TRAINING REPORT ON LINUX

A Report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Submitted by
Ankit kumar 01096307321

MAHARAJA SURAJMAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Affiliated to Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, Delhi
C-4, Janakpuri, New Delhi-58
2020-2024
 DECLARATION

I, Ankit kumar , Enrollment no.- 01096307321, B.Tech. (7th Semester) of Maharaja

Surajmal Institute of Technology, New Delhi, hereby declare that the Project Report
on my own work carried out during the course of Summer Training. This report has
not been submitted to any other Institute for the award of any other
degree/diploma/certificate. I further certify that I have followed the guidelines
provided by the college in writing the report. I also certify that the report was prepared
by following the guidelines provided by the college and is being submitted in the
partial fulfilment of the requirement of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Electronics and Communication Engineering.

Date: 04 september 2023

Place: Maharaja Surajmal Institute of Technology,C-4 Janakpuri, New Delhi

(Signature of Student)

Ankit kumar

01096307321

1
CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all those who have
contributed to the successful completion of my summer training. This training has been
an invaluable experience, and I have had the opportunity to learn from various sources.

I am deeply thankful to the team at udemy for providing an outstanding online platform
that enabled me to complete Linux training course . The courses not only provided
comprehensive insights into these subjects but also equipped me with practical
knowledge that I can apply in real-world scenarios.

I extend my heartfelt thanks to the instructors and contributors at udemy who have
meticulously designed and delivered these courses. The well-structured content, hands-
on exercises, and interactive examples were instrumental in enhancing my
understanding of the topics

I am also grateful to my mentors, friends, and family for their constant encouragement
and support throughout my training journey. Their guidance and motivation have been
invaluable in helping me achieve my goals.

Lastly, I want to express my appreciation for the opportunity to complete this training,
which has undoubtedly broadened my horizons and enriched my knowledge in the field
of computer science.

Thank you to everyone who has been a part of this remarkable learning experience.

Ankit kumar

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3
Title page

Declaration ………………………………………………………………I

Certificate of Completion ……………………………………………….II

Acknowledgement…………………………...………………………….III

Table of Contents.……………………………………….…………..…..IV

Abstract……………………………………………..……………………V

List of figures …..…….. .……………………………......…………...…VI

List of tables …...…….. .………………………………………………..VII

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 ABSTRACT

This abstract encapsulates the enriching journey of a summer training program in

Operating Systems (OS), Database Management Systems (DBMS), and Computer
Networks (CN) hosted by GeeksForGeeks. Comprising four insightful chapters, this
training program provided a comprehensive exploration of the fundamental pillars of
computer science.

In the first chapter, an introduction laid the groundwork, emphasizing the significance
of OS, DBMS, and CN in the digital landscape. The OS chapter, the second installment,
delved into process management, memory allocation, and scheduling algorithms.
Chapter three, DBMS, unveiled the art of structured data management, encompassing
relational data modeling, SQL optimization, and database security. The final chapter,
CN, navigated the intricacies of network topologies, protocols, and the OSI model.

This training not only expanded knowledge horizons but also fostered a profound
understanding of these vital subjects. It serves as a gateway to engage actively in the
dynamic world of operating systems, databases, and computer networks, equipping
participants with the skills to drive innovation in the ever-evolving realm of technology.

LIST OF FIGURES

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1. Figure 1.1 Various types of Operating Systems
2. Figure 1.2 Database Management Systems
3. Figure 1.3 Computer Networks
4. Figure 2.1 Basic Flow
5. Figure 2.2 Types of Operating systems
6. Figure 2.3 Various Scheduling Algorithms
7. Figure 3.1 Database Management System
8. Figure 3.2 ACID Properties
9. Figure 3.3 ER Model
10. Figure 4.1 Computer Networks Components
11. Figure 4.2 Various Network Topologies
12. Figure 4.3 Representation of OSI Model

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 Chapter-1

Introduction

LINUX

Is an open source / free software. With its advanced server configuration, Red Hat
isputting Linux as an operating system at the core of enterprise computing. Today Linux
is foundin Web infrastructure, file server, ERP, and point of sale system, increasingly
in the systemsrunning critical applications at large companies. Analysts predict that by
the end of this decadeLinux will be a common element in the enterprise computing
landscape.

