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CE-311 Modules - Module lectures.

Bachelor of science in civil engineering (Isabela State University)

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CE 311
STRUCTURAL THEORY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Introduction to Structural Analysis 2

Chapter 2 Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures 10

Chapter 3 Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses 20

Chapter 4 Beam Deflections 35

Chapter 5 Virtual Work Method and Influence Lines 65

Chapter 6 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures:

Three-Moment Equation 73

Chapter 7 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures:

Slope Deflection Method 82

Chapter 8 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures:

Moment Distribution Method 98

Chapter 9 Analysis of Frames: Without and with Sidesway 111

Chapter 10 Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Portal Method

And Cantilever Method 123

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Module 1
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 1 – Introduction to Structural Analysis

2. Introduction

Before structural analysis takes its course, its preliminary aspects are necessary to be
realized. Such process, emanating from the theory of structures is discussed in order to
recognize the types of structures, their components, supports and loadings. Considering these
elements will pave way for an appropriate analysis and design.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Identify and classify various types of structural system, supports and loadings
 Determine the stability and determinacy of structural system
 Recognize the different internal forces acting on structures
 Understand how structural system react to external forces

4. Learning Content

1.1 Analysis and Design Process of

Structural Engineering

Structural analysis is an integral part of

structural engineering projects. Structural engineering
is the science and art of planning, designing, and
constructing safe and economical structures that will
serve their intended purposes. Structural engineering
projects follow various steps as shown in the flow
chart.

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1. Planning Phase
This phase usually involves the establishment of the functional requirements
of the proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions of the structure,
considerations of the possible types of structures that may be feasible and the types
of materials to be used. Non-structural factors such as aesthetics, environmental
impact are also considered in this phase. The outcome of this phase is usually a
structural system that meets the functional requirements.

2. Preliminary Structural Design

This phase considers the sizes of the member of structural system based on
approximation, code requirements and past experience. The estimation of the member
sizes is the basis for the weight of the structure.

3. Estimation of Loads
This phase determines all the loads that are expected and anticipated to act on
the structure.

4. Structural Analysis
This phase carries out the values of the loads. Analysis of the loads determine
the stresses, shear forces, moments, and deflections at various points of the structure.

5. Safety and Serviceability Checks

The result of the analysis are used to determine whether or not the structure
satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of the design codes. If the design
code requirements are satisfied, then the drawings and the construction specifications
are prepares, and the constructions phase begins.

6. Revised Structural Design

If the code requirements are not satisfied, then member sizes are revised, and
phase 3 through 5 are repeated until all the safety and serviceability requirements are
satisfied.

1.2 Classification of Structures

 Tension Structures

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 Compression Structures

 Trusses

 Shear Structures

 Bending Structures

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1.3 Types of Support

1.4 Loads on Structures

 Dead Loads
Dead load consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights
of any objects that are permanently attached to the structure. Hence, for a building, the dead
loads include the weights of the columns, beams, and girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls,
windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and other miscellaneous attachments.

Example 1.

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 Live Loads
Live loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the
weights of objects temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces.

 Wind Loads
When the speed of the wind is very high, it can cause massive damage to a structure.
The reason is that the pressure created by the wind is proportional to the square of the wind
speed.

 Earthquake Loads
Earthquakes produce lateral loadings on a structure through the structure’s
interaction with the ground. The magnitude of an earthquake load depends on the amount
and type of ground accelerations and the mass and stiffness of the structure.

 Impact Loads
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than those
that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually. The dynamic
effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in the structure is referred to as impact.
 Snow Loads
In many parts of the United States and the world, snow loads must be considered in
designing structures. The design snow load for a structure is based on the ground snow load
for its geographical location, which can be obtained from building codes or meteorological
data for that region.

 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures

Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures
partially or fully submerged in water must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Answer the following:

1. What are the loads subjected to structures according to National Structural Code of
the Philippines 2015. Define each load.
2. What are the load combinations according to National Structural Code of the
Philippines 2015.

Exercise. The floor system of a gymnasium consists of a 130-mm-thick concrete slab resting
on four steel beams (A = 9,100 mm2) that, in turn, are supported by two steel girders (A =
25,600
mm2), as shown in the figure below. Determine the dead loads acting on beam BF and girder
AD.

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6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015

Structural Analysis by Besavilla
Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

Quiz 1
I. Identification
___________________________ 1. These loads have constant magnitudes and fixed
positions, and they act permanently on the structure.
___________________________ 2. These loads have varying magnitudes and/or positions
and are caused by the use or occupancy of the structure.
___________________________ 3. These loads are due to seismic forces.
___________________________ 4. These loads are due to wind pressures.
___________________________ 5. It is the science and art of planning, designing, and
constructing safe and economical structures that will serve their intended purposes.

