Problem Solving

Introduction

Central to the study of mathematics is its ability to solve problems even

outside the field. Different professions deal with different problems. Most
professionals are required to have good problem solving skills. In the previous
chapters, you built a clear understanding of mathematics as a language and
improved your skills in translating mathematical sentences to symbols. This skill
is so important for you to become a better problem solver.

In this chapter, our main focus is on how you solve a problem in a

systematic manner.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, you are expected to

1. Discuss ways to solve a problem;

2. Solve problems using inductive and deductive reasoning;
3. Solve problems using Polya’s strategy.

What You Need to Know

A mathematical problem is a situation that you may confront for which the
method and solution is not immediately known to you. There are different ways
to come up with the solution of a problem. Good comprehension and reasoning
are necessary.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

We start by describing two processes of reaching a conclusion: inductive
and deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining specific

examples is called inductive reasoning. A conclusion that is made by applying
inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. Conjectures may or may not be
correct.

An example of this type of reasoning is applied when we want to find the

next number in a list of numbers which follows a pattern.

Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the lists.

1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?
Solution

The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third
and fourth by 2 again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next
difference would be 3, followed again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference
between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to 11 to be a number 2 more
than 11, which is 13.

We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11.

Example 2. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.

Perform the following steps:

Pick a number. Multiply it by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide the sum by 2.

Subtract 3.

Use this procedure in different numbers and conjecture on the resulting number.

Solution.

We may construct a table to examine the results.

Original number Result
5 10
6 12
7 14
10 20
100 200

If you pick the number 5, the procedure will give a result of 10. For 6, it will give
12; for 7, 14; for 10, 20; and for 100, 200. We observe that the resulting numbers
are twice the original number. Thus, we conjecture that the process will produce
a number which is twice the original.

We used inductive reasoning in making a conjecture in the previous example.

We must take note that though it can be helpful to use inductive reasoning to
arrive at a conclusion, extra care must be observed when performing procedure.
Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not be correct. The following
example illustrates this instance.

Example 3. Consider the polynomial 𝑛 + 19𝑛 − 19 where 𝑛 is a counting

number. If we conjecture on the results for 𝑛 ≥ 2, we first check on several values
of 𝑛.

𝒏 𝒏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟗𝒏 − 𝟏𝟗
2 23
3 47

2
 4 73
5 101
6 131
7 163

We notice that the results are prime numbers. Thus, we conjecture that for
𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝑛 + 19𝑛 − 19 is a prime number. To test our conjecture, we need to
check results for other values. We have

𝑛 𝑛 + 19𝑛 − 19
8 23
9 47
10 73
11 101
12 131

We see that the results are consistent and that our conjecture seems correct.
If we continue checking on the next results, we get 397, 443, 491, 541, 593, and
647. All these numbers are prime. However, if 𝑛 = 19, we get 703 which is the
product of 19 and 37. This makes us conclude that our conjecture is incorrect.

Example 4. Consider a circle and dots on the circle. What we do is connect

each dot to all other dots so that we draw all possible line segments. After this,
we count the number of regions formed inside the circle. The first five results are
given in the figure.

Figure 1.
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle

Results may be summarized in the following table.

Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 2 4 8 16 ?

3
 Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots
increase, the number of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect that
for 6 dots, there will be 16 ∙ 2 = 32 regions. However, if we perform the procedure,
we find out the only 31 regions are formed as shown in the succeeding figure.

Figure 2.
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle

In itself, inductive reasoning is not a valid method of proof. Observing that

a pattern exists in a number of situations does not mean that the pattern is true
for all situations. However, the inductive way is still valuable because it allows
us to form ideas on what we observed which leads us to come up with a
hypothesis.

Exercise 1

Directions. Use inductive reasoning to figure out the next number in

the list.

Start Here:

1. 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, ____

2. 3, 5, 9, 15, 23, 33, ___
3. 80, 70, 61, 53, 46, 40, ____
4. , , , , , ,____

5. 2, 7, −3, 2, −8, −3, −13, −8, −18, ____

Observed patterns and formed ideas are better understood when one knows
how to communicate these ideas into meaningful statements. The ability to
analyze and convey the ideas formed is an essential part of the problem solving
process. In the succeeding discussion, we recall concepts on truth of statements
and familiarize with how we can justify the truth or falsity of a statement.
4
 A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case where
the statement is not true then it is considered a false statement. The instance
for which the statement becomes false is called a counter-example. One can
verify that a statement is false by using a counter-example. This is illustrated
in the next example.

