TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION TIGHT JUCTIONS

- Also
known as
• Tissue is a group of cells that usually have a
Occluding
common origin in an embryo and function together
Juctions or
to carry out specialized activities.
Zonula Occludens
• Tissues may be hard, semisolid, or even liquid in
their consistency, a range exemplified by bone, fat, - Tight junctions consist of web-like strands
and blood. of transmembrane proteins that fuse
together the outer surfaces of adjacent
• Histology –is the science that deals with the study
plasma membranes to seal off passageways
of tissues.
between adjacent cells. (eg.stomach,
•Pathologist –is a physician who specializes in intestines, and urinary bladder)
laboratory studies of cells and tissues to help other - They inhibit the passage of substances
physicians make accurate diagnoses.One of the between cells and prevent the contents of
principal functions of a pathologist is to examine these
tissues for any changes that might indicate disease organs
from
TYPES OF TISSUES leaking
1. Epithelial Tissue - cover body surfaces and into the
line hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts. blood
2. Connective Tissue - protect and support the or
body and its organs. Binds organs together,
store energy reserves as fat, and help
surrounding tissues.
provide the body with immunity to disease-
causing organisms.
3. Muscular Tissue - are composed of cells
specialized for contraction and generation
of force.
4. Nervous Tissue - detects changes in a
variety of conditions inside and outside the ADJERENS CONJUNCTION
body and responds by generating electrical
• Adherens junctions contain plaque, a dense layer of
signals called nerve action potentials (nerve
proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that
impulses) that activate muscular attaches both to membrane proteins and to
contractions and glandular secretions. microfilaments of the Cytoskeleton.

CELL JUNCTIONS - contact points between the - Cadherins transmembrane glycoproteins that
plasma membranes of tissue cells joins the cells.

1. Tight junctions • In epithelial cells, adherens junctions often form

extensive zones called adhesion belts because they
2. Adherens junction
encircle the cell similar to the way a belt encircles your
3. Desmosomes
waist.
4. Hemidesmosomes
5. Gap junctions •Adherens junctions help epithelial surfaces resist
separation during various contractile activities, as when
food moves through the intestines.
 • Gap junctions also enable nerve or muscle
impulses to spread rapidly among cells
DESMOSOMES

• Contain plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
(cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space
between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one • Epithelial tissue or epithelium (plural is epithelia)
another; the plaque of desmosomes does not attach to consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in
microfilaments. either single or multiple layers. Because the cells are
closely packed and are
•A desmosome plaque
held tightly together
attaches to elements of
the cytoskeleton by many cell junctions,
known as intermediate there is little
filaments, which intercellular space
consist of the protein between adjacent
keratin. plasma membranes.
• Desmosomes prevent • Form coverings and
epidermal cells from linings throughout the body
separating under
tension and cardiac muscle cells from pulling apart during
contraction.
FUNCTIONS:
1. Selective barriers that limit or aid the transfer of
substances into and out of the body.
2. Secretory surfaces that release products produced
HEMIDESMOSOMES by the cells onto their free surfaces.
•Hemidesmosomes resemble 3. Protective surfaces that resist the abrasive
desmosomes, but they do influences of the environment.
not link adjacent cells. The
name arises from the fact
that they look like half of a
desmosome
• However, the
transmembrane glycoproteins in hemidesmosomes are
STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
integrins rather than cadherin.
• Hemidesmosomes anchor cells not to each other but to
the basement membrane. 1. Apical (free) surface–receives cell secretions; they
may or may not contain cilia or microvilli
2. Lateral surface –contains the cell junctions
3. Basal surface –deepest; adhere to extracellular
GAP JUNCTIONS matrix such as the basement membrane

