Critical Thinking

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Critical Thinking

A critical asset for an entrepreneur


What is Critical Thinking?

• A cognitive activity (associated with using mind)


• Abilities associated with critical thinking
• The ability to reflect sceptically
• The ability to think in a reasoned way

Scepticism in critical thinking means bringing an


element of polite doubt.
Critical thinking gives you the tools to use scepticism and doubt constructively
so that you can analyse what is before you.

Ultimately, in order to function in the world, we have to accept the probability


that at least some things are as they seem

Be Sceptical BUT
Why develop critical thinking?
• Skills in critical thinking bring precision to the way you think and work
• You will find that practice in critical thinking helps you to be more accurate
and specific in noting what is relevant and what is not.

• Ancilary skills required for critical thinking


• Observation
• Reasoning
• Decision making
• Analysis
• Judgement
• Persuasion
Barriers to Critical thinking

1. Assuming that criticism is 2. Not to engage in a criticism because


negative comments it is an intrinsically negative activity

3. Overestimating our reasoning abilities


4. Lack of methods strategies and practice

Although willing to be more critical, some people don't know which steps to take next
in order to improve their critical thinking skills.
With practice, most people can develop their skills in critical thinking.

5. Reluctance to critique experts

There can be a natural anxiety about critically analysing texts or other works by people
that you respect. It can seem strange for students who know little about their subject,
to be asked to critique works by those who are clearly more experienced.

It may help to bear in mind that this is part of the way teaching works in most foreign
universities

6. Insufficient focus and attention to detail


Poor criticism can result from making judgements based on too general an overview of
the subject matter. Critical thinking activities require focus on the exact task in hand
Thinking Skills
Position, Agreement, Disagreement, Argument

• Position: A Point of view

• Agreement: To concur (agree) with someone else point of view

• Disagreement: To hold a different point of view from some one else

• Argument: Using reasons to support a point of view so that audience


may be persuaded to agree. An argument may include disagreement, but
is more than simply disagreement if it is based on reasons.
Example Position
Genetic engineering really worries me.
I don't think it should be allowed.

I don't know much about genetic Disagreement

Agreement
engineering but I agree with you That doesn't convince me. I think
genetic engineering is really exciting
I know a lot about this subject
and I agree with you.

Argument
Argument
The possibilities for improving health and
Genetic engineering should be curtailed
longevity through genetic engineering
because there hasn't been sufficient
offer hope to sufferers of many conditions
research into what happens when new
that currently don't have an effective cure.
varieties are created without natural
We should be pushing ahead to help these
predators to hold them in check
people as quickly as we can.
Identify if following is (a) an argument or (b) a disagreement

Bilingualism and multilingualism confer many benefits.


Speakers of more than one language have a better
understanding of how languages are structured because they
can compare across two different systems. People who speak
only one language lack this essential point of reference. In
many cases, a second language can help people to have a
better understanding and appreciation of their first language.

