dolutegravir with neural tube defects. the neonate or a multidrug ART prophylactic regimen or em-
Choice of ART in these circumstances is discussed in detail in piric therapy based on the clinical assessment of risk should
DHHS ART guidelines [32]. be instituted as soon as possible after delivery, ideally within

Individuals who do not wish to become pregnant should be 6 to 12 hours, to significantly decrease perinatal transmission
counseled on effective contraception. Combined estrogen–pro- [117]. An HIV expert should be consulted for persons who
gestin hormonal contraceptives (birth control pill, transdermal have difficulty controlling the virus.
patch, and vaginal ring) are one option but may have inter-
actions with several antiretrovirals, resulting in decreased ef- Breastfeeding
Recommendation
fectiveness or increased risk of adverse effects. Contraceptive
implants, injectable contraception (depot medroxyprogesterone 84. In the United States, persons with HIV should avoid
acetate), and intrauterine devices are other available options. breastfeeding.
Spermicides have been associated with an increased risk of HIV
Evidence Summary
acquisition and are not recommended for use with partners
Infant feeding should be discussed [117]. In the United States,
who are not diagnosed with HIV [203].
avoidance of breastfeeding is the standard recommendation
Providers should be prepared to discuss conception among
for women with HIV due to the safety of the water supply
serodiscordant couples. The partner with HIV should always be
[117]. There have been cases of HIV transmission through
started on ART and achieve sustained HIV RNA suppression to
breastfeeding in the setting of an undetectable viral load on
below the limits of detection prior to beginning efforts to con-
ART [117, 205]. As some women may face environmental, so-
ceive. With durable viral suppression, there is effectively no risk
cial, familial, and personal pressures to breastfeed despite the
of sexual transmission. For couples that are using condoms and
recommendation, consultation with an expert is strongly re-
wish to limit their episodes of condomless sex, a discussion about
commended regarding harm-reduction strategies to minimize
sex during the time of peak fertility is appropriate. Prepregnancy
transmission.
administration of antiretroviral preexposure prophylaxis for the
partner not diagnosed with HIV offers an additional means to
reduce the risk of sexual transmission [203]. VI. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHILDREN
Recommendations
Prevention of Perinatal Transmission
Recommendations 85. Infants diagnosed with HIV should undergo HIV resist-
82. To prevent perinatal transmission, all pregnant persons ance testing prior to administering ART and, because of
with HIV should be treated with ART, regardless of their the rapid progression of disease, ART should be initiated
immunologic or virologic status. Therapy should be initi- as early as possible regardless of CD4 cell count, HIV RNA
ated as early as possible, preferably prior to conception. level, or clinical status.
83. Infants exposed to HIV in utero should be managed ac- 86. All children with HIV should initiate ART, regardless of
cording to DHHS perinatal guidelines. CD4 cell count/percentage, HIV RNA level, or symptoms.
87. CD4 cell counts and HIV RNA should be monitored no less
Evidence Summary than every 3–4 months in infants and children.
Perinatal transmission of HIV is preventable if pregnant per- 88. Childhood vaccinations should be administered according
sons are screened and identified through antenatal HIV testing to ACIP schedules for infants and children with HIV.
and receive immediate ART according to DHHS perinatal 89. Infants and children with HIV should be managed by a spe-
guidelines [117]. In those who start ART before conception and cialist with knowledge of the unique therapeutic, pharma-
maintain viral load suppression, there is essentially zero risk of cologic, behavioral, psychosocial, and developmental issues
perinatal transmission [204]. associated with HIV.

