Subject Name: Heat & Mass Transfer

Subject Code: ME-6003

Semester: 6th
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UNIT-V
Introduction Radiation Process and Properties

 Consider a hot object that is suspended in an evacuated chamber whose walls are at room temperature
(Figure 1). The hot object will eventually cool down and reach thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
 That is, it will lose heat until its temperature reaches the temperature of the walls of the chamber.
 Heat transfer between the object and the chamber could not have taken place by conduction or convection,
because these two mechanisms cannot occur in a vacuum.
 Therefore, heat transfer must have occurred through another mechanism that involves the emission of the
internal energy of the object. This mechanism is radiation.

Fig. 1 Hot object in vacuum chamber

Note: - Radiation differs from the other two heat transfer mechanisms in that it does not require the
presence of a material medium to take place. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of
light) in a vacuum. Also, radiation transfer occurs in solids as well as liquids and gases. In most practical
applications, all three modes of heat transfer occur concurrently at varying degrees. But heat transfer
through an evacuated space can occur only by radiation. For example, the energy of the sun reaches the
earth by radiation.

Fig. 2 Radiation heat transfer from hot to cold body

Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by radiation can occur between two bodies, even when
they are separated by a medium colder than both as shown in figure 2.

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Salient Features and Characteristics of Radiation

 Radiation is the propagation and emission of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves.

 The electromagnetic waves are emitted as a result of vibrational and rotational movements of the molecular,
atomic or sub atomic particles comprising the matter. When body is excited by an oscillating electrical signal,
electronic or neutronic bombardment, chemical reaction etc, emission of radiation occur.
 One form of radiation is differing from the other form of radiation by its frequency and wavelength. The


relation between frequency and wavelength
The general phenomenon of radiation covers the propagation of electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths,
from short wavelength gamma rays to long wavelength microwave.

Wave length,

Fig. 3 Electromagnetic wave spectrum

 Thermal radiation is that electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a result of its temperature.
 Thermal radiation is limited to range of wavelength between 0.1 to 100 m, which includes the entire visible
and infrared and a part of the ultraviolet spectrum.
 Light is simply the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that lies between 0.40 and 0.76 m.
 A body that emits some radiation in the visible range is called a light source. The sun is our primary light
source.
 The radiation emitted by bodies at room temperature falls into the infrared region of the spectrum, which


extends from 0.76 to 100 m.
The ultraviolet radiation includes the low-wavelength end of the thermal radiation spectrum and lies
between the wavelengths 0.01 and 0.40 m. Ultraviolet rays are to be avoided since they can kill micro-


organisms and cause serious damage to humans and other living beings.
About 12 percent of solar radiations is in the ultraviolet range. The ozone (O 3) layer in the atmosphere acts


as a protective blanket and absorbs most of this ultraviolet radiation.
Thermal radiation exhibit characteristics similar to those of light, and follow the optical laws.
 Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter whose temperature is above absolute zero.


Body at higher temperature emits energy at greater rate than bodies at low temperature.
Normally a body radiating heat is simultaneously receiving heat from other bodies as incident radiation.
 Net heat exchange between two radiating surfaces is due to the fact that one at high temperature radiates
more and receives less energy for its absorption.
 An isolated body which remains at constant temperature emits just as much energy radiation as it receives.



Heat transfer by radiation depends upon the level of temperature unlike conduction and convection.
Heat transfer by conduction and convection from the body at temperature of
1000 to surrounding at temperature of 800 is practically remains same for the body at temperature of 900
to surrounding at temperature of 700.
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 Where as in the case of radiation heat transfer, heat transfer is not same even if the temperature differences
are same.
 Net heat transfer by radiation at elevated temperature is greater than heat transfer at low temperature.

Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity

When thermal radiation is incident on a surface, a part of the radiation may be reflected by the surface, a
part may be absorbed by the surface and a part may be transmitted through the surface as shown in figure
4.

These fractions of reflected, absorbed, and transmitted energy are interpreted as system properties
called reflectivity, absorptivity, and Transmissivity, respectively.