Answer: (a) an argument


Bilingualism and multilingualism confer many benefits.
Speakers of more than one language have a better
understanding of how languages are structured because they
can compare across two different systems. People who speak
only one language lack this essential point of reference. In
many cases, a second language can help people to have a
better understanding and appreciation of their first language.
Identify if following is (a) an argument or (b) a disagreement
Complementary therapies are an increasingly popular
supplement to other forms of treatment. Those who use
these therapies argue that treatments such as
reflexology, homeopathy and shiatsu complement the
care provided by the medical profession. Indeed, some
people claim that these therapies are more effective than
traditional medicines. Anecdotal cases of miraculous
cures abound (exist in great numbers) and there are
those who believe such methods can compete on equal
terms with medical approaches. This just isn't convincing.
Answer: (b) a disagreement
Complementary therapies are an increasingly popular
supplement to other forms of treatment. Those who use
these therapies argue that treatments such as
reflexology, homeopathy and shiatsu complement the
care provided by the medical profession. Indeed, some
people claim that these therapies are more effective than
traditional medicines. Anecdotal cases of miraculous
cures abound (exist in great numbers) and there are
those who believe such methods can compete on equal
terms with medical approaches. This just isn't convincing.
Identify if following is (a) an argument or (b) a disagreement
People are less politically aware now than they have been at
any time in the past. For hundreds of years, people took great
personal risks to fight for cause that would benefit other
people more than themselves. This rarely happens today. As
late as the 1980s, there were frequent rallies with people in
one country demonstrating to show solidarity with people
elsewhere. Now, rallies are more likely to be for personal gain
such as better salaries or student grants rather than for
political issues of wider application. Even low risk activities
such as voting in elections attract low turn-outs.
Answer: (a) an argument
People are less politically aware now than they have been at
any time in the past. For hundreds of years, people took great
personal risks to fight for cause that would benefit other
people more than themselves. This rarely happens today. As
late as the 1980s, there were frequent rallies with people in
one country demonstrating to show solidarity with people
elsewhere. Now, rallies are more likely to be for personal gain
such as better salaries or student grants rather than for
political issues of wider application. Even low risk activities
such as voting in elections attract low turn-outs.
Identify if following is (a) an argument or (b) a disagreement
Sea-levels have risen and fallen for generations, as have
temperatures. Research suggests that global warming, if it is
indeed occurring, is primarily the result of natural changes in
the earth's temperature and the effects of solar winds. It is
now claimed that industrialisation and the burning of hydro-
carbons have little effect upon climatic change. My contention
is that arguments against global warming are dangerous.

Answer: (b) a disagreement


Sea-levels have risen and fallen for generations, as have
temperatures. Research suggests that global warming, if it is
indeed occurring, is primarily the result of natural changes in
the earth's temperature and the effects of solar winds. It is
now claimed that industrialisation and the burning of hydro-
carbons have little effect upon climatic change. My contention
(opinion) is that arguments against global warming are
dangerous.
I cannot agree with people who say that smacking children
does them no harm. Of course it harms them, both physically
and emotionally. Hitting another person is assault and it
would not be tolerated against an adult. Many adults have no
sense of the cruelty of smacking precisely because they were
smacked themselves as children and erroneously regard this
as normal. They then go on to assault other vulnerable
people, perpetuating a vicious cycle.

Answer: (b) an argument


I cannot agree with people who say that smacking children
does them no harm. Of course it harms them, both physically
and emotionally. Hitting another person is assault and it
would not be tolerated against an adult. Many adults have no
sense of the cruelty of smacking precisely because they were
smacked themselves as children and erroneously regard this
as normal. They then go on to assault other vulnerable
people, perpetuating a vicious cycle.
Non-Arguments
Descriptions
• Descriptions give an account of how something is done, or what something is
like. They do not give reasoned accounts of how or why something occurred
nor do they evaluate outcomes.
• Descriptive detail is not intended to persuade to a point of view but aims,
rather, to give the audience a more thorough impression of the item or issue
being described.
Example 1
The solution was placed in a test-tube and heated to 35 degree
centigrade. Small amounts of yellow vapour were emitted. These were
odourless. Forty millilitres of water were added to the solution, which
was then heated until it began to boil. This time, grey steam was
emitted. Water droplets gathered on the side of the test-tube.
Example 2
The painting depicts several figures gathered around a cottage and in
the fields. These figures are dressed in peasant dress. All of them are
located in the shadows either of the house or of the trees. It is not
possible to make out any individual features on their faces or in their
clothing. By contrast, the figures of the noblemen who commissioned
the painting are dressed in fine and individualised apparel.
Explanations

Explanations can appear to have the structure of an argument. They may


include statements and reasons, leading to a final conclusion, and be
introduced by signal words similar to those used for arguments. However,
explanations do not attempt to persuade the audience to a point of view.
They are used to:
• account for why or how something occurs;
• draw out the meaning of a theory, argument or other message.
Example 1
It was found that many drivers become drowsy when travelling and that
long hours at the wheel were a major cause of accidents. As a result,
more stopping places were set up along motorways to enable drivers
to take a break.