Evidence Summary VII. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ADOLESCENTS
Neonates exposed to HIV should be managed according to
Recommendations
DHHS perinatal guidelines [117]. All infants and children
90. Adolescents with HIV require an individual and develop-
diagnosed with HIV, regardless of CD4 cell count, viral load,
mental approach to therapy and care, ideally through an
or symptoms, should be started on ART as soon after diag-
HIV specialist with expertise in this population.
nosis as possible using regimens recommended by DHHS
91. Adolescents with HIV should have a coordinated, delib-
[77]. Resistance testing should be performed, but ART can be
erate transition to adult care.
initiated before results are available. Infants aged <12 months
92. Vaccinations should be administered according to ACIP
and those with CDC stage 3–defining conditions or CD4 cell
schedules for children with HIV.
count <500 cells/mm3 are the highest priority for ART initia-
tion [77]. All infants should also receive Pneumocystis prophy-
laxis in the first year of life, irrespective of CD4 cell count or Evidence Summary
percentage [101]. In general, infants with untreated perinatal- The care of adolescents with HIV, whether perinatally or

acquired HIV have higher viral loads than adults, and there are nonperinatally acquired, presents many challenges [208–
age-specific differences in CD4 cell counts, with infants having 210]. The median age of the US cohort of children who ac-
higher normal absolute lymphocyte counts than adults. In quired HIV perinatally is now in the mid-teens, and many
young children (aged <5 years), CD4 percentages are less var- have reached adulthood [211]. Youth with HIV, in addi-
iable than absolute counts. While assessing family readiness is tion to the biologic and psychosocial changes that normally
essential to optimize understanding and adherence, it should occur in adolescence, often cope with stigma, disclosure,
not preclude prioritizing ART initiation [77]. loss of family members, and negotiation of sexual activity.
Frequent clinical visits are required to ensure that growth In many studies, rates of cognitive, psychiatric, and behav-
and development are on schedule, that appropriate adjust- ioral problems are higher in those with perinatally acquired
ment of dosages are made, and that the infant is tolerating ART. infection [212, 213]. As a result of these challenges, many
Vaccination status should be reviewed at each visit. Infants and youth with perinatally acquired infection have poorer adher-
children with HIV can safely receive most childhood vaccines, ence to ART and may experience decreased engagement in
although effective response depends on the degree of immu- care [208]. Disclosure of diagnosis can be overwhelming to
nosuppression. Varicella and MMR vaccines should not be caregivers but should occur early, in late childhood, as it has
administered to children with CD4 cell percentages <15%. All been correlated with better adjustment to illness, lower rates
children with HIV should be vaccinated against pneumococcus of depression, and improved adherence with care and ART
and receive yearly quadrivalent inactivated influenza vaccine. [77, 209, 210]. Puberty can affect drug metabolism; thus,
Once a child’s ART is stable, the frequency of laboratory testing decisions regarding dosing should consider Tanner staging,
is similar to that for adults. with those with sexual maturity rating ≥4 dosed according
Infants and children with undiagnosed HIV are more likely to adult treatment guidelines [77, 213]. Long-term treatment
to present with common bacterial infections, chronic diarrhea from infancy may result in viral resistance, treatment fatigue,
with failure to thrive, or delays in development, than with cat- as well as increased end-organ toxicity and requires careful
egory B or C conditions seen in adults [206]. This population monitoring [214]. Special attention should be paid to attain-
has higher rates of serious bacterial infections (such as pneu- ment and maintenance of viral suppression, along with risk
mococcal disease,) herpes zoster, tuberculosis, asthma, and reduction counseling, STI prevention, and secondary HIV
chronic lung and skin disease [207]. Up to 20% of perinatal in- prevention in early or later adolescence [215, 216].
fections present after age 6 years in populations that lack access Youth who acquired HIV through sexual activity or in-
to prenatal or newborn screening. These cases can present diag- jection drug use have issues that are similar to those for
nostic challenges, presenting with immune thrombocytopenic adults including high rates of substance use, STIs, psychiatric
purpura, anemia, recurrent parotitis, chronic diarrhea, enceph- comorbidities, and social determinants that may present bar-
alopathy, or stroke [208]. Unfortunately, HIV transmission at- riers to care. Sexual orientation and gender identity should be
tributable to sexual abuse occurs in children, so children with discussed in a nonjudgmental manner in order to understand
signs and symptoms of HIV should be tested for HIV even if sexual risk and diminish stigma [217]. Multidisciplinary
initial testing as an infant was negative. Additionally, children teams that simultaneously address biological and psycho-
who have been adopted from resource limited settings or who social issues are critical in optimizing outcomes, including
have arrived as immigrants or refugees from locations where early initiation of therapy to maximize immune recovery
transfusion and/or unsafe injection practices may exist in the and health and minimize transmission risk [218, 219]. ART
setting of undertesting for HIV, should be screened for HIV should be prescribed according to established adult and ado-
infection. lescent treatment guidelines [77].