II. Problem Solving.

The roof system of an office building consists of a 4-in.-thick reinforced concrete slab
resting on four steel beams (A = 16.2 in.2), which are supported by two steel girders (A =
42:9 in.2). The girders, in turn, are supported by four columns, as shown in the figure.
Determine the dead loads acting on the girder AG.

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9. References

National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015

Structural Analysis by Besavilla
Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 2
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 2 – Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures

2. Introduction

In this chapter we will focus to the most common form of structure that the engineer
will have to analyze, and that is one that lies in a plane and is subjected to a force system
that lies in the same plane. Discussion of the importance of choosing an appropriate analytical
model for a structure so that the forces in the structure may be determined with reasonable
accuracy. Thus, the criteria necessary for structural stability are discussed for the analysis of
statically determinate, planar, pin-connected structures.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Establish the stability and determinacy of structures
 Determine the reactions and moments of determinates structures
 Recognize the different external forces acting on structures
 Understand how structural system react to external forces

4. Learning Content

2.1 Equilibrium of Equations

In your statics, you learned that a structure or one of its members is in equilibrium
when it maintains a balance of force and moment. In general this requires that the force
and moment equations of equilibrium be satisfied along three independent axes, namely,

The principal load-carrying portions of most structures, however, lie in a single plane,
and since the loads are also coplanar, the above requirements for equilibrium reduce to,

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2.2 Static Determinacy, Indeterminacy and Instability

The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and sufficient conditions for
equilibrium. When all the forces in a structure can be determined strictly from these equations,
the structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown
forces than available equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate. As a general
rule, a structure can be identified as being either statically determinate or statically
indeterminate by drawing free-body diagrams of all its members, or selective parts of its
members, and then comparing the total number of unknown reactive force and moment
components with the total number of available equilibrium equations.

Occasionally, connections are used in structures that permit not only relative rotations
of the member ends but also relative translations in certain directions of the ends of the
connected members. These translations are modeled as internal roller joints and/or internal
hinged, in which one equation or reaction is given by internal hinged and two for internal
roller joints. Thus,

For beams, the degree of indeterminacy is expresses as,

where, ie – indeterminacy
ec – reaction given by internal hinged or internal roller joint

For frames, ie = r – 3n
where, ie – indeterminacy
r – no. of reaction
n – no. of free-body diagram

For trusses, ie = (b+r) – 2j

where, ie – indeterminacy
b – no. of members of the truss
r – no. of reactions
j – no. of joints
Examples

Structure Free-body Diagram Indetermincay

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ie = r – (3 + ec)
= 3 – (3+0)
ie = 0
Thus, the structure is
statically determinate
externally

ie = r – (3 + ec)
= 5 – (3+0)
ie = 2
Thus, the structure is
statically indeterminate
externally to the second
degree

ie = r – (3 + ec)
= 6 – (3+2)
ie = 2
Thus, the structure is
statically indeterminate
externally to the first
degree

ie = 6 – (3 + ec)
= 5 – (3+2)
ie = 0
Thus, the structure is
statically determinate
externally

ie = r – 3n
= 9 – 3(2)
ie = 3
Thus, the structure is
statically indeterminate
externally to the 3rd
degree

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ie = 18 – 3n
= 18 – 3(3)
ie = 9
Thus, the structure is
statically indeterminate
externally to the 9th
degree

ie = (b+r) – 2j
= (18 + 3) - 2(10)
ie = 1
Thus, the structure is
statically indeterminate
externally to the 1st
degree

ie = (b+r) – 2j
= (11 + 8) - 2(7)
ie = 5
Thus, the structure is
statically indeterminate
externally to the 5th
degree

2.3 Reaction

The following procedure provides a method for determining the joint reactions for
structures:

Free-Body Diagrams
• Disassemble the structure and draw a free-body diagram of each member. Also, it
may be convenient to supplement a member free-body diagram with a free-body diagram of
the entire structure. Some or all of the support reactions can then be determined using this
diagram.
• Recall that reactive forces common to two members act with equal magnitudes but
opposite directions on the respective free-body diagrams of the members.
• All two-force members should be identified. These members, regardless of their
shape, have no external loads on them, and therefore their free-body diagrams are
represented with equal but opposite collinear forces acting on their ends.
• In many cases it is possible to tell by inspection the proper arrowhead sense of
direction of an unknown force or couple moment; however, if this seems difficult, the
directional sense can be assumed.

Equations of Equilibrium

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• Count the total number of unknowns to make sure that an equivalent number of
equilibrium equations can be written for solution. Except for two-force members, recall that
in general three equilibrium equations can be written for each member.
• Many times, the solution for the unknowns will be straightforward if the moment
equation is applied about a point (O) that lies at the intersection of the lines of action of as
many unknown forces as possible.
• When applying the force equations and orient the x and y axes along lines that will
provide the simplest reduction of the forces into their x and y components.
• If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a negative magnitude for an
unknown force or couple moment, it indicates that its arrowhead sense of direction is
opposite to that which was assumed on the free-body diagram.