“Over the last year, we’ve seen Linux go from being focused on small and medium
businessto being used very deep in the enterprise”,

Says Paul Cormier, executive vice president of engineering at Red Hat, a leading Linux
platform provider.There are lots of clones of Linux, no matter what version of Linux
we use; the piece of codecommon to all is the Linux Kernel. Although the kernel can
be modified to include support for the features we want, every Linux kernel can offer
the following features:-

• Multi-user
• Multitasking & enhanced Symmetric Multiprocessing
• Graphical User Interface (KDE, GNOME)
• Hardware support (RAM up to 4GB, 10 IDE controllers, 16 NICs, USB)
• Networking connectivity (IPX/SPX, TCP/IP, X.25, …)
• Security (Local & Remote)
• Network servers (F/P, HTTP, SMTP, IMAP, POP3, DHCP, DNS, FTP, …)
• Applications support
• Software packaging (RPM)
• Easy Installation & Administration
• Reliable & Robust(Stable and fault tolerance)

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4.4 Conclusion

In the intricate landscape of modern technology, Computer Networks have emerged as

the circulatory system of the digital age, seamlessly connecting people, devices, and
information across the globe. The journey through the intricacies of network topologies,
architectures, and the fundamental OSI model has revealed the critical role these
networks play in our daily lives and the broader scope of industries and applications.

From the foundational Physical Layer that underpins the transmission of data across
diverse mediums to the intricate Session Layer, orchestrating communication sessions
between applications, the OSI model serves as a guiding light for network architects
and engineers. It delineates the intricate dance of data as it traverses the seven layers,
ensuring reliable, secure, and efficient communication.

Network topologies, on the other hand, offer a diverse toolkit for crafting networks that
cater to specific requirements. Be it the simplicity of a star topology, the redundancy of
a mesh, or the efficiency of a hybrid model, the choice of topology shapes the
connectivity landscape. These topologies, when combined with client-server or peer-
to-peer architectures, provide a blueprint for constructing networks tailored to the needs
of businesses, organizations, and individual users.

As we navigate this web of connectivity, it's imperative to recognize the profound

impact of computer networks on our daily lives. From the global reach of the internet
that connects us with knowledge and individuals worldwide to the robust local networks
that power our homes and workplaces, the role of networks in our interconnected world
cannot be overstated.

The challenges and opportunities presented by emerging technologies like 5G, IoT, and
blockchain underscore the dynamic nature of computer networks. They herald an era
where networks will not only connect people and devices but also orchestrate
autonomous systems, reshape industries, and drive innovation across sectors.

Chapter – 2

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 History Of Linux

In 1969, Four programmer Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Rudd Canady & Doug

McElroy made a program in Bell labs which does not have any name in year 1969

In

Brian Kernighan checked that program & found it is very good software for client &

Networking purpose. He gave the name Unix to this program on 1st January 1970. First

Operating System that was written in Assembly language

In 1972, a programmer Dennis Ritchie started converting this program in C language.

(Also called founder of C language).

1973- Unix in C language.

1980- Berkeley Software Development (a part of research program of Berkeley

University) launches open BSD (a small program written in a single floppy).

Paul Allen & Bill Gates are the employee of Bell Labs.

In 1981, they both started Microsoft with 9 more candidates & they gave a program

Named Xenix (1980) but it was flopped.

In 1981-Launched MS-DOS 1.0

In 1984- UNIX open source

In 1985- First Graphical Based OS- Win 2.0

In 1991, Linus Benedict Torvalds, B-tech Iind year Computer Science, 23 years old

Student of University of Helensiki (Finland) made Kernel (25th August 1991).

In 1994- RedHat Company (collection of Linux Sets) came into existence.