Example 2
The children ate the mushrooms because they looked similar to those
found in supermarkets and on the dinner table. They hadn't been
taught to discriminate between safe and dangerous fungi and hadn't
been told not to eat mushrooms found in hedgerows.
Identify if following is (a) an argument or (b) a description (c) an explanation

The solar system is an inhospitable place not just for humans


but also for machines. Despite this, over 8000 satellites and
spacecraft were launched into space from more than 30
countries between 1957 and 2004. Over 350 people have
hurtled (moved very fast) through space, not all returning to
earth. Launch sites based near the equator, such as that at
Kourou in Guyana, enable rockets to make best use of the
earth's rotation.
Answer: (b) a description
Identify if following is (a) an argument or (b) a description (c) an explanation

New-born babies may lack the capacity to monitor their own


breathing and body-temperature during the first three months
of life. Babies who sleep alongside their mothers could benefit
from learning to regulate their breathing and sleeping,
following the rhythm of the parent. These babies wake more
frequently than those who sleep alone. Moreover, mothers
who sleep next to their babies are better able to monitor their
child for movement during the night. Consequently, it may be
safer for new-born babies to sleep with their parents.
Answer: (a) an argument
New-born babies may lack the capacity to monitor their own
breathing and body-temperature during the first three months
of life. Babies who sleep alongside their mothers could benefit
from learning to regulate their breathing and sleeping,
following the rhythm of the parent. These babies wake more
frequently than those who sleep alone. Moreover, mothers
who sleep next to their babies are better able to monitor their
child for movement during the night. Consequently, it may be
safer for new-born babies to sleep with their parents.
Identify if following is (a) an argument or (b) a description (c) an explanation

There were many reasons why the student was an hour late for
the seminar. First of all, a pan caught fire, causing a minor
disaster in his kitchen. It took 20 minutes to restore order. Then,
he couldn't find his housekeys. That wasted another ten minutes
of his time. Then, just as he closed the door behind him, the
postwoman arrived, saying there was a parcel to be signed for.
Her pen didn't work which held them up further. Finally, of
course, he had to find his keys, which had once more slipped to
the bottom of his bag, in order to re-open the door and place the
letter on the table.
Answer: (a) An explanation
Reading between the lines

Arguments are often based on unstated assumptions and latent methods


of persuasion and provides practice in identifying hidden assumptions and
implicit arguments.

In critical thinking, 'assumptions' refers to anything that is taken for granted in


the presentation of an argument. These may be facts, ideas or beliefs that
are not stated explicitly but which underlie the argument.
Example
Holidays are a time for relaxation and enjoyment. This year, thousands of
people will have their holidays ruined by oil spills along our beaches.

Assumption 2: That thousands of


Assumption 1: That holidays are for relaxation
holidaymakers will want to go to
and enjoyment. This may seem obvious but the
the beach.
original meaning of holidays was 'holy days',
which were intended for religious observation. Assumption 3: that those holiday-
Some people still use holidays in that way. makers who go to the beach will
Others may use them for seeing family or, in not like oil on the beach.
the case of students, finding temporary work.

Assumption 5: That the audience will


Assumption 4: that oil on the understand words such as holiday, beach,
beach in itself can ruin a holiday. relaxation, enjoyment, mined, om; and oil
spill and that these do not need to be defined.
Taking the context into account
• In critical thinking, it is important to identify what are reasonable
assumptions and what are not.

• This can depend on the context, such as the intended audiences: will
they share the same assumptions and background knowledge?
Students of the late twentieth century regularly
campaigned against nuclear weapons. Students rarely
demonstrate against nuclear weapons any more.
Students must be less political than they used to be.

Assumption: Campaigning against nuclear weapons is an


accurate measure of how politically-minded a group is.