•Gap junctions allow the TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES

cells in a tissue to
communicate with one 1. Covering and lining epithelium forms the outer
another. covering of the skin and some internal organs.
•Gap junctions, membrane -It also forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts,
proteins called connexins form tiny fluid-filled and body cavities, and the interior of the respiratory,
tunnels called connexons that connect neighboring digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
cells
2. Glandular epithelium makes up the secreting Cuboidal and back, as organs such as the urinary
portion of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal bladder stretch(distend) to a larger size and then
glands, and sweat glands. collapse to a smaller size
BASED ON ARRANGEMENT OF LAYERS
I. Simple epithelium
• Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells that a. Simple squamous epithelium
functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, b. Simple cuboidal epithelium
or absorption.
c. Simple columnar epithelium (nonciliated and
• Secretion is the production and release of ciliated)
substances such as mucus, sweat, or enzymes.
d. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (nonciliated
• Absorption is the intake of fluids or other and ciliated)
substances such as digested food from the intestinal
II. Stratified epithelium
tract.
a. Stratified squamous epithelium (keratinized, when
• Pseudostratified epithelium appears to have
surface cells are dead and become hardened, and
multiple layers of cells Because cell nuclei lie at
nonkeratinized, when surface cells remain alive)
different levels.
b. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
• Stratified epithelium consists of two or more
layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in use c. Stratified columnar epithelium
the locations where there is considerable wear and d. Transitional epithelium
tear
SUMMARY OF THE TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
(PHOTO SAMPLES AT POWERPOINT SLIDES)
BASED ON CELL SHAPES
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
• Single layer of flat cells that resembles a tiled floor
Epithelial cells vary in shape depending on their
when viewed from apical surface;
function:
• Centrally located nucleus that is flattened and oval
1.Squamous cells are thin, which allows for the rapid
or spherical in shape.
passage of substances through them. • Present at sites of filtration or diffusion and at site
of secretion in serous membranes.
2.Cuboidal cells are as tall as they are wide and are
• Not found in body areas subject to mechanical
shaped like cubes or hexagons. They may have
stress (wear and tear).
microvilli at their apical surface and function in
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
• Single layer of cube-shaped cells; round, centrally
located nucleus. Cuboidal cell shape is obvious when
tissue is sectioned and viewed from the side.
• For Secretion and Absorption
NONCILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
•Single layer of nonciliated columnlike cells with oval
nuclei near base of cells.
either secretion or absorption •contains (1) columnar epithelial cells with microvilli
3. Columnar cells are much taller than they are wide, at apical surface and (2) goblet cells.
like columns, and protect underlying tissues. Their **Microvilli, fingerlike cytoplasmic projections,
apical surfaces may have cilia or microvilli, and they increase surface area of plasma membrane, thus
often are specialized for secretion and absorption increasing cell’s rate of absorption.
4.Transitional cells change shape, from squamous to
 **Goblet cells are modified columnar epithelial • Protection against abrasion, water loss, ultraviolet
cells that secrete mucus, a slightly sticky fluid, at radiation, and foreign invasion. Both types form first
their apical surfaces. line of defense against microbes.
•Secretion and absorption; larger columnar cells
contain more organelles and thus are capable of Type of Epithelium Location
higher level of secretion and absorption than are Simple Squamous Lining of Loop of Henle, Alveoli, Blood
vessels
cuboidal cells.
Simple Cuboidal Ducts of the gland, Lining of kidney
CILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM tubules
• Single layer of ciliated column-like cells with oval Simple Columnar Uterine tube, Lining of stomach, gall
bladder (non-ciliated), Fallopian tube
nuclei near base of cells. Goblet cells are usually
(ciliated), small intestine (w/ microvilli)
interspersed among ciliated columnar epithelia. Stratified Squamous Non-Keratinized: Vagina, Cervix, Mouth,
• Cilia beat in unison, moving mucus and foreign Esophagus/ Keratinized: Skin
particles toward throat, where they can be coughed Stratified Cuboidal Ducts of sweat glands
up and swallowed or spit out. Stratified Columnar Male urethra
Transitional Urinary bladder, urinary tract
• Coughing and sneezing speed up movement of cilia
Pseudostratified Columnar Trachea(ciliated)
and mucus. Cilia also help move oocytes expelled
from ovaries through uterine (fallopian) tubes into STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