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5. Teaching and Learning

Activities

1. Determine the determinacy of the following structural system:

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a.

b.

c.

d.

e.

f.

2. Determine the reactions

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a.

b.

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

Quiz
I. Classify and determine the indeterminacy

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II.

9. References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 3
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 3 – Analysis of Statically Determinate Trusses

2. Introduction

In this chapter, we will analyze statically determinate trusses using the method of
joints and the method of sections. The determinacy and stability of a truss will be discussed.
Then the analysis of three forms of planar trusses will be considered: simple, compound, and
complex. Finally, at the end of the chapter we will consider the analysis of a space truss.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Identify the type of trusses
 Determine the reactions and internal forces of truss members
 Understand how structural system react to external forces

4. Learning Content

A truss is an assemblage of straight members connected at their ends by flexible

connections to form a rigid configuration. Because of their light weight and high strength,
trusses are widely used, and their applications range from supporting bridges and roofs of
buildings to being support structures in space stations. Modern trusses are constructed by
connecting members, which usually consist of structural steel or aluminum shapes or wood
struts, to gusset plates by bolted or welded connections.

Plane trusses are commonly used for supporting decks of bridges and roofs of
buildings. The roof is attached to the purlins, which transmit the roof load (weight of the roof
plus any other load due to snow, wind, etc.) as well as their own weight to the supporting
trusses at the joints. Because this applied loading acts on each truss in its own plane, the
trusses can be treated as plane trusses.

3.1 Assumption for Analysis of Trusses

The analysis of trusses is usually based on the following simplifying assumptions:

1. All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges in plane
trusses and by frictionless ball-and-socket joints in space trusses.
2. All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints.
3. The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the centers
of the adjacent joints.

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3.2 Common Types of Trusses

3.3 Analysis of Plane Trusses by Method of Joints

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Example

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3.4 Zero Force Members

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Example

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3.5 Method of Sections

The method of joints, presented in the preceding section, proves to be very efficient
when forces in all the members of a truss are to be determined. However, if the forces in only
certain members of a truss are desired, the method of joints may not prove to be efficient,
because it may involve calculation of forces in several other members of the truss before a
joint is reached that can be analyzed for a desired member force. The method of sections

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enables us to determine forces in the specific members of trusses directly, without first
calculating many unnecessary member forces, as may be required by the method of joints.
The method of sections involves cutting the truss into two portions by passing an
imaginary section through the members whose forces are desired. The desired member forces
are then determined by considering the equilibrium of one of the two portions of the truss.
Each portion of the truss is treated as a rigid body in equilibrium, under the action of any
applied loads and reactions and the forces in the members that have been cut by the section.
The unknown member forces are determined by applying the three equations of equilibrium
to one of the two portions of the truss. There are only three equilibrium equations available,
so they cannot be used to determine more than three unknown forces. Thus, in general,
sections should be chosen that do not pass through more than three members with unknown
forces. In some trusses, the arrangement of members may be such that by using sections
that pass through more than three members with unknown forces, we can determine one or,
at most, two unknown forces. Such sections are, however, employed in the analysis of only
certain types of trusses.

Example

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Activity 3. Solve by Method of Joints

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Activity 4. Solve by Method of Sections

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6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

Quiz

I. Solve the given truss

References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 4
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 4 – Beam Deflections

2. Introduction

Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected
to forces. Other common causes of deformations of structures include temperature changes
and support settlements. If the deformations disappear and the structure regains its original
shape when the actions causing the deformations are removed, the deformations are
termed elastic deformations. The permanent deformations of structures are referred to as
inelastic, or plastic, deformations. In this chapter, we will focus our attention on linear
elastic deformations. Such deformations vary linearly with applied loads.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Establish the stability and determinacy of structures
 Determine the reactions and moments of determinates structures
 Recognize the different external forces acting on structures
 Understand how structural system react to external forces

4. Learning Content

I. Direct Integration Method

The direct integration method essentially involves writing the expression for M=EI
(bending moment divided by flexural rigidity of the beam) in terms of the distance x along the
axis of the beam and integrating this expression successively to obtain equations for the slope
and deflection of the elastic curve. The constants of integration are determined from the
boundary conditions. The direct integration method proves to be most convenient for
computing slopes and deflections of beams for which M=EI can be expressed as a single
continuous function of x over the entire length of the beam. However, the application of the
method to structures for which the M=EI function is not continuous can become quite
complicated. This problem occurs because each discontinuity, due to a change in loading
and/or the flexural rigidity (EI), introduces two additional constants of integration in the
analysis, which must be evaluated by applying the conditions of continuity of the elastic curve,
a process that can be quite tedious. The difficulty can, however, be circumvented, and the
analysis can be somewhat simplified by employing the singularity functions defined in most
textbooks on mechanics of materials.

Example 1

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Example 2

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II. Superposition Method

The slope or deflection at any point on the beam is equal to the resultant of the slopes
or deflection at that point caused by each of the load acting separately.