Fig. 4: Reflection, absorption and transmitted energy thus using energy conservation,

A blackbody is defined as a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. At a specified temperature and
wavelength, no surface can emit more energy than a blackbody.
A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction. Also, a blackbody emits
radiation energy uniformly in all directions per unit area normal to direction of emission. For black body


= 1, and
In actual practice there does not exist a perfectly black body which will absorb all incident radiations. Snow,
with its absorptivity 0.985, is nearly black to the thermal radiation.
 The absorptivity of a surface depends upon the direction of incident radiation, temperature of the surface,


composition and structure of the irradiated surface and the spectral distribution of incident radiation.
When a surface absorbs a certain fixed percentage of impinging radiations, the surface is called gray body.


A surface whose properties are independent of the wavelength is known as a gray surface.
A gray body is defined such that the monochromatic emissivity of the body is independent of wavelength.


For gray body
The condition of constant absorptivity too is not satisfied by the real materials and as such even a gray body


remains a hypothetical concept like the black body.
A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is called an absolutely white body or specular body.


For white body = 1, and
Regular (specular) reflection implies that angle between the reflected beam and the normal to the surface
equals the angle made by the incident radiation with the same normal.


In a diffused radiation, incident beam is reflected in all directions.


Most of the engineering materials have rough surfaces, and these rough surfaces give diffused reflections.


A body that allows all the incident radiations to pass through it is called transparent body or diathermanous.
Transmissivity varies with wave length of incident radiation. A material may be non-transparent for a certain


wavelength transparent for another. This type of material is called selective transmitter
A thin glass plate transmits most of the thermal radiations from the sun, but absorbs in equally great
measure the thermal radiations emitted from the low temperature interior of a building.
 That’s the easo to use the glass i g ee house to t ap the sola adiatio i lo te pe atu e spa e.
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

For opaque body, It means that good absorbers are bad reflector or vice-versa.
The electrons, atoms, and molecules of all solids, liquids, and gases above absolute zero temperature are
constantly in motion, and thus radiation is constantly emitted, as well as being absorbed or transmitted
throughout the entire volume of matter.


That is, radiation is a volumetric phenomenon.
Radiation in opaque solid is considered a surface phenomenon since the radiation emitted only by the
molecules at the surface can escape the solid as shown in figure 5.

Fig. 5 Radiation in opaque solid

Black Body Concept

 Consider a large cavity with small opening maintained at constant temperature as shown in figure 6.
 The inner surface of the cavity is coated with the black lamp. A beam of thermal radiation entering the hole
strikes the inner surface. Since the inner surface has high absorptivity, the major portion of the radiation is
absorbed and only a small fraction is reflected.
 The weak reflected beam does not find any way out and again strikes the inner surface. Here it is again
partly absorbed and partly reflected.
 Likewise the reflected radiation is successively absorbed and finally when escapes out is, it has only a
negligible amount of energy associated with it.

Fig.6 Black body concept

 Although a blackbody would appear black to the eye, a distinction should be made between the idealized
blackbody and an ordinary black surface.
 Any surface that absorbs light (the visible portion of radiation) would appear black to the eye, and a
surface that reflects it completely would appear white.

 Considering that visible radiation occupies a very narrow band of the spectrum from 0.4 to 0.76 _m, we
cannot make any judgments about the blackness of a surface on the basis of visual observations.
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 For example, snow and white paint reflect light and thus appear white. But they are essentially black for
infrared radiation since they strongly absorb long-wavelength radiation. Surfaces coated with lampblack
paint approach idealized blackbody behaviour.

Spectral and Spatial Energy Distribution

 Spectral Energy Distribution: The radiation emitted by the body consists of electromagnetic waves of various
wavelengths. Distribution of radiation with wave length is called spectral energy distribution as show in
figure 7.

(a) Spectral energy distribution (b) Spatial energy distribution

Fig. 7 Spectral and spatial energy distribution

 Spatial (Directional) Energy Distribution: A surface emits the radiation in all directions. The intensity of
radiation is different in different direction. The distribution of radiation along the direction is called spatial
distribution.
Wa ele gth Dist i utio of Bla k Body Radiatio : Pla k’s La

 The energy emitted by a black surface varies in accordance with wavelength, temperature and surface
characteristics of the body.
 Spectral blackbody emissive power (monochromatic emissive power = a ou t of adiatio e e g e itted
by a blackbody at an absolute temperature T per unit time, per unit surface area, and per unit wavelength
about the wavelength