uterus. • Two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer are
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM cube-shaped; fairly rare type.
•Appears to have several layers because cell nuclei • For Protection; limited secretion and absorption
are at various levels. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
**Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium • Description Basal layers usually consist of
contains cells that extend to surface and secrete shortened, irregularly shaped cells; only apical layer
mucus (goblet cells) or bear cilia. has columnar cells
**Pseudostratified nonciliated columnar • Uncommon
epithelium contains cells without cilia and lacks • Function for Protection and secretion.
goblet cells. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
• Ciliated variety secretes mucus that traps foreign • Variable appearance (transitional).
particles, and cilia sweep away mucus for elimination • In relaxed or unstretched state, looks like stratified
from body; nonciliated variety functions in cuboidal epithelium, except apical layer cells tend to
absorption and protection be large and rounded. As tissue is stretched, cells
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM become flatter, giving the appearance of stratified
• Two or more layers of cells; cells in apical layer and squamous epithelium.
several layers deep to it are squamous; cells in • Allows urinary organs to stretch and maintain
deeper layers vary from cuboidal to columnar. protective lining while holding variable amounts of
• Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium fluid without rupturing
develops tough layer of keratin in apical layer of cells
and several layers deep to it GLADULAR EPITHELIUM
**Keratin is a tough, fibrous intracellular protein • Function for secretion, which is accomplished by
that helps protect skin and underlying tissues from glandular cells that often lie in clusters deep to the
heat, microbes, and chemicals. covering and lining epithelium.
• Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium • A gland may consist of a single cell or a group of
does not contain large amounts of keratin in apical cells that secrete substances into ducts (tubes), onto
layer and several layers deep and is constantly a surface, or into the blood.
moistened by mucus from salivary and mucous • Endocrine glands secrete hormones that enter the
glands; organelles are not replaced. interstitial fluid and then diffuse directly into the
bloodstream without flowing through a duct; 4.Simple acinar. Secretory portion is rounded and
ductless glands; secretion is inside attaches to a single unbranched duct.
• Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts • Example: glands of the penile urethra
that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining 5.Simple branched acinar. Rounded secretory part is
epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of a branched and attaches to a single unbranched duct.
hollow organ; secretion is outside • Example: Sebaceous glands
• Organs with Exocrine and Endocrine glands:
pancreas, ovaries, and testes COMPOUND EXOCRINE GLANDS
1.Compound tubular. Secretory portion is tubular
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE and attaches to a branched duct
Example: bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands.
GLANDS
2. Compound acinar. Secretory portion is rounded
1.Unicellular glands are single-celled glands.
and attaches to a branched duct.
**Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine
Example: mammary glands
glands secrete mucus directly on to the apical
3.Compound tubuloacinar. Secretory portion is both
surface of a lining epithelium.
tubular and rounded and attaches to a branched
2.Multicellular glands are common in exocrine
duct.
glands composed of many cells that form a
Example: acinar glands of the pancreas
distinctive microscopic structure or macroscopic
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE
organ.
GLANDS
**Examples: Sudoriferous (sweat), Sebaceous(oil),
1. Merocrine Glands – are synthesized on ribosomes
and Salivary glands.
attached to rough ER; processed, sorted, and
CLASSIFICATION OF MULTICELLULAR EXOCRINE packaged by the Golgi complex; and released from
GLANDS the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis.
1. Branched or Unbranched E.g. Salivary Glands and Pancreas
a. Simple Gland – if the duct of the gland does not 2. Apocrine glands accumulate their secretory
branch. product at the apical surface of the secreting cell.
b. Compound Gland – if the duct branches. Then, that portion of the cell pinches off by
2. Shape of the secretory portions of the gland exocytosis from the rest of the cell to release the
a. Tubular Glands – glands with tubular secretory secretion
parts E.g. Sweat Glands
b. Acinar Glands – those with rounded secretory 3. Holocrine Glands – their cells accumulate a
portions; also called alveolar glands. secretory product in their cytosol; As the secretory
c. Tubuloacinar glands –have both tubular and more cell matures, it ruptures and becomes the secretory
rounded secretory parts product because the cell ruptures in this mode of
secretion.
3. Functional Exocrine Glands
E.g. Sebaceous (oil) Glands of the skin