However, it could be that other political issues are just as


important to different generations.
Children are costing parents more. They demand more of their
parents' time, expecting to be taken to activities after school,
whereas in the past, parents‘ own interests took priority.
Parents are under more pressure to provide clothes and shoes
with expensive designer labels, toys, trips and even more costly
brands of breakfast cereal in order for their children to be
accepted by their peers. Advertising aimed at children should
be banned in order to reduce this excessive peer pressure

Assumption: Advertising aimed at children is to blame for


peer pressure.
Identifying implicit (hidden) assumptions
It is useful to identify the assumptions that underlie an argument as the
overall argument can then be better understood and evaluated.
Example:
Holidays are a time for relaxation and enjoyment. People need this time
to recuperate from the stresses of work and family life. This year,
thousands of people will have their holidays ruined by oil spills along our
beaches. Therefore, people who have already booked their holidays
should receive compensation for the stress that these holidays will bring.

Assumption: People are entitled to compensation for stress caused by a spoilt holiday

Implicit Assumptions:
1. Holidays are needed to overcome stress.
2. If there is stress during a holiday, there should be compensation.
3. If a holiday goes wrong after it was booked, someone somewhere must
pay for this.
Non-sequiturs (a statement that does not seem to
follow what has just been said in any natural or
logical way)
Sometimes, we can guess that there must be a hidden assumption
because the conclusion seems to jump out of nowhere, rather than
following on from the sequence of reasons.
Example

The number of people in prisons continues to rise each year and is


much higher than it was over a hundred years ago. Many prisons are
now overcrowded. Rehabilitation of criminals would be a much better
option.

The conclusion here is that Rehabilitation of criminals would be a much better option

Overcrowded prisons and a larger prison population may be facts but these do not give information about the relative
virtues of rehabilitation versus time in prison.
Implicit assumptions used as reasons

1. Looking for gaps in the argument


2. Then working out what the missing link is in the chain of reasons
3. Then checking to see whether the conclusion would still be supported
without those hidden assumptions.
Example
Examinations are a typical way of assessing what students have
learnt and we are all familiar with the stress they can bring. How
many of us have dreaded hearing those words 'put your pens down',
signallinq the end of the exam? If students had more time in
examinations, they would finish their last questions with less hurry.
This would bring them better marks. Students with disabilities can
claim additional time so they have an unfair advantage during
exams.
The conclusion here is: Students with
disabilities have an unfair advantage
during exams
Three reasons are given to support this:

Reason 1: If students had more time in examinations, they would finish their last questions with less

hurry.

Reason 2 (an interim conclusion used as a reason): If they finished in a less hurried way, they would get

better marks.

Reason 3: Students with disabilities can claim additional time.

The implicit assumption, used as a hidden reason to support the conclusion, is


that students with disabilities use additional time to complete their final
question with less hurry. Without this assumption, there is a gap in the
argument.
Old people are scared of being robbed.
They shouldn't keep their money under the bed, then.

The hidden or implicit assumptions in the example are:


• that old people in general fear being robbed, rather than only certain individuals;
• that elderly people keep money under their beds;
• that they are robbed because of this;
• that there is a link between their fear of being robbed and them keeping money
under their beds.
Identify the conclusion and implicit assumption
People used plants as a method of curing illness for
centuries before the advent of modern medicines. The
same plants are often used by the pharmaceutical
industry as the basis for the medicines we use even
today. Medicines are now expensive to produce and
purchase. It would be better if we returned to traditional
methods, using leaves and roots of plants rather than
mass-produced pharmaceuticals.
The conclusion is: It would be better to return to traditional
methods of using leaves and roots of plants rather than
mass-produced pharmaceuticals.