Example 5. If 𝑛 is an integer, then the absolute value of 𝑛 is greater than 0.

Solution.

Since 0 is an integer, we let 𝑛 = 0. Now, |𝑛| = |0| = 0 ≯ 0. We have found a

counter-example. Thus, the statement “If 𝑛 is an integer, then the absolute value
of 𝑛 is greater than 0.” is a false statement.

Exercise 2

Direction. Find a number that provides a counter-example to show that the

given statement is false.

Example:

1
∀ real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 > .
𝑥
Answer:

Consider the real number 1. Then 1 ≯ since 1 = . We have

found a counter-example. Therefore, the given statement
“∀ real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 > .” is false.

Start Here:

1. ∀ real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥.

2. ∀ real numbers 𝑥, |𝑥 + 3| = |𝑥| + 3.

3. If the sum of two counting numbers is an even counting number,

then the product of the two counting numbers is an even counting
number.

5
Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form used in

proving observations and arriving at conclusions. It is a process by which one
makes conclusions based on previously accepted general assumptions,
procedures, and principles.

To illustrate how deductive reasoning works, we will use the same procedure
we had in Example 2 and this time we use a deductive process.

Example 6. Use deductive reasoning to make a conclusion.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 6 to the product.

Divide the sum by 2 then subtract 3.

Solution.

Procedure Symbolic representation

Pick a number 𝑛
Multiply by 4 4𝑛

Add 6 to the product 4𝑛 + 6

4𝑛 + 6
Divide the sum by 2 = 2𝑛 + 3
2
Subtract 3 2𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 2𝑛

If we let 𝑛 be the number, the procedure will give a result of 2𝑛. Thus, we
conclude that the procedure produces a number which is twice the original
number.

Some problems make use of the deductive process to arrive at a solution.

Logic puzzles, for example, are best solved by deductive reasoning using a chart
to display the given information.

Example 7. Solve this puzzle using deductive reasoning.

John, Jenny, Sheila, and Jason were recently elected as new class officers
(president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High School. From
the following clues, determine which position each holds.

1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest
members of the group.
3. Sheila and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

6
Solution

From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a mark
“X” on positions Jason do not hold.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X X
Jenny
Sheila
John

From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the youngest
in the group, he cannot be the president. From here, we also conclude that Jason
is not the secretary since he is older than the treasurer. Thus, Jason must be
the vice president and John must be the treasurer.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X
Sheila X X
John X X X 

From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude that
Jenny is the secretary. Since there are no other options, we conclude that
Sheila is the president.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X  X
Sheila  X X X
John X X X 

Therefore, Sheila is the president, Jason is vice president, Jenny is the

secretary, and John is the treasurer.

7
 Exercise 3

Directions. Solve the following problems using deductive reasoning.

Let 𝑛 be the original number.

Example

Pick a number. Add 4 to the 1. 𝑛 + 4

number and multiply the sum 2. 3(𝑛 + 4) = 3𝑛 + 12
by 3. Subtract 7 from the
3. 3𝑛 + 12 − 7 = 3𝑛 + 5
product. Then subtract triple
of the original number from 4. 3𝑛 + 5 − 3𝑛 = 5
this difference. The procedure will always result to
the number 5.

Start Here:

1. Pick a number. Multiply the

number by 6 and add 8. Divide
the sum by 2, subtract twice
the original number, and
subtract 4.

Problem Solving with Patterns

Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas

are the terms of the sequence. In the given sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is
the second, and so on. The three dots indicate that the sequence continues
beyond 65, which is the last term written. The use of subscript notation is a
convention to designate the nth term of a sequence. That is,

𝑎 represents the first term of a sequence.

𝑎 represents the second term of a sequence.

𝑎 represents the third term of a sequence.

𝑎 represents the nth term of a sequence.

When we examine a sequence, the following questions are often asked:

 What is the next term?

8
  What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

Before we proceed to the types of sequences, we will study the basic

sequences and find the next term of a sequence using a difference table

A difference table is often used to show differences between successive terms

of the sequence. The following table is the difference table for the sequence

2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14
First difference 3 3 3 3

Looking at the sequence, we see that the difference between 5 and 2 is 3; 8

and 5 is also 3; and so on.