SIMPLE EXOCRINE GLANDS

CONNECTIVE TISSUES
1.Simple tubular. Tubular secretory part is straight
and attaches to a single unbranched duct. • one of the most abundant and widely distributed
• Example: glands in the large intestine tissues in the body.
2.Simple branched tubular. Tubular secretory part is Functions:
branched and attaches to a single unbranched duct.  They bind together, support, and strengthen other
• Example: gastric glands body tissues;
3.Simple coiled tubular. Tubular secretory part is
coiled and attaches to a single unbranched duct.
• Example: sweat glands
 Protect and insulate internal organs tracts. They are also abundant in the salivary glands,
 Compartmentalize structures such as skeletal lymph nodes, spleen, and red bone marrow.
muscles 4. Mast cells are abundant alongside the blood
 Serve as the major transport system within the vessels that supply connective tissue. They produce
body (blood, a fluid connective tissue) histamine, a chemical that dilates small blood vessels
as part of the inflammatory response, the body’s
 Stores energy reserves (adipose, or fat, tissue)
reaction to injury or infection. In addition,
 Immune responses
researchers have recently discovered that mast cells
can bind to, ingest, and kill bacteria.
GENERAL FEATURES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES 5. Adipocytes also called fat cells or adipose cells,
• Basic Elements of Connective Tissues are connective tissue cells that store triglycerides
1. Extracellular Matrix -is the material located (fats).
between its widely spaced cells. • They are found deep to the skin and around organs
• Secreted by connective tissue cells such as the heart and kidneys.
• It is consist of protein fibers and ground substance, 6. White blood cells are not found in significant
the material between the cells and the fibers numbers in normal connective tissues. However, in
• Controls the watery environment via specific response to certain conditions they migrate from
proteoglycan molecules. blood into connective tissues.
2. Cells Example:
• Neutrophils gather at sites of infection
• Eosinophils migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and
CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS
allergic responses
1.Fibroblasts (fibro-fibers) are large, flat cells with
branching processes. They are present in all the
general connective tissues, and usually are the most EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
numerous. • The ground substance is the component of a
• Fibroblasts migrate through the connective tissues, connective tissue between the cells and fibers. The
secreting the fibers and certain components of the ground substance may be fluid, semifluid,
ground substance of the extracellular matrix gelatinous, or calcified.
2. Macrophage (macro-large; -phages eaters) • It supports cells, binds them together, stores
develop from monocytes. water, and provides a medium for exchange of
substances between the blood and cells.
• Macrophages have an irregular shape with short
branching projections and are capable of engulfing • It plays an active role in how tissues develop,
bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis. migrate, proliferate, and change shape, and in how
• Fixed Macrophage–reside in a particular tissue;
they carry out their metabolic functions.
E.g. Alveolar macrophages in the lungs or splenic macrophages in Component:
the spleen Water and an assortment of large organic molecules
• Wondering Macrophage –have the ability to move throughout (polysaccharides and proteins)
the tissue and gather at sites of infection or inflammation to carry
on phagocytosis.
3.Plasma cells are small cells that develop from a GROUND SUBSTANCE
type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte. The polysaccharides include:
• Secrete antibodies, proteins that attack or a. Hyaluronic acid
neutralize foreign substances in the body. b. Chondroitin sulfate
• Important in the Immune Response c. Dermatan sulfate
• Most plasma cells reside in connective tissues, d. Keratan sulfate
especially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory • Collectively, they are referred to as
glycosaminoglycans or GAGs
 •

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Except for hyaluronic acid, the GAGs are associated I. Embryonic connective tissues
with proteins called proteoglycans. A. Mesenchyme
• Hyaluronic acid is a viscous, slippery substance that B. Mucous connective tissue
binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps II. Mature connective tissues
maintain the shape of the eye balls. A. Loose connective tissues
 White blood cells, sperm cells, and some 1. Areolar connective tissue
bacteria produce hyaluronidase, an enzyme that 2. Adiposetissue
breaks apart hyaluronic acid, thus causing the
3. Reticular connective tissue
ground substance of connective tissue to become
more liquid. B. Dense connective tissues
1. Dense regular connective tissue
• Chondroitin sulfate provides support and
2. Dense irregular connective tissue
adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin, and blood
vessels. 3. Elastic connective tissue