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Example 1

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Example 2

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III. Moment-Area Method

The moment-area method for computing slopes and deflections of beams was
developed by Charles E. Greene in 1873. The method is based on two theorems, called the
moment-area theorems, relating the geometry of the elastic curve of a beam to its M=EI
diagram, which is constructed by dividing the ordinates of the bending moment diagram by
the flexural rigidity EI. This method is more convenient to use for beams with loading
discontinuities and the variable EI, as compared to the direct integration method described
previously.

Procedure for Analysis:

In order to apply the moment-area theorems to compute the slopes and deflections
of a beam, it is necessary to draw a qualitative deflected shape of the beam using its
bending moment diagram. In this regard, recall that a positive bending moment bends the
beam concave upward, whereas a negative bending moment bends it concave downward.
Also, at a fixed support, both the slope and the deflection of the beam must be zero;
therefore, the tangent to the elastic curve at this point is in the direction of the undeformed
axis, whereas at a hinged or a roller support, the deflection is zero, but the slope may not
be zero.
To facilitate the computation of areas and moments of areas of the M=EI diagrams,
the formulas for the areas and centroids of common geometric shapes must be noted.
Instead of adopting a formal sign convention, it is common practice to use an intuitive
approach in solving problems using the moment-area method. In this approach, the slopes
and deflections at the various points are assumed to be positive in the directions shown on
the sketch of the deflected shape or elastic curve of the structure.
Any area of the M=EI diagram that tends to increase the quantity under
consideration is considered to be positive and vice versa. A positive answer for a slope or
deflection indicates that the sense of that quantity as assumed on the elastic curve is
correct. Conversely, a negative answer indicates that the correct sense is opposite to that
initially assumed on the elastic curve.
In applying the moment-area theorems, it is important to realize that these theorems
in general do not directly provide the slope and deflection at a point with respect to the
undeformed axis of the beam (which are usually of practical interest); instead, they provide
the slope and deflection of a point relative to the tangent to the elastic curve at another
point. Therefore, before the slope or deflection at an arbitrary point on the beam can be
computed, a point must be identified where the slope of the tangent to the elastic curve is
either initially known or can be determined by using the support conditions. Once this
reference tangent has been established, the slope and deflection at any point on the beam
can be computed by applying the moment-area theorems.

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In cantilever beams, since the slope of the tangent to the elastic curve at the fixed
support is zero, this tangent can be used as the reference tangent. In the case of beams for
which a tangent with zero slope cannot be located by inspection, it is usually convenient to
use the tangent at one of the supports as the reference tangent. The slope of this reference
tangent can be determined by using the conditions of zero deflections at the reference
support and an adjacent support.
The magnitudes of the slopes and deflections of structures are usually very small, so
from a computational viewpoint it is usually convenient to determine the solution in terms of
EI and then substitute the numerical values of E and I at the final stage of the analysis to
obtain the numerical magnitudes of the slopes and deflections. When the moment of inertia
varies along the length of a beam, it is convenient to express the moments of inertia of the
various segments of the beam in terms of a single reference moment of inertia, which is
then carried symbolically through the analysis.

Example

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Example

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IV. BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM BY PARTS

The application of the moment-area method involves computation of the areas and
moments of areas of various portions of the M=EI diagram. When a beam is subjected to
different types of loads, such as a combination of distributed and concentrated loads,
determination of the properties of the resultant M=EI diagram, due to the combined effect of
all the loads, can become a formidable task. This difficulty can be avoided by constructing the
bending moment diagram in parts—that is, constructing a separate bending moment diagram
for each of the loads. The ordinates of the bending moment diagrams thus obtained are then
divided by EI to obtain the M=EI diagrams. These diagrams usually consist of simple geometric
shapes, so their areas and moments of areas can be easily computed. The required areas and
moments of areas of the resultant M=EI diagram are then obtained by algebraically adding
(superimposing) the corresponding areas and moments of areas, respectively, of the bending
moment diagrams for the individual loads. Two procedures are commonly used for
constructing bending moment diagrams by parts. The first procedure simply involves applying

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each of the loads separately on the beam and constructing the corresponding bending
moment diagrams. Consider, for example, a beam subjected to a combination of a uniformly
distributed load and a concentrated load, as shown in Fig. 6.9(a). To construct the bending
moment diagram by parts, we apply the two types of loads separately on the beam, as shown
in Fig. 6.9(b) and (c), and draw the corresponding bending moment diagrams. It is usually
convenient to draw the parts of the bending moment diagram together, as shown in Fig.
6.9(d). Although it is not necessary for the application of the moment-area and conjugate-
beam methods, if so desired, the resultant bending moment diagram, as shown in Fig. 6.9(a),
can be obtained by superimposing the two parts shown in Fig. 6.9(b) and (c).