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96.8 % servers of Linux till 2009

3.1 Linux Principle

1. Everything is a file.

2. Small, single purpose programmers’

3. Ability to Chain programmers` together to perform complex tasks

4. Avoid captive user interfaces.

5. Configuration data stored in text.

4. SALIENT FEATURES OF LINUX

• Linux is the fastest operating system in the world. It runs much faster than
Windows 9X/NT.It is about 1.2 to 3 times faster than Windows 9X/NT. In
command-line console mode without X-window it runs even faster (console
mode is ideal for Database servers, ApacheWeb servers, Email servers, News
servers, File servers, DNS servers, Print servers, NetworkComputer servers,
etc.). Linux is also the most powerful yet most simple and easy to useOperating
system mn the world.
• Linux is the most reliable OS. Windows 9X/NT failsThe
CRASH_OS_TESTPrograms and only Linu x passes, AIso commercial Unix’s
like IRIX, Solaris,HPUX, AIX, SCO all fail the crash test and Linux is the only
OS which passes the crash meTest. Very often Windows 95 users will get GPF
errors and the system freezes. Linux isVery robust because it is built by millions
of people on intemet and there are no errors inThe kernel. It runs for one full
year without any re-boots or any problems non-stop;Guaranteed. It is the best
designed OS.
• Linux has an excellent scalabilityIt runs on Uni-processor, Multi-
processors,Parallel Processors and even Super-computers. T fully supports SMP
(SymmetricMulti-Processing) boxes with more than one CPU. Windows 95
supports only one CPUBox. Linux scales much better than NT on SMP.
• .Linux is fully 32-bit & 64-bit operating system. And it is very
modularAndisAlready ported to 64-bit chips like DEC alpha, Sun Micro system
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 UltraSparc,Intel A64. Motorola Power PC, Transmeta Corp Crusoe chip and
GNU/GPLFreedom 64-bit CPU. Whereas Windows95 has a major chunks of
16-bit code in its kernelAnd MS Windows runs only on one type of chip – “Intel
chip”.
• Linux is a very secure OS. Windows 95 is not a secure OS, break-ins are easy.
Windows95/2000, NT, MSDOS have computer viruses. But Linux does not
have any viruses.Computer viruses causes lot of damages to Windows
95/2000/NT but not to Linux.
• Linux is very mature and is one of the oldest operating system in the world.
UNIXIn(which is another name for Linux) was born in AT&T Bell Labs 27
years ago for TelecomResearch. Linux(Unix) is the end-result of 27 years of
research and development effort byU.S/European Universities and mega-
corporations of Europe / America. It took 27 years toCreate vast amount of Unix
information, and all that info 1s now Just sitting inside this LinuxCdrom on our
hand. For example programs like ‘grep’ had not changed for the past 27Years
and they are still used in Linux. Functionality and command line options of grep
hadNot changed for the past 27 years. Linus started the Linux during 1991, but
he borrowed lotOf concepts, code from Unix and this means Linux is 27 years
old. Today Linux is theOCEAN wherein all other UNIX(s) like Solaris, HPUX,
AIX merge into. And in near futureAll other UNIX(s) will be replaced by Linux
• .Linux is less demanding on system resources. Linux runs on 386 PC with as
little as2 MB RAM in command-line console mode. Windows 95/NT cannot
because the Graphic engine is includedThe kernel, w hich makes Windows
95/NT aIl ResourceHog. Graphic engine makes the Windows 95/NT extremely
unreliable andCan do everything that Windows 95/NT does but Windows
95/NTUnpredictable. Linux do everything which Linux does.InWindows
95/NT there is no option for the user toConsole mode without any graphics.
Unlike Windows 95, X Run in command-line window can run with a very
minimum resources, it runs on 486 box with just 8MB of RAM.
• Linux uses X-window which is a advanced network-windowing system,
whereas Windows95/NT is a standalone single-workstation windowing system.
For example using X-window.Users can display output on any workstation-
monitor attached anywhere in the network.There is a command called “xhost”
in Linux and display environment variable, export Display=”hostname`:0.0.
Like this there are lot of functionalities in X-window which are Missing in