• Keratan sulfate found in the bone, cartilage, and C. Cartilage

the cornea of the eye. 1. Hyaline cartilage
• Adhesion proteins are responsible for linking 2. Fibrocartilage
components of the ground substance to one another 3. Elastic cartilage
and to the surfaces of cells. D. Bone tissue
• fibronectin, main adhesion protein of connective E. Liquid connective tissue
tissues which binds to both collagen fibers and 1. Blood tissue
ground substance, linking them together. 2.Lymph

PROTEIN FIBERS I. Embryonic Connective Tissues

1. Collagen fibers (colla = glue) are very strong and • MESENCHYME
resist pulling forces (tension), but they are not stiff,
• Description: Irregularly shaped mesenchymal cells
which allows tissue flexibility.
embedded in semifluid ground substance that
 The properties of different types of collagen fibers contains delicate reticular fibers.
vary from tissue to tissue. Eg. Collagen fibers in Cartilage
and Bone.
• Location: Almost exclusively under skin and along
developing bones of embryo; some in adult
2. Elastic fibers are smaller in diameter than collagen
connective tissue, especially along blood vessels.
fibers, branch and join together to form a fibrous
network within a connective tissue. An elastic fiber • Function: Forms almost all other types of
consists of molecules of the protein elastin connective tissue
surrounded by a glycoprotein named fibrillin, which • MUCOUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
adds strength and stability. • Description: Widely scattered fibroblasts
3. Reticular fibers (reticul = net), consisting of embedded in viscous, jelly like ground substance
collagen arranged in fine bundles with a coating of that contains fine collagen fibers
glycoprotein, provide support in the walls of blood • Location: Umbilical cord of fetus
vessels and form a network around the cells in some • Function: Support
tissues, such as areolar connective tissue (areol-small II. MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
space), adipose tissue,nerve fibers,and smooth
• The second major subclass of connective tissues
muscle tissue
• Present in the new born.
• Their cells arise primarily from mesenchyme • Function: Forms stroma of organs; binds smooth
muscle tissue cells; filters and removes worn-out
TYPES OF MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUES blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.
1. Loose connective tissues their fibers are loosely
arranged between cells. The types of loose connective TYPES OF MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
tissues are areolar connective tissue, adipose tissue, and • Dense connective tissues contain more fibers,
reticular connective tissue. which are thicker and more densely packed, but
2. Dense connective Tissues have considerably fewer cells than loose connective
3. Cartilage tissues. There are three types: dense regular
4. Bone tissue connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue,
and elastic connective tissue.
5. Liquid connective tissue (blood tissue and lymph)
• Cartilage consists of a dense network of collagen
TYPES OF LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in
• AREOLAR
chondroitin sulfate, a gel-like component of the
• Description: One of the most widely distributed ground substance.
connective tissues
•Cartilage can endure considerably more stress
• Location: In and around nearly every body than loose and dense connective tissues.
structure (thus, called “packing material” of the
•The strength of cartilage is due to its collagen
body): in subcutaneous layer deep to skin; papillary
fibers, and its resilience (ability to assume its
(superficial) region of dermis of skin; lamina propria
original shape after deformation) is due to
of mucous membranes; around blood vessels,
chondroitin sulfate
nerves, and body organs.
• Function: Strength, elasticity, support
• ADIPOSE
TYPES OF DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
• Description: Has cells derived from fibroblasts
• DENSE REGULAR CT
(called adipocytes) that are specialized for storage of
triglycerides (fats) as a large, centrally located • Description: Shiny white extracellular matrix;
droplet. mainly collagen fibers regularly arranged in bundles
• White Adipose Tissue –found numerously in adult with fibroblasts in rows between bundles. Collagen
• Brown Adipose Tissue is darker due to very rich blood supply fibers are not living (are protein structures secreted
and numerous pigmented mitochondria that participate in aerobic by fibroblasts), so damaged tendons and ligaments
cellular respiration; numerous in fetus and infants heal very slowly.
• Location: Wherever areolar connective tissue is • Location: Forms tendons (attach muscle to bone),
located: subcutaneous layer deep to skin, around most ligaments (attach bone to bone), and
heart and kidneys, yellow bone marrow, padding aponeuroses (sheet like tendons that attach muscle
around joints and behind eyeball in eye socket. to muscle or muscle to bone)
• Function: Reduces heat loss through skin; serves as • Function: Provides strong attachment between
an energy reserve; supports and protects organs. In various structures. Tissue structure with stands
newborns, BAT generates heat to maintain proper pulling (tension) along long axis of fibers
body temperature
• DENSE IRREGULAR CT
• RETICULAR CT
• Description: Collagen fibers; usually irregularly
• Description: Fine interlacing network of reticular arranged with a few fibroblasts.
fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and reticular cells.
• Location: fasciae (tissue beneath skin and around