The transition of care from pediatric/adolescent to adult Evidence Summary
providers should be a deliberate, comprehensive, and coor- Transgender people identify with a gender that differs from the
dinated youth-friendly process that involves the healthcare sex assigned at birth. It is important to use the appropriate ter-
team and the patient [220–222]. Care must be given to attend minology when talking with and about transgender persons.
to the diverse needs of the adolescent that extend beyond Many terms are used and often are confused with each other
medical care, including employment, independent living, and or used incorrectly (Table 7). Gender dysphoria refers to dis-
intimate relationships. Over time, youth must learn to nego- comfort around a discrepancy between one’s gender identity
tiate the healthcare system and assume increasing responsi- and sex assigned at birth. Not all transgender people experience
bility for their healthcare. The national AIDS Education and gender dysphoria. When experienced, gender dysphoria can be
Training Centers provide a resource book on best practices treated through hormones and other therapies [70]. Stigma and
for transition, as do several other sources [223–226]. discrimination are serious issues that threaten quality of care
for transgender and gender-diverse persons, regardless of HIV
VIII. C
ONSIDERATIONS FOR TRANSGENDER AND status. Nearly half of transgender persons face family rejection,

GENDER DIVERSE POPULATIONS AGED AT 40% report a history of suicide attempt, 30% live in poverty,
LEAST 18 YEARS 14% experience homelessness, 35% are bullied in school, 30%
Recommendations have experienced discrimination within the healthcare system,
93. Transgender and gender-diverse persons with HIV should and 28% avoid the healthcare system due to fear of discrimi-
have access to gender-affirming, nondiscriminatory, nation [227]. Global estimates show a pooled HIV prevalence
nonstigmatizing, and culturally sensitive care. of 19.1% among transgender women, with 49-fold higher odds
94. Intake forms, medical records, and other documentation of HIV prevalence than the general population [228]. Data for
should integrate gender-neutral language and include HIV prevalence among transgender men are inadequate, but
gender identity options rather than be limited to sex at estimates are between 0% and 10% [229]. Given the dispro-
birth. portionate impact of HIV on transgender individuals and the
95. Transgender persons should be offered medical and/or psychosocial barriers they face, health systems and healthcare
surgical therapy in order to achieve their desired gender providers should create more welcoming, accepting, and com-
characteristics, in accordance with the World Professional fortable clinical environments for transgender persons. Clinic
Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) standards of intake and registration forms should allow selection of gender
care. HIV care providers should be familiar with initial la- identity and preferred pronouns that then should be used by
boratory monitoring and gender-affirming hormone treat- staff [230]. Additionally, educational and health promotional
ment or provide referral to a clinician or endocrinologist materials designed for transgender individuals create a better
experienced in transgender care. sense of inclusion. Staff should undergo training on gender di-
96. Cancer screening should be conducted based on guidelines versity and cultural sensitivity. This comprehensive approach
for the organs and tissues present in the individual. with all staff may create a culture of gender-affirming care that
Table 7. Terminology Associated with Gender Identity and Hormonal Therapy
Gender Identity Terminology and Definitions
Gender/sex: broad terms describing the entire category of relevant biological characteristics, self-identification, and stereotypical behaviors that might
be considered male, female, or some variation
Gender identity: the internal sense of being male, female, or neither
Transgender, transsexual, trans, gender nonbinary, gender diverse, gender incongruent, genderqueer: adjectives used to refer to persons whose
gender identity does not align with their sex recorded at birth (the latter primarily based on visible physical anatomy)
Cisgender, nontransgender: adjectives used to refer to persons whose gender identity aligns with their sex recorded at birth
Gender expression: how a person communicates gender identity through appearance, dress, name, pronouns, mannerisms, and speech
Gender-affirming hormone treatment and surgeries: broad categories of medical interventions that transgender persons might consider to align their
appearance and their gender identity
Gender transition, gender affirmation, gender confirmation: an overall process of alignment of physical characteristics and/or gender expression with
gender identity
Gender dysphoria: discomfort felt by some persons due to lack of alignment between gender identity and the sex recorded at birth; not all transgender
persons have dysphoria, but many US insurance companies require this diagnosis for payment for transgender medical and surgical interventions
Feminizing hormone therapy: the use of estrogens and often androgen blockers with the objective of inducing changes in physical characteristics to
better match patient gender identity
Masculinizing hormone therapy: the use of testosterone with the objective of inducing changes in physical characteristics to better match patient
gender identity
Adapted from [224].