Plank suggested the following law for the spectral distribution of emissive power:
The variation of distribution of the monochromatic emissive power with wavelength is called spectral
energy distribution, and this has been shown in figure 8
 The following important features can be noted from this plot:
i The emitted radiation is a continuous function of wavelength. At any specified temperature, it
increases with wavelength, reaches a peak, and then decreases with increasing wavelength.
ii At any wavelength, the amount of emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature.
iii As temperature increases, the pick of the curves shift to the left to the shorter wavelength region.
Consequently, a larger fraction of the radiation is emitted at shorter wavelengths at higher temperatures.
iv The radiation emitted by the sun, which is considered to be a blackbody at 5780 K (or roughly at 5800
K), reaches its peak in the visible region of the spectrum. Therefore, the sun is in tune with our eyes.
v On the other hand, surfaces at T < 800 K emit almost entirely in the infrared region and thus are not
visible to the eye unless they reflect light coming from other sources.

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Fig. 8 Radiation of black body as a function of wavelength and temperature

Total Emissive Power: Stefan-Boltzman law

 The total emissive power E of a surface is defined as the total radiant energy emitted by the surface in all
directions over the entire wavelength per unit surface area per unit time.
 The basic rate equation for radiation transfer is based on Stefan-Boltzman law which states that the amount
of radiant energy emitted per unit area of black surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
 Total emissive power of black body can be obtained by integrating the monochromatic emissive
power over entire wavelength By simplifying the equation
 The Stefan-Boltzmann law helps us to determine the amount of radiations emitted in all the directions and
over the entire wavelength spectrum from a simple knowledge of the temperature of the black body.
 Normally a body radiating heat is simultaneously receiving heat from other bodies as
 Radiation. Consider that surface 1 at temperature is completely enclosed by another black surface at
temperature. The net radiation heat flux is then given by

Wie ’s Displa e e t la

 Figure 9 shows that as the temperature increases the peaks of the curve also increases and it shift towards
the shorter wavelength.
 The wavelength, at which the monochromatic emissive power is a maximum, is found by differentiating
the Pla k’s E uatio ith espe t to and equating to zero.
 Wie ’s displa e e t la a e stated as The p odu t of a solute te pe atu e and the wavelength at
hi h the e issi e po e is a i u , is o sta t
 It can be easily found out that the wavelength corresponding to the peak of the plot
 It means that maximum spectral radiation intensity shifts towards the shorter wavelength with rising


temperature.
The peak of the solar radiation, for example, occurs at which is near the middle of the visible range.
 The peak of the radiation emitted by a surface at room temperature (T = 298 K) occurs at 9.72 m, which is
well into the infrared region of the spectrum.

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 An electrical resistance heater starts radiating heat soon after it is plugged in, and we can feel the emitted
radiation energy by holding our hands facing the heater. But this radiation is entirely in the infrared region
and thus cannot be sensed by our eyes. The heater would appear dull red
 When its temperature reaches about 1000 K, since it will start emitting a detectable amount (about 1 W/m2
· m) of visible red radiation at that temperature.
 As the temperature rises even more, the heater appears bright red and is said to be red hot. When the
temperature reaches about 1500 K, the heater emits enough radiation in the entire visible range of the
spectrum to appear almost white to the eye, and it is called white hot.
 Although it cannot be sensed directly by the human eye, infrared radiation can be detected by infrared
cameras, which transmit the information to microprocessors to display visual images of objects at night.
 Rattles akes a se se the i f a ed adiatio o the od heat o i g off a -blooded animals, and
thus they can see at night without using any instruments.
 A surface that reflects all of the light appears white, while a surface that absorbs the entire light incident on
it appears black. (Then how do we see a black surface?)
 It should be clear from this discussion that the colour of an object is not due to emission, which is primarily


in the infrared region, unless the surface temperature of the object exceeds about 1000 K.
Instead, the colour of a surface depends on the absorption and reflection characteristics of the surface and
is due to selective absorption and reflection of the incident visible radiation coming from a light source such
as the sun or an incandescent light bulb.
 A piece of clothing containing a pigment that reflects red while absorbing the remaining parts of the incident
light appea s ed to the e e Fig. 9 . Lea es appea g ee e ause thei ells o tai the pig e t
chlorophyll, which strongly reflects green while absorbing other colours.