• Location: Stroma (supporting framework) of liver, muscles and other organs), reticular (deeper)
spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow; reticular region of dermis of skin, fibrous pericardium of
lamina of basement membrane; around blood heart, periosteum of bone, perichondrium of
vessels and muscles. cartilage, joint capsules, membrane capsules
 around various organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of
nodes); also, in heart valves. larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes, embryonic
• Function: Provides tensile (pulling) strength in and fetal skeleton.
many directions. • Function: Provides smooth surfaces for movement
• ELASTIC CT at joints, flexibility, and support; weakest type of
cartilage
• Description: Predominantly elastic fibers with
•
fibroblasts between fibers; unstained tissue is
yellowish.
• Location: Lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries,
trachea, bronchial tubes, true vocal cords,
suspensory ligaments of penis, some ligaments
between vertebrae.
• Function: Allows stretching of various organs; is
strong and can recoil to original shape after being FIBROCARTILAGE
stretched. Elasticity is important to normal • Description: Chondrocytes scattered among clearly
functioning of lung tissue (recoils in exhaling) and visible thick bundles of collagen fibers within
elastic arteries (recoil between heartbeats to help extracellular matrix; lacks perichondrium.
maintain blood flow) • Location: Pubic symphysis (where hip bones join
anteriorly), intervertebral discs, menisci (cartilage
pads) of knee, portions of tendons that insert into
cartilage.
• Function: Support and joining structures together.
Strength and rigidity make it the strongest type of
cartilage.
CARTILAGE • ELASTIC CARTILAGE
• Description: Chondrocytes in threadlike network of
• Chondrocytes (chondro-cartilage), cells of mature elastic fibers within extracellular matrix;
cartilage occur singly or in groups within spaces perichondrium present.
called lacunae (sing. Lacuna) in the extra cellular • Location: Lid on top of larynx (epiglottis), part of
matrix. external ear(auricle), auditory (eustachian)tubes.
• Perichondrium(peri-around) covering of dense • Function: Provides strength and elasticity;
irregular connective tissue, surrounds the surface of maintains shape of certain structures
most cartilage and contains blood vessels and nerves CONNECTIVE TISSUE
and is the source of new cartilage cells. • Bones are organs composed of several different
Three (3) types of Cartilage: connective tissues, including bone or osseous tissue,
1. Hyaline cartilage the periosteum, red and yellow bone marrow, and
2. Fibro cartilage the endosteum (a membrane that lines a space
3. Elastic cartilage within bone that stores yellow bone marrow)
• HYALINE CARTILAGE (HYALINOS-GLASSY)
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE TISSUE
• Description: Contains a resilient gel as ground
substance and appears in the body as a bluish-white, 1. Compact bone
shiny substance. Fine collagen fibers are not visible 2. Spongy bone
with ordinary staining techniques; prominent COMPACT BONE
chondrocytes are found in lacunae surrounded by • Osteon or Haversian system – basic unit of compact bone
perichondrium (exceptions: articular cartilage in Parts of an Osteon:
joints and cartilage of epiphyseal plates, where 1.Lamellae
bones lengthen during growth). 2.Lacunae
• Location: Most abundant cartilage in body; at ends 3.Canaliculi
4.Central haversian canal
PARTS OF OSTEON
• Lamellae (sing. lamella) are concentric rings of
extracellular matrix that consist of mineral salts • Blood tissue (or simply blood) is a connective
(mostly calcium and phosphates), tissue with a liquid extracellular matrix and formed
elements. The extracellular matrix is called blood
• Gives bone its hardness and compressive strength,
plasma.
and collagen fibers, which give bone its tensile
• The blood plasma is a pale-yellow fluid that
strength.
consists mostly of water with a wide variety of
• Responsible for the compact nature of this type of
dissolved substances—nutrients, wastes, enzymes,
bone tissue
plasma proteins, hormones, respiratory gases, and
• Lacunae (sing. lacuna) are small spaces between
ions.
lamellae that contain mature bone cells called
• Suspended in the blood plasma are formed
osteocytes
elements—red blood cells (erythrocytes), white
• Projecting from the lacunae are canaliculi (little
blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets
canals), networks of minute canals containing the
(thrombocytes)
processes of osteocytes.
• Provides routes for nutrients to reach osteocytes
FORMED ELEMENTS
and for wastes to leave them
• Central (haversian) canal contains blood vessels
1. Red blood cells transport oxygen to body cells and
and nerves.
remove some carbon dioxide from them.
2. White blood cells are involved in phagocytosis,
immunity, and allergic reactions.
3. Platelets participate in blood clotting.
4. Lymph is the extracellular fluid that flows in
lymphatic vessels. It is a connective tissue that
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE TISSUE consists of several types of cells in a clear liquid
extracellular matrix that is similar to blood plasma
• Spongy bone lacks osteons. Rather, it consists of but with much less protein. The composition of
columns of bone called trabeculae (little beams), lymph varies from one part of the body to another.
which contain lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, and
canaliculi. MEMBRANES
• Spaces between trabeculae are filled with red bone
marrow • Membranes are flat sheets of pliable tissue that