5
 Windows NT/95. X-Window is an industry standard which was developed in
MIT And is a very powerful network windowing system. With X-window we
can run programs on Super-computers and display on our Linux desktop locally.
Even though X-window is Network-resource intensive, it is becoming
increasingly popular because of the availability of 1Very low cost, high speed
networking like 1 Gig bit Ethernet cards, 100 Megabit Ethernet Cards, DSL
lines, Cable-Modems, Frame-relay and ATM networks.
• .Linux has very low total_cost_of ownership since Linux supports diskless
nodes. Cost of Maintaining Linux is five times lower than MS Windows..
• Linux supports remote system administration whereas Windows NT/95 does
not. We Can remote login and do many system administration tasks, for
example like adding Users, reboot a Linux server from a remote terminal
hundreds of miles.
• Linux runs most windows applications (16bit ) like MSOffice, MSWord using
WABI($40), WINE(free) and MSDOS applications using DOSemu, FreeDOS,
Dr.DOS. But Windows95/NT will run only few of Unix and Linux applications.
• Linux supports su (super user) command. Using su command it is possible to
switch user Without logging off. For example ‘su – root will login as user ‘root.
In Windows NT/95 we Must log off completely to switch user. Linux has
remote commands like ‘rlogin’, telnet. Etc WhileWindows NT/95 Does Not
have.
• Linux kernel is very small and it can fit on a single floppy. It is less complex
But very Sophisticated and Powerful. Small Kernel means it is very reliable.
Linux applications are much bigger running on top of the Linux Kernel.
• Linux has many powerful desktops like KDE desktop, GNOME, Triteal CDE
Motif mwm, Openlook olwm, twm, fvwm 95, xdm,Xsm, Windows
Afterstep,Windowmaker (NeXTstep-lookalike), Qvwm, amiwm (amiga),
mlvwm (mac) etc. KDE Desktop is much more user friendly than Windows95
We have more freedom and choice in Linux desktops as compared to Window
9X/NT.

5. LINUX INSTALLATION

5.1 Choosing computer hardware

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To install the PC version of Linux successfully, there are few things that the computer
must have:

• x86 Processor (Intel compatible MP above 80386)

• RAM (at least 32MB, recommended 64MB
• HDD (at least 900MB free space)
• FDD, CD-ROM drive or LAN connection
• Keyboard & Monitor
• Mouse (for X-Windows)

There are versions of Linux that run on Alpha & Sparc workstations, instead of just on
PCs.

5.2 Choosing the Installation Type

There are two installation types under Linux. They include the following:

• Partition less Installation (to the current version of Windows, slow)

• Kick start Installation (on a different partition, fast)

5.3 Beginning the Installation

Throughout most of the installation procedure, we can click Back to make changes to
earlier Screens. However, once we are warned that packages are about to be written to
hard disk, there’s Turning back. Most items that we configure can be changed after
Linux is up & running.

• Insert the CD-ROM in the Drive

• Start the computer to boot from CD-ROM drive
• Start the boot procedure (boot: expert, text, rescue) Press enter key to start
installation GUI mode. To enter in text based installation type text And press
enter. In text mode the installation is automatic. Choose expert mode to Perform
installation through commands.

7
• Choose a Language
• Choose a Keyboard (Model = Generic 101-key PC, Lawet = US English, Dead
Keys = Enable)
• Add a Mouse
• Continue Installation by choosing Install type (New or Upgrade, select New)
• Choose one of the types (Workstation, Server, Laptop, Custom system)
• Partition the hard disk (Automatic, Disk Druid, fdisk for experts)
• Create at least 1 Linux Native partition (as per our requirements) assigned to
the root (/) File system & one swap partition (min. 64MB for virtual memory.
• Choose partitions to format (Select only the root partition). Disable check for
bad blocks Option for faster formatting.
• Configure LILO (Select Install LILO & store it at MBR if we want LILO to
control the Boot process for all the installed operating systems on the hard disk
else install it on First Sector of Boot partition if another boot loader 1s being
used on our computer. Also, create A boot disk (recommended)
• Configuring Networking (Configure our LAN. Skip this section if we want to
use DUN Or our PC is not connected to LAN. Assign IP address (192.168.0.1),
if no DHCP Server Is available on the network, then add Net mask, Network,
Broadcast, Hostname, Gateway, Primary DNS address for our network).
• Choose Language support (US English)
• Choose Firewall configuration (High, Medium, No Firewall are the options)
• Choose the time zone (Asia/ Calcutta)
• Configure Root password & other User Accounts (if any)
• Enable Authentication (Enable shadow Password & MDS passwords)
• Select packages (as per our requirements. Everything requires around 2.4GB
space)
• Configure the X-Window System (Specify the Video Card, Video Memory,
Monitor, Colors & Resolution, Text or Graphical login, Workstation type- KDE
or GNOME)
• Begin Installing (copying of packages to the Linux partition)
• Create a boot disk
• Finish Installation

8
• The computer will now restart. If we installed LILO, we will see a graphical
LILO boot screen That displays information about bootable partitions. Select
the OS to boot into by using the arrow To Keys & hit the enter key else the
system may boot into the default OS as specified during Installation.Depending
upon whether we set our computer to use graphical or text login, we will get
any of The login screen.Linux uses ext2 & ext3 file system.V3oot loader of
linux GRUB (Grant Unified Boot Loader) new & LILO (Linux Loader) old.