In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the
difference table above to predict the next number in the sequence, we shall be
working upward by adding 3 to 14. Thus, 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the
sequence. The following table shows how this is done.
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14 17
First difference 3 3 3 3 3

Consider the sequence below with its difference table.

5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65
First difference 9 13 17 21
Second difference 4 4 4

From the table, we see that the first differences are not the same since 14 −
5 = 9, 27 − 14 = 13, 44 − 27 = 17, and 65 − 44 = 21. Thus, we check on the second
differences and observe if we see a pattern. In this case, the second differences
are all the same. We have 13 − 9 = 4, 17 − 13 = 4, and 21 − 17 = 4. The common
second difference is 4.

Since we have found a common second difference, we shall be working

upward to get 4 + 21 = 25 and then 25 + 65 = 90. The following table provides the
illustration on how we get the next term of the sequence. Thus, in this example,
the next term is 90.
Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90
First difference 9 13 17 21 25
Second difference 4 4 4 4

9
Example 8. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.

2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …

Solution
Sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 332
First differences 5 17 35 59 89 125
Second differences 12 18 24 30 36
Third differences 6 6 6 6

In this case, we found common third difference of 6. Working upward, we

have 6 + 30 + 89 + 207 = 332. This is the next in the given sequence.
Exercise 4

Direction. Figure out the next number in the sequence using a

difference table as your guide.

Start Here:

1. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, …

2. 10, 10, 12, 16, 22, 30, …
3. −1, 4, 21, 56, 115,204, …
4. 9, 4, 3,12, 37, 84, …
5. 17, 15, 25, 53, 105, 187, …

nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

Consider the formula 𝑎 = 3𝑛 + 𝑛. This formula defines a sequence and

provides a method for finding any term of the sequence. In particular, if we want
to find the first, second, and third terms, we only need to substitute the values
1,2, and 3 to 𝑛. So,

𝑎 = 3(1) + 1 = 4,

𝑎 = 3(2) + 2 = 14,

𝑎 = 3(3) + 3 = 30,

which means that the first term is 4; second term is 14; and third term is 30.

The next example illustrates how the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula can be determined.

Example 9. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.

10
 a. What is the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the number of tiles in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ figure of
the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist exactly 320 tiles?

Solution

a. If we count the tiles in each term, we get the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, … which
has a common difference of 3. Thus, we may consider 3𝑛 such that 𝑛 =
1, 2, …. However, using this would give 3 as the first term.

From 3, we subtract 1 to get 2. Hence, we may consider the formula 3𝑛 −

1, where 𝑛 = 1,2, …. Evaluating this formula for the first 4 terms will give
us 2, 5, 8, and 11, which are the terms of the sequence based on the figure.

Thus, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for this sequence is 𝑎 = 3𝑛 − 1.

b. Using the formula we derived from (a), we can get the number of tiles in
the eighth term of the sequence. In this case, 𝑛 = 8 and 𝑎 = 3(8) − 1 =
24 − 1 = 23 tiles.

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we will use
the formula we derived in (a) and solve for 𝑛. Here, we expect the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-
term to have 320 tiles. Thus, we solve 3𝑛 − 1 = 320.

3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107

Therefore, the 107th figure has 320 tiles.

Types of Sequence

There are different types of sequences in mathematics. The succeeding

discussion will illustrate some of these sequences.

11
Arithmetic Sequences

An arithmetic sequence is made by adding the same value each time. This
value is referred to as the ‘’common difference’’. A sequence with this property
is also called arithmetic progression.

The general form is given by

𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, 𝑎 + 4𝑑, …

where 𝑎 is the first term and 𝑑 is the common difference.

Here are some examples of arithmetic progressions with their common

difference.

Example Common difference

1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, . .. 4
4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, . .. 3
29, 27, 25, 23, 21, 19, . .. −2

The sequences used in the previous examples are arithmetic progressions.

Geometric Sequences

We shall now move on to the other type of sequence we want to explore.

Consider the sequence

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …

Here, each term in the sequence is 2 times the previous term. A sequence
such as this is called a geometric sequence.

There is a general notation for geometric sequences. The first term we shall
denote by 𝑎. But here, there is no common difference. Instead there is a common
ratio, as the ratio of successive terms is always constant. So we shall let 𝑟 be this
common ratio.

With this notation, the general geometric sequence can be expressed as

𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 , 𝑎𝑟 , …

The 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term can be calculated using 𝑎𝑟 , where the power (𝑛 − 1) is always

one less than the position 𝑛 of the term in the sequence.