is important for patient empowerment, care engagement, and occur every 3 months for the first year and once to twice per
viral suppression [231, 232]. A core set of principles for care of year thereafter, with potassium monitoring at the same inter-
transgender and gender-diverse persons has been incorporated vals for those on spironolactone. The exact monitoring interval
into WPATH standards. (Table 8) for prolactin has not been determined, but periodic monitoring
In order to initiate gender-affirming medical therapy, the during ongoing hormone therapy should occur [70, 233]. Goal
clinician should ascertain that the patient’s gender identity levels for testosterone are <50 ng/dL and for estradiol they are
is persistent and support the individual’s capacity to make between 100 and 200 pg/mL. Oral conjugated estrogen formu-
medical decisions. Many payers, however, require a referral lations (eg, ethinyl estradiol) are not recommended due to in-
letter from a mental health professional prior to gender- creased risk of thromboembolic events [233].
affirming genital reconstruction surgery. The Endocrine For masculinizing hormone therapy, testosterone remains the
Society recommends that a team-based care approach in- mainstay treatment, with results seen in 3 to 6 months including
clude a mental health provider in the care of children and cessation of menses, deepening of voice, increased muscle mass,
adolescents [233]. General preventive care and cancer and increased acne and sexual desire [234]. Clitoral enlargement