9
10
11
. 7. PARTITIONS

7.1 The MBR, boot sectors and partition table

The information about how a hard disk has been partitioned is is stored in its first
sector (that is, the First sector of the first track on the first disk surface). The first
sector is the master boot record (MBR) of thedisk; this is the sector that the BIOS
reads in and starts when the machine is first Booted. The master bootrecord contains a
a small program that reads the partition table, checks Which partition is active (that is,
marked bootable), and reads the first sector of that partition, the Partition’s boot sector
(the MBR is also a boot sector, but it has a special status and therefore aSpecial
name). This boot sector contains another small program that reads the first part of the
Operating system stored on that partition (assuming it is bootable), and then starts
it.The partitioning scheme is not built into the hardware, or even into the BIOS. It is
only Q Convention that many operating systems follow. Not all operating systems do
follow it, but they Are the exceptions. Some operating systems support partitions, but
they occupy one partition on The hard disk, and use their internal partitioning method
within that partition. The latter type Exists peacefully with other operating systems
(including Linux), and does not require any Special measures, but an operating system
that doesn’t support partitions cannot co-exist on the Same disk with any other
operating system..
As a safety precaution, it is a good idea to write down the partition table on a piece of
paper, so To That if it ever corrupts we don’t have to lose all our files. (A bad
partition table can be fixed withFdisk).
The relevant information is given by the fdisk -I Command:
$ fdisk -1 /dev/hda
Disk /dev/had: 15 heads, 57 sectors, 790 cylinders
Units = cylinders of 855 * 512 bytes
Device Boot Begin Start End Blocks Id System
/dev/hda1 1 1 24 10231+ 82 Linux swap
/dev/hda2 25 25 48 10260 83 Linux native
/dev/hda3 49 49 408 153900 83 Linux native
/dev/hda4 409 409 790 163305 5 Extended
/dev/hda5 409 409 744 14361 1+ 83 Linux native

7.2 Extended and logical partitions

The original partitioning scheme for PC hard disks allowed only four partitions. This
quickly

12
turned out to be too little in real life, partly because some
people want more than four operating
systems (Linux, MS-DOS, OS/2, Minix, FreeBSD, NetBSD, or Windows/NT, to
name a few),
but primarily because sometimes it is a good idea have several partitions for one
operating
to
system. For example, swap space usually best put in its own partition for Linux
instead of in
1S
the main Linux partition for reasons of speed.
To overcome this design problem, extended partitions wvere invented. This trick
allows
partitioning a primary partition into sub-partitions. The primary partition thus
subdivided is the
6
extended partition; the subpartitions are logical partitions. They behave like primary 6
partitions.
but are created differently. There is no speed difference between them.
The partition structure of a hard disk might look like that in Figure. The disk is
divided into three
in
primary partitions, the second of which is divided into two logical partitions. Part of
the disk is
not partitioned at all. The disk as a whole and each primary partition has a boot sector.
at
7.3 Partition types
The partition tables (the one in the MBR, and the ones for extended partitions) contain
one byte
per partition that identifies the type of that partition. This attempts to identify the
operating
system that uses the partition, or what it uses it for. The purpose is to make it possible
to avoid
it
having two operating systems accidentally using the same partition.

13
However, in reality, operating systems do not really care about the partition type byte;
e.g.,
Linux doesn't care at all what it is. Worse, some of them use it incorrectly; e.g., at at
least some
versions of DR-DOS ignore the most significant bit of the byte, while others don't.
There is no standardization agency to specify what each byte value means.The same
list is
available in the Linux fdisk program.
7.4 Partitioning a hard disk
There are many programs for creating and removing partitions. Most operating
systems have
their own, and it can be a good idea to use each operating system's own, just in case it
does
a
something unusual that the others can't. Many of the programs are called fdisk,
including the
Linux one, or variations thereof.
Details on using the Linux fdisk are given on its man page. The cfdisk command is
similar to
fdisk, but has a nicer (full screen) user interface.