Thus, the sequence

12
 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, …

can be expressed as

2, 2(2) , 2(2) , 2(2) , 2(2) , 2(2) , …

Triangular Number Sequence

1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, ...

The Triangular Number Sequence is generated from a pattern of dots which

form a triangle:

By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the next
number of the sequence. Thus, the 5 th term in this sequence is:

Exercise 5

Direction. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the sequence with the given
representation below.

How many squares will there be in the fifteenth figure?

13
Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy

A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may
be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own
means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.

George Polya

For a mathematician, the answer to a mathematical problem is important.

Equally important is the study of methods and rules for discovery and invention.
This is called heuristics.

One highly acceptable method to problem solving is designed by George

Polya (1887-1985). The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated
consisted of four steps.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
We will discuss each step by giving some guide on how we can complete the
problem solving process devised by George Polya.

Understand the Problem

We must have a clear understanding of the problem. In this part, we may

list the given information. Essential to this part is the ability to identify what is
asked and have a clear understanding of the properties of the final answer.

Devise a Plan
Different problems can be solved using a variety of solutions. Some of these
procedures include making a list of the known information, making a list of
information that is needed, sketching a diagram, making an organized list that
shows all possibilities, making a table or a chart, working backwards, trying to
solve a similar but simpler problem, looking for a pattern, writing an equation,
performing an experiment, guessing at a solution and then check our result.

Carry Out the Plan

Once we devised a plan, we must carry it out. Careful execution of the plan
is important and a record of the process and results obtained shall be in place.
If the first plan is not successful, we can always use another plan and start all
over.

14
Review the Solution

Once we have found a solution, we check the solution and make sure that
the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem. We must interpret the
solution in the context of the problem and figure out whether there are
generalizations of the solution that could apply to other problems.

Example 10. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the
decimal representation .

Solution
Understand the Problem This problem asks for 100 places to the right of . Thus, we
need to express as a decimal and look for a pattern to
determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point.
Devise a Plan The number in decimal notation is given by 0.148148148…
which has a repeating and non-terminating pattern. Since the
decimal representation repeats 148 over and over, we know that
the digit located 100 places to the right of the decimal point is
either 1, 4, or 8. It will be helpful to use a table for this problem.
We have

Location Digit Location Digit Location Digit

1st 1 2nd 4 3rd 8
4th 1 5th 4 6th 8
7th 1 8th 4 9th 8
10th 1 11th 4 12th 8
13th 1 14th 4 15th 8

Carry Out the Plan Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations evenly
divisible by 3. From this pattern we can tell that the 99 th
decimal digit must be 8. Since a 1 always follows an 8 in the
pattern, the 100th decimal digit must be a 1.
Review the Solution The above table illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if
each of the location numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a
remainder 1 is produced. If each of the location numbers in
column 2 is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus,
we can find the decimal digit in any location by dividing the
location number by 3 and examining the remainder. For
instance, to find the digit in the 3200th decimal place of , we
merely divide 3200 by 3 and examine the remainder, which is 2.
Thus, the digit 3200 places to the right of the decimal point is a
4.

15
Example 11. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.

A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱100.00. The visor costs ₱ 90.00 more
than the paper fan. What are the individual costs of the visor and the fan?

Solution.
Understand the Problem After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that
the visor costs ₱90.00 pesos and the paper fan costs ₱10.00. The
sum of these costs is also ₱100.00, but the cost of the visor is
only ₱80.00 more than the cost of the fan. We need to find two
amounts that differ by ₱90.00 and whose sum is ₱100.00.
Devise a Plan The use of equations is one way to solve this problem. Write an
equation using ℎ for the cost of the paper fan and ℎ + 90 for the
cost of the visor.
Carry Out the Plan ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ + 90 = 100
ℎ=5
The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor is
₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00 = ₱ 95.00.

Review the Solution The sum of the costs is ₱5.00 + ₱95.00 = ₱100.00, and the cost of
the visor is ₱90.00 more than the cost of the paper fan.

Exercise 6

Direction. Use Polya’s four steps to problem solving in solving the

following problems.

1. A true or false quiz 1.

contains 10 questions.
In how many ways can
a student answer the 2.
questions if the
student answers two of
the questions with 3.
false and the rest with
true?
4.

1.

2. Determine the units 2.

digit of 4 .
3.

4.

16