screening should be conducted based on disease risk fac- and male hair pattern changes can occur in the longer term. For
tors, risks that hormonal therapy may incur, and the ana- masculinizing therapy, hemoglobin/hematocrit and testosterone
tomical structures present. should be obtained at baseline and measured every 3 months for
Transgender hormone therapy is safe when provided under the first year and 1–2 times per year thereafter. The testosterone
medical supervision. Persons should be offered medical therapy level goal is the normal physiologic male range [233].
according to published guidelines in order to achieve their desired All boosted PIs may decrease estradiol levels and increase tes-
gender characteristics [70, 233]. HIV care providers should be fa- tosterone levels. Some NNRTIs (efavirenz, etravirine, nevirapine)
miliar with clinical and laboratory monitoring and gender-affirming may decrease estradiol and testosterone levels. Rilpivirine and
hormone treatment or provide referral to a medical provider or doravirine have no documented interactions with estradiol, but
endocrinologist experienced in transgender care. Patients should data on interactions with testosterone are lacking [235–237].
be provided information on expectations in terms of timeline for Cobicistat may decrease or increase estradiol and increase tes-
changes and types of changes associated with hormone therapy, as tosterone levels, so dose adjustments may be necessary. Detailed
well as a balanced risk assessment of those therapies. drug–drug interactions are available in the DHHS adult and ado-
Transgender women who receive hormone therapy may be lescent guidelines [32]. It is important to provide patients accurate
at increased risk of thrombosis and cardiovascular disease, and information on drug–drug interactions between their ART and
risks and benefits should be discussed. Smoking cessation should hormone therapy, and to make dose adjustments as appropriate,
be encouraged. Nonoral estrogen formulations that avoid first as lack of communication around this concern may contribute to
pass metabolism may pose lower risk of thrombosis and should toxicities, lack of efficacy, and poor adherence to one therapy or the
be considered. Androgen therapy may result in erythrocytosis. other. It is important to emphasize that ART will not have a delete-
Prior to hormone therapy or any gender-affirming surgical pro- rious effect on hormonal therapy [238].
cedure, individuals who may wish to conceive may consider
sperm or oocyte preservation. For feminizing hormone therapy,
IX. CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SEVERE ACUTE
estrogen and antiandrogen medications are generally the first RESPIRATORY SYNDROME CORONAVIRUS 2
line of therapy. In 6 to 18 months patients may experience PANDEMIC AND CORONAVIRUS DISEASE 2019
breast growth, decreased muscle mass, softer skin, decreased IN PERSONS WITH HIV
sexual desire, and fewer erections [233]. Clinical evaluations Limited knowledge still exists about how the novel coronavirus
with laboratory monitoring of estradiol and testosterone should severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)
Table 8. Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender-diverse Persons
• Exhibit respect for patients who are transgender and gender-diverse (do not pathologize differences in gender identity or expression)
• Provide care (or refer to knowledgeable colleagues) that affirms patients’ gender identities and reduces the distress of gender dysphoria, when present
• Become knowledgeable about the healthcare needs of transsexual, transgender, and gender-nonconforming people, including the benefits and risks of
treatment options for gender dysphoria
• Match the treatment approach to the specific needs of patients, particularly their goals for gender expression and need for relief from gender dysphoria
• Facilitate access to appropriate care
• Seek patients’ informed consent before providing treatment
• Offer continuity of care
• Be prepared to support and advocate for patients within their families and communities (schools, workplaces, and other settings)
Adapted from [70].

affects persons with HIV with regard to acquisition and clinical for recommendations on testing, treatment, and prevention of
course of its disease, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). COVID-19 and DHHS guidelines regarding ART [32, 252].
There is still some concern that persons with poorly controlled
virus (high HIV RNA levels) and advanced immune suppres- Notes
sion, as measured by CD4 cell count <200 cells/µL, may be Acknowledgments. The authors thank the following individuals for their
at higher risk for serious COVID-19 outcomes, but data are contributions to this guidance: Andrea Weddle, Asa Radix, MD, Kimberly
Workowski, MD, Jim Morris-Knower, E4 Enterprise (Alana Formosa,
lacking [239]. Studies are ongoing to determine whether those
Stephanie Lambert).
with HIV are at increased risk for acquisition of infection or Disclaimer. This guidance cannot account for individual variation
severe illness [240–243]. Persons with HIV may, however, have among patients and is not intended to supplant clinician judgment with re-
comorbidities that increase overall risk or impact disease pro- spect to particular patients or special clinical situations. The HIV Medicine
Association and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) con-
gression [240, 241]. While advanced HIV disease is a condition sider adherence to this guidance to be voluntary, with the ultimate deter-
to consider when advising SARS CoV-2 testing, it is not specif- mination regarding its application to be made based on individual patient
ically an indication for testing. circumstances.