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. 8. FILESYSTEMS
A
Filesystem
Is the methods and data structures that an operating system uses to keep track of files
on a disk or partition; that is, the way the files are organized on the disk. The word is
alsoused to refer to a partition or disk that is used to store the files or the type of the
filesystem. Thus,
One might say ―I have two filesystems‖ meaning one has two partitions on which
one stores files,or that one is using the ―extended filesystem‖, meaning the type of
the filesystem.
The difference between a disk or partition and the filesystem it contains is important.
A fewprograms (including, reasonably enough, programs that create filesystems)
operate directly on the raw sectors of a disk or partition; if there is an existing file
system there it will be destroyed
Or seriously corrupted. Most programs operate on a filesystem, and therefore won‘t
work on a partition that doesn‘t contain one (or that contains one of the wrong type).
Before a partition or disk can be used as a filesystem, it needs to be initialized, and
thebookkeeping data structures need to be written to the disk. This process is called
Making a filesystem
.Most UNIX filesystem types have a similar general structure, although the exact
details varyquite a bit.The central concepts are
Superblock
,
Inode
,
Data block
,
Directory block
, and
Indirection block
. The superblock contains information about the filesystem as a whole, such asits size
(the exact information here depends on the filesystem). An inode contains all
informationabout a file, except its name. The name is stored in the directory, together
with the number of theinode. A directory entry consists of a filename and the number
of the inode which represents thefile. The inode contains the numbers of several data
blocks, which are used to store the data in the file. There is space only for a few data
block numbers in the inode, however, and if more areneeded, more space for pointers
to the data blocks is allocated dynamically. These dynamicallyallocated blocks are

15
indirect blocks; the name indicates that in order to find the data block, onehas to find
its number in the indirect block first.UNIX filesystems usually allow one to create a
Hole
In a file (this is done with lseek; check themanual page), which means that the
filesystem just pretends that at a particular place in the filethere is just zero bytes, but
no actual disk sectors are reserved for that place in the file (thismeans that the file will
use a bit less disk space). This happens especially often for smallbinaries, Linux
shared libraries, some databases, and a few other special cases. (Holes
areimplemented by storing a special value as the address of the data block in the
indirect block orinode. This special address means that no data block is allocated for
that part of the file, ergo,there is a hole in the file.)
Holes are moderately useful. On the author‘s system, a simple measurement showed a
potential
For about 4 MB of savings through holes of about 200 MB total used disk space. That
system,however, contains relatively few programs and no database files.

For bad blocks and initialize the bad block list accordingly.
-l filename
Read the initial bad block list from the name file.To create an ext2 filesystem on a
floppy, one would give the following commands:$
Fdformat -n /dev/fd0H1440
Double-sided, 80 tracks, 18 sec/track. Total capacity 1440 kB.Formatting … done$
Badblocks /dev/fd0H1440 1440 $>$ bad-blocks
$
Mkfs -t ext2 -l bad-blocks /dev/fd0H1440
Mke2fs 0.5a, 5-Apr-94 for EXT2 FS 0.5, 94/03/10360 inodes, 1440 blocks72 blocks
(5.00%) reserved for the super userFirst data block=1Block size=1024
(log=0)Fragment size=1024 (log=0)1 block group8192 blocks per group, 8192
fragments per group360 inodes per groupWriting inode tables: doneWriting
superblocks and filesystem accounting information: done$First, the floppy was
formatted (the -n option prevents validation, i.e., bad block checking). Thenbad
blocks were searched with
Badblocks
, with the output redirected to a file, bad-blocks.Finally, the filesystem was created,
with the bad block list initialized by whatever
Badblocks

16
 9 . BASIC ARCHITECTURE OF LINUX FILE SYSTEM

The Red Hat Linux File system is the structure in which all the information on our
computer isstored. Every physical & logical entity in Linux is represented as file in
Linux file system. Thephysical entities include disks, printers, & terminals. Logical
entities include directories &ordinary files that store documents & programs. Files are
organized within a hierarchy of directories. Each directory can contain files, as well as
other directories.