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An alternative procedure for

constructing bending moment diagrams by
parts consists of selecting a point on the
beam (usually a support point or an end of
the beam) at which the beam is assumed to
be fixed, applying each of the loads and
support reactions separately on this
imaginary cantilever beam, and constructing
the corresponding bending moment
diagrams. This procedure is commonly
referred to as constructing the bending
moment diagram by cantilever parts. To
illustrate this procedure, consider again the
beam examined in Fig. 6.9. The beam is
redrawn in Fig. 6.10(a), which also shows the (b)
external loads as well as the support
reactions determined from the equations of
equilibrium. To construct the bending
moment diagram by cantilever parts with
respect to the support point B, we imagine
the beam to be a cantilever beam with fixed
support at point B. Then we apply the two
loads and the reaction at support A separately
on this imaginary cantilever beam, as shown
in Fig. 6.10(b)–(d), and draw the
corresponding bending moment diagrams, as
shown in these figures. The parts of the
bending moment diagram are often drawn
together, as shown in Fig. 6.10(e). The
resultant bending moment diagram, as
depicted in Fig. 6.10(a), can be obtained, if
desired, by superimposing the three parts
shown in Fig. 6.10(b)–(d).

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Example

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Example

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V. CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD

The conjugate-beam method, developed by Otto Mohr in 1868, generally provides a

more convenient means of computing slopes and deflections of beams than the moment-area
method. Although the amount of computational effort required by the two methods is
essentially the same, the conjugate-beam method is preferred by many engineers because of
its systematic sign convention and straightforward application, which does not require
sketching the elastic curve of the structure.

The conjugate-beam method is based on the analogy between the relationships among
load, shear, and bending moment and the relationships among M=EI, slope, and deflection.
The slope and deflection can be determined from M=EI by the same operations as those
performed to compute shear and bending moment, respectively, from the load. Furthermore,
if the M=EI diagram for a beam is applied as the load on a fictitious analogous beam, then
the shear and bending moment at any point on the fictitious beam will be equal to the slope
and deflection, respectively, at the corresponding point on the original real beam. The fictitious
beam is referred to as the conjugate beam, and it is defined as follows:

A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a fictitious beam of the same length
as the real beam, but it is externally supported and internally connected such that if the
conjugate beam is loaded with the M=EI diagram of the real beam, the shear and bending
moment at any point on the conjugate beam are equal, respectively, to the slope and
deflection at the corresponding point on the real beam.

The conjugate-beam method essentially involves computing the slopes and

deflections of beams by computing the shears and bending moments in the corresponding
conjugate beams.

Supports for Conjugate Beams

External supports and internal connections for conjugate beams are determined from the
analogous relationships between conjugate beams and the corresponding real beams; that is,

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the shear and bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam must be consistent with
the slope and deflection at that point on the real beam. The conjugate counterparts of the
various types of real supports thus determined are shown in the figure below. As this figure
indicates, a hinged or a roller support at an end of the real beam remains the same in the
conjugate beam. This is because at such a support there may be slope, but no deflection, of
the real beam. Therefore, at the corresponding end of the conjugate beam there must be
shear but no bending moment; and a hinged or a roller support at that end would satisfy
these conditions. Since at a fixed support of the real beam there is neither slope nor deflection,
both shear and bending moment at that end of the conjugate beam must be zero; therefore,
the conjugate of a fixed real support is a free end, as shown in the figure below. Conversely,
a free end of a real beam becomes a fixed support in the conjugate beam because there may
be slope as well as deflection at that end of the real beam; therefore, the conjugate beam must
develop both shear and bending moment at that point. At an interior support of a real beam
there is no deflection, but the slope is continuous
(i.e., there is no abrupt change of slope from one side of the support to the other), so the
corresponding point on the conjugate beam becomes an internal hinge at which the bending
moment is zero and the shear is continuous. Finally, at an internal hinge in the real beam
there may be deflection as well as discontinuous slope of the real beam. Therefore, the
conjugate beam must have bending moment and abrupt change of shear at that point.
Because an interior support satisfies both of these requirements, an internal hinge in the real
beam becomes an interior support in the conjugate beam, as shown in the figure below.

The conjugates of some common types of (real) beams are depicted in the succeeding
figure indicates, the conjugate beams corresponding to statically determinate real beams are
always statically determinate, whereas statically indeterminate beams have unstable
conjugate
beams.
However,
since these
unstable
conjugate
beams will be
loaded with
the M=EI
diagrams of
statically
indeterminate
real beams,
which are self-
balancing, the
unstable
conjugate
beams will be
in equilibrium.

Sign Convention

If the positive ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied to the conjugate beam as
upward loads (in the positive y direction) and vice versa, then a positive shear in the conjugate
beam denotes a positive (counterclockwise) slope of the real beam with respect to the
undeformed axis of the real beam; also, a positive bending moment in the conjugate beam

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denotes a positive (upward or in the positive y direction) deflection of the real beam with
respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam and vice versa.

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can
be used for determining the slopes and
deflections of beams by the conjugate-beam
method.