Financial support. The Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA)
Two ARV drugs, lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) and tenofovir provided financial support for this guidance.
(TDF), are undergoing clinical studies because of in vitro ac- Potential conflicts of interest. To provide thorough transparency,
tivity against some coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2 IDSA requires full disclosure of all relationships, regardless of relevancy
to the guideline or guidance topic. The review process included assess-
[244]. An initial trial of LPV/r in advanced disease was disap-
ment of co-chair relationships by the IDSA Ethics Committee leader-
pointing, and other studies are ongoing, including a preven- ship and review of the writing panels’ relationships by the co-chairs. The
tion trial with TDF for Spanish healthcare workers [244, 245]. assessment of disclosed relationships for possible conflicts of interest
Currently, there is no indication for changing ART in persons was based on the relative weight of the financial relationship (ie, mon-
etary amount) and the relevance of the relationship (ie, the degree to
with HIV, including those with COVID-19 [32]. HIV viral sup- which an association might reasonably be interpreted by an independent
pression and improved immune recovery should benefit those observer as related to the topic or recommendation of consideration).
with concurrent COVID-19 infection. Management of other The reader of this guidance should be mindful of this when the list of
disclosures is reviewed. J. A. A. reports grants and personal fees from
comorbidities, including diabetes mellitus, should be beneficial Gilead Sciences, Merck, ViiV Healthcare, and Janssen; personal fees
and is encouraged [246]. from Theratech and Medicure; and grants from Regeneron, Frontier
During this pandemic, challenges to HIV care include access Technology, Pfizer, and Atea outside the submitted work. A. L. A. re-
ports personal fees from Gilead Sciences and Merck; grants from the
to HIV testing, care linkage, access to medication, and psycho-
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institute
social stress and stigma [247, 248]. Community-based organi- of Minority Health and Health Disparities, and National Institute of
zations, clinics, emergency rooms, and other healthcare delivery Child Health and Human Development outside the submitted work. J. A.
systems are adapting their operations to provide services for C. reports personal fees from Integritas Communications, Vindico CME,
Clinical Care Options, and Abt Associates outside the submitted work.
prevention, testing, pharmacy services, medical care, and coun- M. K. J. reports grants and personal fees from Gilead Sciences and grants
seling for persons with HIV and vulnerable populations at risk from GlaxoSmithKline/ViiV Healthcare, Merck, and Janssen. T. S. re-
for HIV [249, 250]. Many health systems have increased the use ports personal fees and grants from GlaxoSmithKline/ViiV Healthcare
and Gilead Sciences outside the submitted work. W. R. S. reports per-
of telemedicine among persons with HIV. While telemedicine sonal fees from GlaxoSmithKline/ViiV Healthcare and Janssen out-
cannot replicate some elements of the office visit, many aspects side the submitted work. M. A. T. reports support for clinical trials to
of the asymptomatic patient visit, including providing medical the AIDS Research Consortium of Atlanta from Bristol Myers Squibb,
Cepheid, Inc, Cytodyn, Inc, Frontier Biotechnologies, Gilead Sciences,
and HIV-related history, reviewing systems, ordering and re-
GlaxoSmithKline, Merck Sharp Dohme, and ViiV Healthcare outside the
viewing laboratory results, renewing and reviewing medication submitted work. The remaining author: No reported conflicts of interest.
side effects, and many other aspects of physical and behavioral All authors have submitted the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential
health, can be accomplished with a telemedicine visit. Many pri- Conflicts of Interest. Conflicts that the editors consider relevant to the
content of the manuscript have been disclosed.
vate health insurers, Medicaid plans, and Medicare pay for tel-
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Clinical Infectious Diseases

Primary Care Guidance for Persons With Human

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HIV Primary Care Guidance • cid 2021:73 (1 December) • e3573

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History of the present illness

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Review of Systems Physical Examination

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HIV-specific tests for all persons with HIV

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HIV Primary Care Guidance • cid 2021:73 (1 December) • e3579

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Intervention Recommendation Comments

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Intervention Recommendation Comments

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HIV Primary Care Guidance • cid 2021:73 (1 December) • e3587

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HIV Primary Care Guidance • cid 2021:73 (1 December) • e3589

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HIV Primary Care Guidance • cid 2021:73 (1 December) • e3591

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Statin Protease Inhibitor Nonnucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor

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