Fig. 9 Reflection of incident light from the surface

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Relation between Emissivity and Absorptivity of the Body:

Ki hhoff’s Law

 Consider two surfaces, one absolutely black at temperature and the other non-black at temperature T. The
surfaces are arranged parallel to each other and so close that radiation of one falls totally on the other.

Fig. 10 Heat transfer between black and non-black surface

 The radiant energy E emitted by the non-black surface impinges on the black surface and gets fully
absorbed. Likewise the radiant energy emitted by the black surface strikes the non-black surface. If the


non-black surface has absorptivity, it will absorb
The atio of the e issi e po e of a e tai o -black body E to the emissive power of black body, both
bodies being at the same temperature, is called the emissivity of the od .
 Emissivity is used to find out the emissive power of the grey surface.
Ki hhoff’s law a e stated as: The e issi it and absorptivity of a real surface are equal for radiation
ith ide ti al te pe atu e a d a ele gth. It ea s that pe fe t a so e is also a pe fe t adiato

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Plane and Solid Angle

 Plane angle is defined by a region by the rays of a circle, and is measured as the ratio of the element of arc
of length l on the circle to the radius r of the circle.

Fig. 11 Plane and solid angle

Fig. 12 Relationship between A and An

 Let us try to quantify the size of a slice of pizza. One way of doing that is to specify the arc length of the outer
edge of the slice, and to form the slice by connecting the endpoints of the arc to the centre.
 A more general approach is to specify the angle of the slice at the centre, as shown in Figure 13, this angle
is called plain angle

Fig. 13 (a) Slice of pizza of plain angle (b) Slice of watermelon of solid angle

 Now consider a watermelon, and let us attempt to quantify the size of a slice. Again we can do it by specifying
the outer surface area of the slice (the green part), or by working with angles for generality.
 Connecting all points at the edges of the slice to the centre in this case will form a three-dimensional body
(like a cone whose tip is at the centre), and thus the angle at the centre in this case is properly called the
solid angle.
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I te sity of Radiatio a d La e t’s Cosi e La

 I te sity of adiatio I is the energy emitted (of all wave lengths) in a particular direction per unit surface
a ea a d th ough a u it solid a gle .
 The area is projected area of the surface on a plane perpendicular to the direction of radiation.
 Intensity of radiation varies with the angle normal to the surface and is given by La e t’s osi e la .

 La e t’s cosine law the i te sit of adiatio i a di e tio from the normal to a black emitter is
proportional to cosine of the a gle .

Fig. 14 Lambert cosine law

.

Fig. 15 Radiation emitted at angle

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Relation between the Normal Intensity and Emissive Power

 Consider the emission of radiation by a differential area element dA of a surface, as shown in Figure 16.
Radiation is emitted in all directions into the hemispherical space.

Fig. 16 Emission of radiation from differential element dA into hemispherical shape

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Introduction

 Till now we have discussed fundamental aspects of various definitions and laws. Now we will study the heat
exchange between two or more surfaces which is of practical importance.
 The two surfaces which are not in direct contact, exchanges the heat due to radiation phenomena. The
factors those determine the rate of heat exchange between two bodies are the temperature of the individual
surfaces, their emissivities, as well as how well one surface can see the other surface. The last factor is known
as view factor, shape factor, angle factor or configuration factor.
Heat Exchange between Two Black Surfaces: Shape Factor
 Consider heat exchange between elementary area and of two black radiating bodies having areas and
respectively.
 The elementary areas are at a distance r apart and the normals to the areas make angles and with the line
joining them. The surface is at temperature and the surface is at temperature.

Fig. 17 Radiant heat exchange between two black surfaces

 The above result is known as a reciprocity theorem. It indicates that the net radiant interchange may be
evaluated by computing one way configuration factor from either surface to the other.
Shape factor algebra and salient features of the shape factor

 The salient features for complex geometries can be derived in terms of known shape factors for other
geometries. For that the complex shape is divided into sections for which the shape factors is either known
or can be readily evaluated.
 The known configuration factor is worked out by adding and subtracting known factors of related
geometries. The method is based on the definition of shape factor, the reciprocity principal and the energy
conservation law.
 The inter-relation between various shape factors is called factor algebra.
Salient features of shape factor:

 The value of shape factor depends only on the geometry and orientation of surfaces with respect to each
other. Once the shape factor between two surfaces is known, it can be used for calculating the radiant heat
exchange between the surfaces at any temperature.
 This reciprocal relation is particular useful when one on the shape factor is unity.
 All the radiation streaming out from an inner sphere (surface 1) is intercepted by the enclosing outer sphere
(surface 2). As such the shape factor of inner sphere (surface 1) with respect to the enclosure is unity and
the shape factor of outer sphere (surface 2) can be obtained by using reciprocal relation.