Implicit assumptions:
1. Past methods of using plants were as effective as modern medicines.
2. Modem medicines are being used to cure the same range and types of illnesses
as in the past.
3. The range and amounts of plants would be available and accessible to people
in the amounts needed.
We should continue to improve sanitation and diet in
order to further increase our life expectancy. People in
the past had much shorter life expectancies than today.
The life expectancy of pre-industrialised, societies
tended to be an average of 30 years. Today, people in
developed countries can expect to live to over 70
years. Men, in particular, live much longer now.
Conclusion: We should continue to improve sanitation and diet
in order to further increase our life expectancy

Implicit Assumption
• Life expectancy increased in the past because of sanitation and
diet.
• diet, sanitation and life expectancy could be improved further, and
that continuing to increase life expectancy is a good
Example
An argument is based on reasons which are used to
support the conclusion. However, when an argument is
being formulated, it is also based on beliefs, theories or
assumptions, known as premises.

As the basis of an argument, the premises act like the


foundations of a building. If the premises are not well-
founded, the argument can come tumbling down.
When the underlying assumptions are incorrect, we say
the argument is based, or predicated, on false premises.
For the following passage, make a judgement about whether the
argument is likely to be based on sound or false premise. Give reasons
for your answers.

War in the Gulf is likely to have affected how much oil is


produced in the next few months. When there is a shortage of
oil, petrol prices usually rise. Therefore, the price of petrol is
likely to rise this year.

Sound premises. Petrol prices would be likely to rise for the


reasons given.
For the following passage, make a judgement about whether the
argument is likely to be based on sound or false premise. Give reasons
for your answers.

Getting wet in the rain gives you a cold. The builders


worked for several hours in pouring rain. Therefore,
they will get colds.

False premises. The argument is based on the false premise that


getting wet in the rain gives you a cold. There is no direct link
between getting wet and catching a cold. Most of the time, when
people get wet, they do not later have a cold.
Bollywood, the Mumbai-based film industry in India, produces
around 900 films every year, far more than any rival. These
are being distributed to more countries than ever before.
lndian films used to appeal mostly to home audiences but
now attract large non-lndian audiences. India has diversified
into art-films that win international acclaim. Therefore, the
lndian film industry is gaining worldwide appeal
Sound premises. The Indian film industry is growing in its
worldwide appeal for the reasons. given: it is gaining international
acclaim attracts non-Indian audiences and is shown in more countries
than in the past.
For the following passage, make a judgement about whether the
argument is likely to be based on sound or false premise. Give reasons
for your answers.

Five per cent of people got married last year, and


five per cent the year before. This means that ten
per cent of people get married every two years.
Therefore, in twenty years time, everybody will be
married

False premises. The false premise is that people would and could continue to marry at the same rate each year,
which is unlikely. The passage does not take into consideration that some-of the population, such as children,
would not be eligible to marry, and that others would not choose to.
Importance of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a domain-general thinking skill

The ability to think clearly and rationally is important whatever


we choose to do. If you work in education, research, finance,
management then critical thinking is obviously important. Being able
to think well and solve problem systematically is an asset to every
career.
Critical thinking promotes creativity

To come up with a creative solution, involves not just having new

ideas. It must also be the case that the new ideas being generated are useful

and relevant to the task at hand. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in

evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones and modifying them if

necessary.
Critical Thinking is crucial for self reflection

In order to live a meaning full life and to structure our lives accordingly
we need to justify and reflect on our values and decisions. Critical
thinking provides the tools for this process of self-evaluation.
Difference between Normal thinking and Critical thinking

Normal Thinking Critical Thinking


Think whatever comes to our mind without We think in an open-minded way, we assume
fact or any evidence. all facts, evidence, analysing the evidence in
full detail.
May accept facts or realities based on faith Requires proper time, questions and
alone and without examination and analysis considerations. It also involves a longer
of issue process before arriving at a conclusion or
decision
Can be done in an instant without any given When someone thinks critically they consider
evidence all things open-mindedly. They try to be well
informed and do not jump to conclusions.
They identify conclusions, reasons and
assumptions.
There is no question in mind Self-questioning matters a lot.

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