cover or line a part of the body.
MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUES: BONE TISSUE • Epithelial membrane - majority of membranes
• Description: Compact bone tissue consists of consist of an epithelial layer and an underlying
osteons (haversian systems) that contain lamellae, connective tissue layer.
lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi, and central Principal epithelial membranes
(haversian) canals. By contrast, spongy bone tissue 1. mucous membranes
consists of thin columns called trabeculae; spaces 2. serous membranes
between trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow. 3. cutaneous membrane or skin
• Location: Both compact and spongy bone tissue • Synovial membrane – lines joints and contains
make up the various parts of bones of the body. connective tissue but no epithelium.
• Function: Support, protection, storage; houses
blood-forming tissue; serves as levers that act with EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
muscle tissue to enable movement • Mucous Membranes
LIQUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE • A mucous membrane or mucosa lines a body
cavity that opens directly to the exterior. Mucous
membranes line the entire digestive, respiratory, synovial cavity (space between the bones),
and reproductive tracts, and much of the urinary
tract. They consist of a lining layer of epithelium and
an underlying layer of connective tissue.
• The epithelial layer of a mucous membrane is an
important feature of the body’s defense
mechanisms because it is a barrier that microbes and
other pathogens have difficulty penetrating.
• The connective tissue layer of a mucous membrane
is areolar connective tissue and is called and a layer of connective tissue (areolar and
the lamina propria.
adipose) deep to the synoviocytes.
SEROUS MEMBRANES
• Synoviocytes secrete some of the
• A serous membrane or serosa lines a body cavity
that does not open directly to the exterior (thoracic components of synovial fluid.
or abdominal cavities), and it covers the organs that • Synovial fluid lubricates and nourishes the
are within the cavity. cartilage covering the bones at movable
• Serous membranes consist of areolar connective joints and contains macrophages that
tissue covered by mesothelium (simple squamous remove microbes and debris from the joint
epithelium) cavity.
• Parietal layer – layer attached to and lining the cavity
wall;
MUSCULAR TISSUES
• Visceral layer – layer that covers and adheres to the
organs within the cavity
• Serous fluid, secreted by mesothelium; it is a watery • Muscular tissues consist of elongated cells
lubricant that allows organs to glide easily over one called muscle fibers or myocytes that can use ATP
another or to slide against the walls of cavities. to generate force.
• Pleura. serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity Functions:
and covering the lungs. 1. Body movements
• Pericardium. serous membrane lining the heart 2. Maintain posture
cavity and covering the heart 3. Generate heat
• Peritoneum. serous membrane lining the abdominal
4. Protection
cavity and covering the abdominal organs
Classification of Muscular Tissue
1. Skeletal Muscular Tissue
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES
2. Cardiac Muscular Tissue
• The cutaneous membrane or skin covers the
3. Smooth Muscular Tissue
entire surface of the body and consists of a
superficial portion called the epidermis and a
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCULAR TISSUE
deeper portion called the dermis.
• The epidermis consists of keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium, which protects underlying
tissues.
• The dermis consists of dense irregular
connective tissue and areolar connective tissue.
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES
• Synovial membranes line the cavities of
freely movable joints (joint cavities).
• SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
• Synovial membranes are composed of a • Description: Long, cylindrical, striated fibers
discontinuous layer of cells called (striations are alternating light and dark bands
synoviocytes, which are closer to the within fibers that are visible under a light
microscope). Skeletal muscle fibers vary greatly in
• SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
length, from a few centimeters in short muscles
• Description: Fibers usually involuntary,
to 30–40 cm (about 12–16 in.) in longest muscles.
nonstriated (lack striations, hence the term
A muscle fiber is a roughly cylindrical,
smooth). Smooth muscle fiber is a small spindle-
multinucleated cell with nuclei at periphery.
shaped cell thickest in middle, tapering at each
Skeletal muscle is considered voluntary because
end, and containing a single, centrally located
it can be made to contract or relax by conscious
nucleus. Gap junctions connect many individual
control.
fibers in some smooth muscle tissues (for
• Location: Usually attached to bones by
example, in wall of intestines). Can produce
tendons.
powerful contractions as many muscle fibers
• Function: Motion, posture, heat production,
contract in unison. Where gap junctions are
protection
absent, such as iris of eye, smooth muscle fibers
contract individually, like skeletal muscle fibers.
• Location: Iris of eyes; walls of hollow internal
structures such as blood vessels, airways to lungs,
stomach, intestines, gallbladder, urinary bladder,
and uterus.
• Function: Motion (constriction of blood vessels
and airways, propulsion of foods through
gastrointestinal tract, contraction of urinary
bladder and gallbladder).
•
NERVOUS TISSUE