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Fig. 18 Two concentric spheres

 The radiant energy emitted by one part of concave surface is intercepted by another part of the same
surface. Accordingly a concave surface has a shape factor with respect to itself. The shape factor with respect
to itself is denoted by .

(a) Flat surface (b) Convex surface (c) Concave surface

Fig. 19 Shape factor of surface with respect to itself


For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself is zero.


We have already discussed that the view factors are related to each other is given by
This relation is known as reciprocity relation or the reciprocity rule.
Summation Rule

 Any radiating surface will have finite area and therefore will be enclosed by many surfaces.
 For radiation heat transfer analysis, radiating surface is considered as a part of the enclosure.

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 Even openings are treated as imaginary surfaces with radiation properties equivalent to those of the
opening.
 The conservation of energy principle requires that the entire radiation leaving any surface i of an enclosure
be intercepted by the surfaces of the enclosure.
 Therefore, the sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure,
including to itself, must equal unity. This is known as the summation rule for an enclosure and is expressed
as (Figure 6.4)

Fig. 20 Radiation leaving the surface i of an enclosure intercepted by completely by the surface of
enclosure
The Superposition Rule

Fig. 21 Superposition rule

 Thus if the transmitting surface is sub divided, the shape factor for that surface with respect to the receiving
surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.
 Apparently the shape factor from a radiating surface to a subdivided receiving surface is simply the sum of
the individual shape factors.

The Symmetry Rule

Identical surfaces that are oriented in an identical manner with respect to another surface will intercept
identical amounts of radiation leaving that surface.

Fig. 22 Symmetry rule

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So, the symmetry rule can be expressed as two or more surfaces that posse symmetry about a third
surface will have identical view factors from that surface. From the figure 6.6

Electrical Network Approach for Radiation Heat Exchange

 Solution of the radiation heat transfer problem can be obtained by reducing the actual system to an
equivalent electrical network and then solving that network. To understand the concept, first some
terminology should be defined.
 Radiosity: It indicates the total radiant energy leaving a surface per unit time per unit surface area. It is the
sum of the radiation emitted from the surface and the reflected portion of any radiation incident upon it.
 Irradiation: it indicates the total radiant energy incident upon a surface per unit time per unit are some of it
may be reflected to become a part of the radiosity of the surface.

Fig. 23 Surface radiosity and irradiation

Radiation Heat Exchange between Non-Black Bodies

Small Object in a Large Cavity

Fig. 24 Small object in a large cavity (enclosure)

Infinite Large Parallel Plates

All the radiations emitted by plane one reach and are absorbed by other plane, and areas of the two planes
are infinite. So,

Fig. 25 Infinite large parallel plates

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Infinite Long Concentric Cylinders or Sphere

(a) Concentric cylinder (b) Concentric sphere

Fig. 26 Infinite long concentric cylinder and sphere
Radiation Shields

 Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting a thin, highly reflectivity
(low-emissivity) sheet of material between the two surfaces. Such highly reflective thin plates or shells are
called radiation shields.
 Consider two infinite parallel plates as shown in figure 27. Radiation network for the radiation heat transfer
consists of two surface resistances and one space resistance as shown in figure 28.

Fig. 27 Heat exchange between two infinite parallel planes without radiation shields

The radiation network of this geometry is constructed by drawing a surface resistance associated with each
surface and connecting these surface resistances with space resistances, as shown in figure 28.

Fig. 28 Radiation heat exchange between two infinite parallel plates with radiation shield

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Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosure:

 Consider an enclosure consisting of three opaque, diffuse, and grey surfaces as shown in figure 29.


Fig.29 three opaque, diffuse, and grey surfaces
The radiation network of this geometry is obtained by drawing a surface resistance associated with each of


the three surfaces and connect these surface resistances with space resistances as shown in figure 6.16.
The three equations for the determination of the radiosity, and are obtained from the requirement that
the algebraic sum of the currents at each node must equal zero.

*****

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