9.1 Understanding files & path name in Linux

Filename is a series of contiguous letters, numbers & certain special characters. They
cannotcontain spaces or any other character that is reserved for the shell like:

!@#$%^&*(){}‗―/

\ | ; < > `Filename is limited to 14 characters on most of the UNIX implementations

but Linux supportsfilenames up to 256 characters. It is recommended that in order to
achieve portability, filenamesshould be restricted to 14 characters only.A path name
can be any number of characters. In Linux, the highest directory is called the
rootdirectory & is symbolized by the slash character (/). This directory is simply
referred to as root.An absolute pathname specifies exactly where in the file system we
can find a file whereas arelative pathname points to a file relative to the current
directory.We can use the

Pwd

Command to find out which directory is the current directory. We can alsocheck the
contents of the $PWD environment variable by using command

Echo $PWD

.Like DOS, Linux also uses dot (.) to represent current directory & double dot (..) to
representparent directory.

9.2 Types of Files under Linux

There are just four basic types of files under Linux:

17
Ordinary Files:-These are simple files that are used to store logically related
information.

Directory Files :-These are like ordinary files whose contents are the information
aboutother files

Links:-These are duplicate names for an existing file or directory so if any of

therespective links are updated. (There is only one copy of the file)

Special Files:-There are used to map physical devices or buffers like device files
andblock files.

File permissions under Linux

File permissions mean more in Linux than just what permissions we have on a file or
directory.Although permissions determine who can read®, write (w), or execute (x) a
file, they alsodetermine the file type & how the file is executed.Linux supports 3
different attributes to implement permissions to access a file , they are,(1).Read
®(2).Write (w)(3)Execute(x)Further these attributes are specified for three levelsi User
level (owner)ii Group leveliii OthersWe can display the permissions in a file with the
long form of the listing command,

Ls

. Theoutput looks like:drwx------ 2 dummy accounts 122 Sep 29 15:37 letters-rw-r-----

1 dummy accounts 32 Sep 20 10:30 resumeThis listing shows virtually everything that

18
can be known about a file from the directory entry.There are 7 columns for each entry
which mean:First Column – Type of file & permissionsSecond Column – Number of
links to the fileThird Column – Owner of the fileFourth Column –

Owners‘ group

Fifth Column – File size in bytesSixth Column – Date & Time of creationSeventh
Column – File name itself The permission field (first column) is broken into four
subfields:- rwx rwx rwx

EDITORS IN LINUX

Linux offers following editors1. Nano2. Vi3. Vim4. Gvim5. Gedit6. EmacsNano,vi &
vim editors are used in console mode whereas gvim,gedit & emacs are used ingraphical
mode

VI editor/ VIM editor:

This is the classic screen-based editor for UNIX. It does not consume an inordinate
amount of system resources. Vi works great over slow network ppp modem connections
and on systems of limited resources. One can completely utilize vi without departing a
single finger from thekeyboardThere are three modes in vi editors1.

Esc mode

(default mode, by pressing escape key, this mode is used for saving and exit )2.

Insert mode

(by pressing insert or I key, this mode is used for edibng)3.

Replace mode

(this mode is used for replacing text wriden, by again pressing insert or r key)For saving
document

19
Come on esc mode and write : wqFor settng line numbers in document come on esc
mode and write : se nuVim editor is not installed default when we install linux, we have
to install vim editor. It is theenhanced version of vi editor.# vim/vi filename

Nano

Is a command based editor, earlier used when advanced editors were not into being.

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66

11. MANAGING FILES & DIRECTORIES

The vast majority of Linux commands manipulate files & directories. We can also use
shellscripts for this purpose. File manipulations are easy from within a shell. This is
largely because of the rich selection of file-manipulation commands available in
Linux.File-manipulation commands can be roughly grouped into two categories:

Commands that manipulate files as objects

20
Commands that manipulate the contents of the filesBe familiar with the commands and
utilities in this table

Command Usage Noteman

Get help The linux manual sections, man1 toman9, are in

/usr/man

Directory.

Cd

Move to a different directory Know what .. and ~ can do asparameters to the

CD

Command.

Pwd

Print working directory

Find

Search directory for matchingfile-

Print

Switch;

-xdev

Switch

Whereis

Find files from files directories

Locate

Locate files from locate‘s

Database

21
 –

Locate

Locate is in

/var/lib

Directories

Updatedb

Update locatedb database

Whatis

Get command summaries

Makewhatis

Build the whatis database (dbof command summaries)Make whatis in

/usr/sbin

Directory

Ls

List files and directories Know the

-x

-F

-a

-l

22
,

-R

-d

Switches. Know how to use

28 |

66

Wildcard * and.