• Principal types of cells: neurons and neuroglia.

1. Neurons (neuro-nerve) or nerve cells, are
sensitive to various stimuli. They convert stimuli
into electrical signals called nerve action
potentials (nerve impulses) and conduct these
action potentials to other neurons, to muscle
CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
tissue, or to glands.
• Description: Branched, striated fibers with
Most neurons consist of three basic parts
usually only one centrally located nucleus
a. Cell body
(occasionally two). Attach end to end by
b. Dendrites
transverse thickenings of plasma membrane
c. Axons
called intercalated discs which contain
• Cell body contains the nucleus and other
desmosomes and gap junctions.
organelles
• Desmosomes strengthen tissue and hold fibers
• Dendrites (dendr-tree) are tapering, highly
together during vigorous contractions. Gap
branched, and usually short cell processes
junctions provide route for quick conduction of
(extensions). They are the major receiving or
electrical signals (muscle action potentials)
input portion of a neuron.
throughout heart. Involuntary (not conscious)
• Axon (axo-axis) of a neuron is a single, thin,
control.
cylindrical process that may be very long. It is the
• Location: Heart wall.
output portion of a neuron, conducting nerve
• Function: Pumps blood to all parts of body.
impulses toward another neuron or to some
other tissue
• Neuroglia (-glia-glue) do not generate or
conduct nerve impulses, these cells do have
many important supportive functions.

• NERVOUS TISSUE
• Description:
(1) Neurons (nerve cells), which consist of cell
body and processes extending from cell body
(one to multiple dendrites and a single axon)
(2) Neuroglia, which do not generate or conduct
nerve impulses but have other important
supporting functions.
• Location: Nervous system.
• Function: Exhibits sensitivity to various types of
stimuli; converts stimuli into nerve impulses
(action potentials); conducts nerve impulses to
other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands