2.5.

4 PARTIAL
FRACTION
Introduction

Two or more proper fractions can be

combined to give a single fraction. For
example

1 2 3x +1
+ =
x x + 1 x ( x + 1)
Equally, a single proper algebraic fraction can be
expressed as a sum or difference of two or more proper
fractions. For example 3 x + 1 = 1 + 2
x ( x + 1) x x +1

Example:
1 2 3x + 1
x ( x + 1)
and are known as partial fractions of
x x +1
2 types of fraction

i. A ‘ proper’ fraction is, if the degree of

the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator.

Example:
3 x2 2x 2 − 7
, 3 or 3
5x x + 4 x +1
ii. An ‘improper’ fraction is, if the degree of the
numerator is greater than, or equal to, the
degree of the denominator.

Eg:

2x4 − 7 2x 3 + 1
or
x +1
2
x +5
3
 Types of fractions

CASE 1 CASE 2
Proper fractions Improper fractions

Long Division

Type 1: Denominator with linear factors.

Type 2: Denominator with repeated linear factors.
Type 3: Denominator with quadratic factors.
Type 4: Denominator with repeated quadratic factors.
Case1: Partial fractions for a proper fraction

Type 1: Denominator with linear factors.

Example
x 2 + 10 A B C
= + +
x ( x − 2 )( 1 − x ) x x − 2 1− x

7x − 4 A B
= +
( x + 3 )( x − 5 ) x + 3 x − 5
 Example 1
2x + 3
Express in partial fraction
( x − 1)( x + 2)

Solution
2x + 3 A B
= +
( x − 1)( x + 2) x −1 x + 2
A( x + 2) + B( x − 1)
=
( x − 1)( x + 2)
2 x + 3 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 1)
 2 x + 3 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 1) 2 method:
Substitute
Comparing

Method 1:
Substitute value of x into equivalent equation
When x = 1, 2 + 3 = A(3) + B(0)
5 = 3A
5
A=
3
When x = - 2, 2 x + 3 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 1)
2(−2) + 3 = A(0) + B(−3)
−3 B = −1
1
B=
3

2x + 3 5 1
Hence, = +
( x + 2)( x − 1) 3( x − 1) 3( x + 2)
Method 2:
Comparing the coefficient of any variable or
constants

2 x + 3 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 1)
= Ax + 2 A + Bx − B
= Ax + Bx − B + 2 A
= ( A + B) x − B + 2 A
 2 x + 3 = A( x + 2) + B( x − 1)
= ( A + B) x − B + 2 A
Comparing the coefficient of:
x: A+ B = 2 (i)

Constants : − B + 2 A = 3 (ii)

5 1
(i) + (ii): A= , B=
3 3
2x + 3 5 1
= +
( x + 2)( x − 1) 3( x − 1) 3( x + 2)
 Example 2
7x − 4
Express x ( 1 − x )( 2 x + 1) in partial fractions

Solution:
7x − 4 A B C
= + +
x ( 1 − x )( 2 x + 1) x (1 − x ) (2 x + 1)

7x − 4 A(1 − x )(2 x + 1) + Bx(2 x + 1) + Cx(1 − x )

=
x ( 1 − x )( 2 x + 2 ) x(2 x + 1)(1 − x )
7 x − 4 = A(1 − x )(2 x + 1) + Bx(2 x + 1) + Cx(1 − x )

When x = 0, −4 = A(1)(1)
A = −4
When x = 1, 3 = 3(1) B
B=1
1
When x = − ,
2
C = 10
 A = −4, B = 1, C = 10

7x − 4 A B C
= + +
x ( 1 − x )( 2 x + 1) x (1 − x ) (2 x + 1)

7x − 4 4 1 10
 =− + +
x ( 1 − x )( 2 x + 1) x (1 − x ) (2 x + 1)
Case1: Partial fractions for a proper fraction
Type 2: Denominator with repeated linear factors
.
The numerators are just constant terms
Example:
3 x2 + 6 x − 1 A B C
= + +
( x − 1)( x + 1)
2
( x − 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 1) 2

Example: Repeated factors

x2 − 1 A B C
= + 2+
x ( 2 x + 1)
2
x x 2x + 1
 Example 3
x
Express ( x + 1)2
in partial fraction
Solution: When x = -1,
x A B B = −1
= +
( x + 1)2 ( x + 1) ( x + 1) 2 When x = 0,
0 = A(1) + (−1)
x A ( x + 1) + B
= A=1
( x + 1)2
( x + 1)
2

x = A( x + 1) + B
x 1 1
Hence, 2 = x +1 −
(x + 1) ( ) ( x + 1)2
Example 4
3x + 1
Express in partial fractions
x 2 ( x + 1)
Solution:
3x + 1 A B C
= + 2+
x ( x + 1)
2
x x ( x + 1)
3x + 1 Ax( x + 1) + B( x + 1) + Cx 2
=
x ( x + 1)
2
x ( x + 1)
2

3 x + 1 = Ax( x + 1) + B( x + 1) + Cx 2
 3 x + 1 = Ax( x + 1) + B( x + 1) + Cx 2

When x = 0, B = 1
When x = −1, C = − 2
Comparing the coefficient of x gives,
3=A+B  A= 2
Substituting A = 2, B = 1, C = −2, we get

3x + 1 2 1 2
= + 2 −
x ( x + 1) x x
2
( x + 1)
Example 5
9
Express ( x − 1)( x + 2)2 in partial fractions

9 A B C
= + +
( x − 1)( x + 2) 2
x − 1 x + 2 ( x + 2)2

9 A( x + 2)2 + B( x − 1)( x + 2) + C ( x − 1)
=
( x − 1)( x + 2) 2
( x − 1)( x + 2)2

9 = A(x+2)2 +B(x−1)(x+2) + C(x−1)

 9 = A(x+2)2 +B(x−1)(x+2) + C(x−1)
When x = −2, C = −3
When x = 1, A =1
Comparing the coefficients of x2 gives,
0=A+B
B=−A
Substituting A = 1, B = −1, we get

9 1 1 3
= − −
( x − 1)( x + 2) ( x − 1) ( x + 2) ( x + 2)
2 2
Case1: Partial fractions for a proper fraction
Type 3: Denominator with quadratic factors.

(a) Denominator with quadratic factors that

can be factorized

(b) Denominator with quadratic factors that

cannot be factorized
(a) Denominator with quadratic factors that
can be factorized

−2 3− x
,
x −1
2
x − 5x + 6
2
Example 6
3
Express 2 in partial fractions
x −9
3 3
=
x2 − 9 ( x − 3)( x + 3)

3 A B
= +
( x − 3)( x + 3) x−3 x+3

A ( x + 3 ) + B( x − 3)
=
( x − 3) ( x + 3 )

 3 = A ( x + 3 ) + B( x − 3)
3 = A ( x + 3 ) + B( x − 3)
1
When x=3, A=
2
1
When x=-3, B = −
2
3 A B
= +
x −9
2
( x − 3) ( x + 3)
3 1 1
 2 = −
x − 9 2( x − 3) 2( x + 3)
(b) Denominator with quadratic factors that
cannot be factorized

Example

5x + 7 A Bx + C
= + 2
(2 x + 1)( x + x + 1) 2 x − 1 x + x + 1
2

10 x 2 − 8 A Bx + C
= + 2
x(3 x 2 − 2 x + 4) x 3x − 2x + 4
Example 7
3
Express 2 in partial fractions
x −9
3 3
=
x2 − 9 ( x − 3)( x + 3)

3 A B
= +
( x − 3)( x + 3) x−3 x+3

A ( x + 3 ) + B( x − 3)
=
( x − 3) ( x + 3 )

 3 = A ( x + 3 ) + B( x − 3)
Example 8
4x
Express ( x + 1) ( 3 + x 2 ) in partial fractions

Solution:
4x A Bx + C
= +
( x + 1)(3 + x 2 ) ( x + 1) (3 + x 2 )

=
( )
A 3 + x 2 + ( Bx + C )( x + 1)
(
( x + 1) 3 + x 2 )
( )
4 x = A 3 + x 2 + ( Bx + C )( x + 1)
 (
4x = A 3 + x 2
) + ( Bx + C )( x + 1)
When x=-1, A = −1
4 x = ( A + B ) x + ( B + C ) x + (3 A + C )
2

Comparing the coefficients,

x 2: A + B = 0
B=1
x : B+C = 4
C=3

4x 1 x+3
 =− +
( x + 1)(3 + x )
2
x + 1 3 + x2
Example 9
3x + 4
Express (
( x + 2) x 2 − x + 1 ) in partial fractions

Solution:
3x + 4 A Bx + C
= + 2
(
( x + 2) x 2 − x + 1 ) ( x + 2) ( x − x + 1)

=
( )
A x 2 − x + 1 + ( Bx + C )( x + 2)
( x + 2) ( x − x + 1)
2

3 x + 4 = A ( x − x + 1) + ( Bx + C )( x + 2)
2
 ( )
3 x + 4 = A x 2 − x + 1 + ( Bx + C )( x + 2)
2
When x=-2, A=−
7

3 x + 4 = ( A + B ) x 2 + (2 B − A + C ) x + ( A + 2C )

Comparing the coefficients,

2
x : A + B = 0,
2
B=
7
15
x : 2 B − A + C = 3, C =
7

3x + 4 2 2 x + 15
 =− +
( x + 2)( x − x + 1)
2
7( x + 2) 7( x 2 − x + 1)
Case1: Partial fractions for a proper fraction

Type 4: Denominator with repeated quadratic factors

.
Example:
The numerators are linear terms

The numerator is constant term

3x + 6x − 1
2
A Bx + C Dx + E
= + 2 +
( x − 1)( x + 1)
2 2
x −1 x +1 ( x 2 + 1)2

Repeated factors
Example 10
1− x2
Express
(1 + x )
2 2 in partial fractions

Solution:
1 − x2 Ax + B Cx + D
= +
(1 + x ) 1+ x (1 + x 2 ) 2
2 2
2

1 − x2 ( Ax + B )(1 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D)
=
(1 + x ) 2 2 (1 + x 2 ) 2

Equating the numerators,

1− x2 = (Ax + B)(1 + x2) + (Cx + D)
1− x2 = (Ax + B)(1 + x2) + (Cx + D)

When x = 0, B+D =1 .……(1)

When x = −1, −2A + 2B − C + D = 0 …….(2)
When x = 1, 2A + 2B + C + D = 0 …….(3)
When x = 2, 10A + 5B +2C + D = −3 ..…..(4)

Solving equations (1), (2), (3) and (4) gives

A = 0, B = −1, C = 0, D = 2

1 − x2 −1 2
Hence = +
(1 + x )
2 2 (1 + x ) (1 + x 2 ) 2
2
Case2: Partial fractions for a IMPROPER fraction

Long division is needed to reduce the improper fraction to a

mixed form consisting of the sum of a polynomial and a
proper fraction.
Example
x + 2x − 6
3
3x − 6
= x −1 +
x ( x + 1) x ( x + 1)

a polynomial proper fraction

Example 11
3 x 3 + 12
Express ( x − 1) ( x 2 + 2 ) in partial fractions
express
Solution: in partial
3 x + 12
3
3 x + 12 3 fractions
= 3
( x − 1) ( x + 2 ) x − x 2 + 2 x − 2
2

3 x 3 + 12 3 x 2 − 6 x + 18
= 3 +
( )(
x − 1 x 2
+ 2 ) ( ) ( + 2)
x − 1 x 2

3 x − 6 x + 18
2
A Bx + C
= + 2
( x − 1) ( x + 2 )
2
x −1 x + 2
 Equating the numerators,
3x 2 − 6x + 18 = A(x2+1) + (Bx + C)(x−1)
When x = 1, A = 5
When x = 0, C = −8
When x = -1, B = −2

Hence 3 x 2 − 6 x + 18 5 2x + 8
= − 2
( )
( x − 1) x + 2 x − 1 x + 2
2

Therefore 3 x 3 + 12 5 2x + 8
= 3+ − 2
(
( x − 1) x + 2
2
) x −1 x + 2
 Example 12
x2 − 2 x 7x + 6
By using long division show that 2 = 1− 2 .
x + 5x + 6 x + 5x + 6
x2 − 2 x
Hence, express in a partial fraction.
x + 5x + 6
2

Solution:
Solution:
1
x + 5x + 6 x − 2 x
2 2

x + 5x + 6
2
express
−7x −6 in partial
fractions
Therefore
x − 2x
2
7x + 6
=1 − 2
x + 5x + 6
2
x + 5x + 6
 7x + 6 7x + 6 A B
= = +
x + 5 x + 6 ( x + 2)( x + 3) x + 2 x + 3
2

7 x + 6 = A( x + 3) + B( x + 2)
When x = -2, A = -8
When x = -3, B = 15

7x + 6 −8 15
Therefore = +
x + 5x + 6 x + 2 x + 3
2
 x − 2x
2
7x + 6
Since =1 − 2
x + 5x + 6
2
x + 5x + 6

7x + 6 −8 15
And = +
x + 5x + 6 x + 2 x + 3
2

x2 − 2 x −8 15
Hence =1− ( + )
x + 5x + 6
2
x+2 x+3
8 15
=1+ −
x+2 x+3