1. Construct the M=EI diagram for the given

(real) beam subjected to the specified (real)
loading. If the beam is subjected to a combination
of different types of loads (e.g., concentrated
loads and distributed loads), the analysis can be
considerably expedited by constructing the M=EI
diagram by parts, as discussed in the preceding
section.

2. Determine the conjugate beam corresponding

to the given real beam. The external supports and
internal connections for the conjugate beam must
be selected so that the shear and bending
moment at any point on the conjugate beam are
consistent with the slope and deflection,
respectively, at that point on the real beam.

3. Apply the M=EI diagram (from step 1) as the

load on the conjugate beam. The positive
ordinates of the M=EI diagram are applied as
upward loads on the conjugate beam and vice
versa.

4. Calculate the reactions at the supports of the

conjugate beam by applying the equations of
equilibrium and condition (if any).

5. Determine the shears at those points on the

conjugate beam where slopes are desired on the
real beam. Determine the bending moments at
those points on the conjugate beam where
deflections are desired on the real beam. The
shears and bending moments in conjugate beams
are considered to be positive or negative in
accordance with the beam sign convention.
6. The slope at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real
beam is equal to the shear at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive shear in the
conjugate beam denotes a positive or counterclockwise slope of the real beam and vice
versa.

7. The deflection at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real
beam is equal to the bending moment at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive

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bending moment in the conjugate beam denotes a positive or upward deflection of the real
beam and vice versa.

Example
Determine the slopes and deflections at points B and C of the cantilever beam shown
by Conjugate-beam Method.

Solution

This beam was analyzed in our example

in the Moment-Area Method. he M=EI diagram
for a
reference moment of inertia I= 3,000 in.4 is
shown.

Conjugate Beam in figure (c) shows the

conjugate beam, loaded with the M=EI diagram
of the real beam. Note that point A, which is
fixed on the real beam, becomes free on the
conjugate beam, whereas point C, which is free
on the real beam, becomes fixed on the
conjugate beam.

Because the M=EI diagram is negative, it

is applied as a downward load on the conjugate
beam.

Slope at B The slope at B on the real beam is

equal to the shear at B in the conjugate beam.
Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the
left of B and considering the external forces acting upward on the free body as positive, in
accordance with the beam sign convention, we compute the shear at B in the conjugate
beam as

Deflection at B The deflection at B on the real beam is equal to the bending moment
at B in the conjugate beam.

Using the free body of the conjugate beam to the left of B and considering the
clockwise moments of the external forces about B as positive, in accordance with the beam
sign convention, we compute the bending moment at B on the conjugate beam as

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Example

Use the conjugate-beam method to

determine the deflection at point C of the beam
shown

Solution
This beam was previously analyzed in the moment-area method. The M/EI diagram
by cantilever parts with respect to point B is shown in figure (b) and Conjugate Beam in
figure (c).

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

1. Solve the given beam

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g. Determine the location of maximum deflection by Integration Method

h. Determine the maximum deflection Integration Method.
i. Determine the deflection at midspan by Superposition Method.
j. Determine the slope at point B by Moment-Area Method.
k. Determine the deflection at point C by Moment-Area Method.
l. Determine the deviation of B relative to tangent drawn at A by Moment-
Diagram by Parts.
m. Determine the deviation of D relative to tangent drawn at A by Moment-
Diagram by Parts.
n. Determine the deflection at B by Conjugate Beam Method
o. Determine the slope at C by Conjugate Beam Method.

2. Solve the given beam

a. Determine the location of maximum deflection by Integration Method

b. Determine the maximum deflection Integration Method.
c. Determine the deflection at midspan between A and B by Superposition
Method.
d. Determine the slope at point A by Moment-Area Method.
e. Determine the deflection at point C by Moment-Area Method.
f. Determine the deviation of A relative to tangent drawn at B by Moment-
Diagram by Parts.
g. Determine the deviation of B relative to tangent drawn at A by Moment-
Diagram by Parts.
h. Determine the deflection at C by Conjugate Beam Method
i. Determine the slope at B by Conjugate Beam Method.

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku
Beam Deflection topics @ Mathalino.com

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7. Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

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Module 5
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 5 – Virtual Work Method and Influence Lines

2. Introduction

In this chapter, we develop methods for the analysis of deflections of statically

determinate structures by using some basic principles of work and energy. Work–energy
methods are more general than the geometric methods considered in the previous chapter in
the sense that they can be applied to various types of structures, such as trusses, beams, and
frames. A disadvantage of these methods is that with each application, only one deflection
component, or slope, at one point of the structure can be computed.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Determine the deflection in trusses
 Apply Method of Joints or Method of Sections in the process
 Understand how structural system deflects using influence lines

4. Learning Content

I. Deflection of Trusses by the Virtual Work Method

To develop the expression of the virtual work method that can be used to determine
the deflections of trusses, consider an arbitrary statically determinate truss, as shown in Fig.
7.4(a). Let us assume that we want to determine the vertical deflection, D, at joint B of the
truss due to the given external loads P1 and P2. The truss is statically determinate, so the
axial forces in its members can be determined from the method of joints described
previously. If F represents the axial force in an arbitrary member j (e.g., member CD in Fig.
7.4(a)) of the truss, then (from mechanics of materials) the axial deformation, d, of this
member is given by

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Example

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Influence Lines

Influence lines have important application for the design of structures that resist large
live loads. In this chapter we will discuss how to draw the influence line for a statically
determinate structure. The theory is applied to structures subjected to a distributed load or a
series of concentrated forces, and specific applications to floor girders and bridge trusses are
given.

In the previous chapters we developed techniques for analyzing the forces in

structural members due to dead or fixed loads. It was shown that the shear and moment
diagrams represent the most descriptive methods for displaying the variation of these loads
in a member. If a structure is subjected to a live or moving load, however, the variation of the
shear and bending moment in the member is best described using the influence line.
An influence line represents the variation of either the reaction, shear, or moment, at a
specific point in a member as a concentrated force moves over the member. Once this line is
constructed, one can tell at a glance where the moving load should be placed on the
structure so that it creates the greatest influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the
magnitude of the associated reaction, shear, or moment at the point can then be calculated
from the ordinates of the influence-line diagram. For these reasons, influence lines play an
important part in the design of bridges, industrial crane rails, conveyors, and other structures
where loads move across their span.

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

1. Solve the given truss and determine the horizontal deflection at C

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2.

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku
Beam Deflection topics @ Mathalino.com

7. Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

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Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

II. Construct and influence line for the point at C

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9. References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 6
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 6 – Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures: Three Moment Equation

2. Introduction

Statically indeterminate structures such as continuous beams are analyze in various

methods. Analysis of statically indeterminate structures differ from statically determinates
structures due to geometry, elastic properties and stresses developed. Reactions and
moments, which are critical in the design of structures are therefore computed with the
introduction of three-moment equation, moment-distribution method and slope-deflection
method.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Demonstrate by numerical calculations the various methods presented
 Determine the reactions and moments of continuous beams by various method
 Recognize deflections and direction of moments based on loadings
 Understand how structural system react to external forces

4. Learning Content

1.1 Three-Moment Equation

In 1857, French engineer

Clapeyron first presented the three-
moment equation. This equation
demonstrate the relationship between the
moments at three points in a continuous
member.

The three-moment equation gives

us the relation between the moments
between any three points in a beam and
their relative vertical distances or
deviations. This method is widely used in
finding the reactions in a continuous beam.

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For fixed-ended supports,

Example 1

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Example 2

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Example 3

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

1. In example no. 1, replace the support at R1 with a fixed support

a. Determine M1 and M2
b. Determine R1, R2 and R3
c. Draw V & M diagram

2. In example no. 2, extend a 4 ft overhang to the right of R3 with 400 lbs concentrated
load at its edge
a. Determine M2 and M3
b. Determine R1, R2 and R3
c. Draw V & M diagram

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3. In example no. 3, extend a 4 ft overhang to the left of R 1 with with 400 lbs
concentrated load and replace support at R3 with a fixed support
a. Determine M1, M2 and M3
b. Determine R1, R2 and R3
c. Draw V & M diagram

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Examples in Mathalino.com
National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015
Structural Analysis by Besavilla
Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

I. Solve the moments of the given beam by Three-Moment Equation

II. Solve the reactions
III. Draw the shear and moment diagram

9. References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 7
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 7 – Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures: Slope Deflection Method

2. Introduction

This chapter presents the Slope Deflection Method for beams, basically to solve the
moments and reactions at supports of indeterminate beams, specifically, continuous beams.
The method takes into account only the bending deformations of structures. Although the
slope-deflection method is itself considered to be a useful tool for analyzing indeterminate
beams and frames, an understanding of the fundamentals of this method is regarded as a
basis in some computer software in structural analysis.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Determine the reactions and moments of continuous beams by Slope Deflection
Method
 Demonstrate by numerical calculations and other methods the concepts, principles and
theories obtained in Slope Deflection Method
 Draw shear and moment diagram of continuous beams

4. Learning Content

Slope Deflection Method

The slope-deflection method was originally developed by Heinrich Manderla and Otto
Mohr for the purpose of studying secondary stresses in trusses. Later, in 1915, G. A. Maney
developed a refined version of this technique and applied it to the analysis of indeterminate
beams and framed structures.
When a continuous beam or a frame is subjected to external loads, internal moments
generally develop at the ends of its individual members. The slope-deflection equations
relate the moments at the ends of a member to the rotations and displacements of its ends
and the external loads applied to the member.

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

1. In example no. 1 in your Module 1, replace the support at R1 with a fixed support
a. Determine M1 and M2 by Slope-Deflection Method
b. Determine R1, R2 and R3
c. Draw V & M diagram

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2. In example no. 2 in your Module 1, extend a 4 ft overhang to the right of R3 with 400
lbs concentrated load at its edge
a. Determine M2 and M3 by Slope-Deflection Method
b. Determine R1, R2 and R3
c. Draw V & M diagram

3. In example no. 3 in your Module 1, extend a 4 ft overhang to the left of R 1 with with
400 lbs concentrated load and replace support at R3 with a fixed support
a. Determine M1, M2 and M3 by Slope-Deflection Method
b. Determine R1, R2 and R3
c. Draw V & M diagram

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Examples in Mathalino.com
National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015
Structural Analysis by Besavilla
Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, essay activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

I. Solve the moments of the given beam by Slope-Deflection Method

II. Solve the reactions
III. Draw the shear and moment diagram

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9. References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 8
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 8 – Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures: Moment Distribution

Method

2. Introduction

The moment-distribution method is a displacement method of analysis that is easy to

apply once certain elastic constants have been determined. In this chapter we will first state
the important definitions and concepts for moment distribution and then apply the method
to solve problems involving statically indeterminate beams.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Apply the method of Moment Distribution in solving determinate and indeterminate
beams
 Determine the reactions and moments of determinate and indeterminate structures
 Recognize the different external forces acting on structures
 Understand how structural system react to external forces

4. Learning Content

The method of analyzing beams and frames using moment distribution was
developed by Hardy Cross, in 1930. At the time this method was first published it attracted
immediate attention, and it has been recognized as one of the most notable advances in
structural analysis
during the twentieth century.

The moment distribution is a method of successive approximations that may be

carried out to any desired degree of accuracy. Essentially, the method begins by assuming
each joint of a structure is fixed. Then, by unlocking and locking each joint in succession,
the internal moments at the joints are “distributed” and balanced until the joints have
rotated to their final or nearly final positions. It will be found that this process of calculation
is both repetitive and easy to apply.

In order to apply the method of moment distribution, knowledge of the fixed-end

moments of the different loadings must be familiarized. Take note that both moments at the
fixed end are usually negative moments because they tend to make the beam concave
downward at the ends, but for the moment distribution, we consider the fixed end moment
at the right to be positive.

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Example 1

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Example 2

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

a. In example no. 1, replace the support at A with a fixed support, then solve for the
final moments using Moment Distribution Method

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b. In example no. 2, replace support A with a hinged support, then solve for the final
moments using Moment Distribution Method.

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Examples in Mathalino.com
Structural Analysis by Besavilla
Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

I. Solve the moments of the given beam by Moment Distribution Method

II. Solve the reactions
III. Draw the shear and moment diagram

9. References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 9
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 9 – Analysis of Frames: Without Sidesway and With Sidesways

2. Introduction

Analysis of frames without sidesway are similar with analysis of continuos beams. In
the analysis of frames with sidesway, with consider a restrained acting against and to the
direction of sway.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Apply the method of Moment Distribution in the analysis of frames without and with
sidesway
 Apply the method of Slope-Deflection in the analysis of frames without and with
sidesway
 Recognize the different external forces acting on structures

4. Learning Content

Example: Moment Distribution Method without Sidesway

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Example: Moment Distribution Method with Sidesway

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Example: Slope Deflection Method without Sidesway

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Example: Slope Deflection Method with Sidesway

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

1. Solve by Moment Distribution Method without Sidesway and with Sidesway

2. Solve by Slope Deflection Method without Sidesway and with Sidesway

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary

Reading

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

1. Replace support at E with a fixed support then solve by Moment Distribution

Method without Sidesway and with Sidesway
2. Replace support at A with a hinged support then solve by Slope Deflection
Method without Sidesway and with Sidesway

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9. References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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Module 10
CE 311 – STRUCTURAL THEORY

1. Title of the Module

Chapter 10 – Lateral Loads on Building Frames: Portal Method and Cantilever Method

2. Introduction

In this chapter, we will solve frames using Portal Method and Cantilever Method.
Both frames solve the shear in the column and girder, and as well as the moment in the
column and girder. The shear and moment arrive with this method, is the basis for the
design of reinforced concrete or steel frames.

3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students must be able to:

 Apply Portal Method in the analysis of building frames
 Apply Cantilever Method in the analysis of building frames

4. Learning Content

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Example: Cantilever Method

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5. Teaching and Learning Activities

In the example, replace the lateral forces with 50 kN, 70 kN and 90 kN, respectively.
a. Solve by Portal Method
b. Solve by Cantilever Method

6. Recommended Learning Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) Adopted

Online (synchronous)
TelEducation moodle, Facebook messenger, Zoom, Google Classroom, etc..

Remote (asynchronous)
module, problem set, activities, etc…

8. Assessment Tank

9. References

Structural Analysis by Besavilla

Structural Analysis, Fifth Edition by Aslam Kassimali
Elementary Structural Analysis, Third Edition by Norris, Wilbur, Utku

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