Dir, vdir

List directories

Tree

List graphic directory Know the

Option

Cat

List, create,and combine files Know the

23
-l

>

>>

Optionsand pipes. Know

Ctrl-D

To closefile.

More

Read files

Less

Read files (allows scrolling,have more options than themore command)Use

Zless

Command to compressfiles

Head, tail

Read the beginning and theend of filesKnow the

Option

Touch

Creat files Know how to create a file andredirect output to a new file (usewith

Ls

For example).

24
Rm

Delete files Know the

-f

-I

Options andwildcards

Mkdir

Create directories Know how to create multipledirectories and create subdirectories

under existingdirectories.

Rmdir

Removing directories

-p

Option

Mv

Rename files

Cp

Copy files

Compress

Compress files

Kill

Terminate a process

Ctrl-z

25
Put arunning program intobackground in bash shell

Fg

Bring back a program from Return a specific program using job

29 |

66

Background number or job name.Example: fg %x (x = job number,or job name)

Mount, umount

Mount and unmount a filesystem.

Gzip, gunzip

Compress and uncompressfiles

11.1 Listing Files (ls)

The basic command to list files is

Ls

. The behavior of the

Ls

Command is modified with the use of flags that take the form

Abcd. Flags used with the

Ls

Command can be concatenated or listedseparately. The commonly required flags used

with

26
Ls

& their uses are listed below:

A lists all entries including hidden ones (filenames beginning from period arehidden)

A same as

A except that . & .. are not listed

C Uses time of last edit for sorting or printing

C forces multicolumn output with entries sorted down the columns

D if the argument is a directory, lists only its name & not its contents

27
–

F marks directories with (/), executable files with (*), symbolic links with (@)

Prints each file‘s i

-node number in the first column of report

L lists in long format, giving mode, links, owner, size in bytes, modification time,

N lists user & group ID numbers instead of names

R reverses the sort order

28
–

S sorts by size of each file

T sorts by time modified

U sorts by access-time

X forces multi-column output with entries sorted across the page (not down)There are
more options than these shown above, so consult the man pages for them. Also,
bydefault, Linux also provide color descriptions for each file type, provided an
appropriate monitoris available.

11.2 Copying Files (cp)

30 |

66

The command for copying files is the

Cp from to

29
. We must have the read permission for the filewe are copying from & write permission
for the directory we are copying to. We can copy a listof files into a directory with the
command

Cp file1 file2 file3 directory

. If the last item in the listis not a directory, an error message appears.Use

R (recursive) flag with copy to copy directories.

11.3 Moving & Renaming Files (mv)

In Linux, moving & renaming files are accomplished using the command

Mv

. The syntax & rulesare same as that of

Cp

Command. We can move as many as files using

Mv

. The

Mv

Command,however, moves directories quite happily.Syntax :- mv source

destinationmv oldname newname

11.4 Removing Files or Directories (rm)

The command to remove a file is

Rm

. To delete a file we don‘t own, we need both read & write

Permissions. We can delete all the files at once using

Rm *

Command. A better way to protectourself from accidentally deleting file is to use the
interactive (-i) flag. If we use this flag, thenwe will be asked whether we really want to

30
delete that file.To delete sub-directories, we must use the recursive option (-r). Files
once deleted are goneforever & can never be recalled unless a backup is
maintained.Syntax: - rm <filename>

Rm <file1> <file2> <file3> ……

Rm *.*rm

R <directory name>

11.5 Viewing the Contents of a file (cat, more, less)

There are three standard commands we can use to view the contents of a file:

Cat, more, less.

For displaying short ASCII files, the simplest command is

Cat

, which stands for concatenate. The

Cat

Command takes a list of files or a single file & prints the contents unaltered on the
standardoutput, one file after another. Its primary purpose is to concatenate files, but it
works just as wellto send the contents of a short file to our screen. If we try to display
large files using

Cat

, the filescrolls past our screen as fast as screen can handle the character stream. One
way to stop the flow

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 REFERENCES

1. https://www.google.com
2. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/
3. https://www.codingninjas.com/
4. https://stackoverflow.com/
5. https://www.mysql.com/

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