Chapter 1

Exercise 1.1 Lucy is one of the earliest hominids (Australopithecus afarensis) who roamed
Ethiopia between five and four million years ago. She was bipedal and her height was only
1 m. By using geometrical estimates, calculate her weight. Johanna, Lucy’s modern
counterpart, is 1.70 m high and weighs 70 kg. From Fig. E1.1, estimate her femur bone
diameter. How does it compare with the diameter of a modern human?

Solution:
Lucy’s weight: 70kg/1.7m*1m=41.17kg
Compared to her height in Fig. E1.1, her femur bone diameter is 2-3cm.
Modern people has a femur bone of about 1.5-2inch (5cm), so Lucy’s femur bone is smaller
than modern human.

Exercise 1.2 The early chopper shown in Fig. 1.1 has a diameter of approximately 10 cm.
(a) Determine its weight, knowing that it is made of basalt (obtain the density from the
web).
(b) Estimate the velocity it can reach, thrust by the energetic arms of Lucy (see Fig. E1.1).
(c) What force can it generate if it is decelerated to zero over a distance equal to the skull
thickness of Luciano, Lucy’s suitor?
(d) Assuming that bone has a flexure strength equal to 120 MPa, establish whether the
blow force is sufficient to crack Luciano’s skull.

Solution:
(a) The density of basalt is 2.8-3.0g/cm3, D=10cm, M=ρ*V=1.52kg.
(b) Lucy’s arm is about 20cm long. The distance of chopper travels in her hand is about 50
cm. if she can throw the chopper in 0.2s, it can reach to the velocity of 2.5 m/s.
1
(c) 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑙, l is estimated as 2cm. so F= 237.5N.
(d) 𝑃 = 𝐹/𝐴, the area of contact is estimated as 0.01 cm2, therefore P= 237.5 MPa. It is
sufficient to crack Luciano’s skull.

Exercise 1.3 Why are gold, copper, and silver three of the few metals that are found native
(in metallic form)?

Solution:
Over geological time scales, very few metals can resist natural weathering processes like
oxidation, which is why generally only the less reactive metals (Au, Cu and Ag) are found
as native metals.

Exercise 1.4 The Fe–Ni alloy is also found in native form, and some important religious
and archaeological monuments use this alloy. What is the source of this material?
Solution:
Fe-Ni alloy is a native metal found in meteorites, in the form of mineral phases kamacita
and taenite.

Exercise 1.5 What is the process by which metallurgy transformed ores into metals in
prehistory? What was the source of energy?

Solution:
In the prehistorical time, ores were transformed into metals through smelting. Heat and
chemical reducing agents together decompose the ore. The source of eneryg comes from
fire.

Exercise 1.6 Discuss how each of the seven characteristics in the Arzt heptahedron of
biological materials apply to bone.

Solution:
(a) Self-assembly: Bone is mostly made up of composite materials
incorporating the inorganic mineral calcium phosphate in the chemical
arrangement termed calcium hydroxyapatite and organic collagen. Bone is formed
by the hardening of this matrix around entrapped cells.
(b) Self-healing: Bone is metabolically active tissue composed of several
types of cells, including osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. And osteoblasts
are mononucleate bone-forming cells. If the bone is injured, the osteoblasts can
regenerate new bone.
(c) Evolution and environmental constrains: Different species have evolved
different bones that are adapted to the environment. Bird skeletons are very
lightweight, and their bones are smaller and thinner to aid flight. A deer’s antlers
are composed of bone which is an unusual example of bone being outside the body.
(d) Hydration: Bones consist of living cells embedded in a mineralized
organic matrix. Above 30% of the acellular part of bone consists of the organic
components, and mainly collagen. The strands of collagen give bones its tensile
strength.
(e) Synthesis effected at 1 atm and 310 K.
(f) Multifunctionality: First, bones serve a variety of mechanical functions.
Together the bones in the body form the skeleton. Besides, cancellous bones
contain bone marrow, which produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis.
And bones play very important role in the metabolic such as mineral and growth
factor storage.
(g) Hierarchy: Bones can be divided into seven levels – the amino acids, the
tropocollagen, the mineralized collagen fibrils, the fibril arrays, the fibre patterns,
 the osteons and Haversian cannals, and the bone tissue.

Exercise 1.7 Of the natural (biological) materials listed in Fig. 1.2(a), how many are still
in use nowadays?
Solution:
The woods and leather are still in use nowadays.

Exercise 1.8 Compare the Ashby maps in Figs. 1.2(a) and (b). Only one natural (or
biological) material is still at the top of its performance. Which one is it? Provide three
examples of its current utilization. Can you think of ways in which these materials can be
improved further?

Solution:
Compare the maps in the figs, we can find wood is still at the top of its performance. We
use woods for our furniture, such as desks, chairs and beds. Also, some wood can be used
as construction materials. One way to think of is woods can be infiltrate with some
polymers to improved the mechanical properties.

Exercise 1.9 Compare the differences between biological (natural) materials and
engineering materials.

Solution:
Biological materials have seven unique and defining features: (i) self-assembly; (ii)
self-healing capability; (iii) evolution and environmental constraints; (iv) hydration;
(v) mild synthesis conditions; (vi) functionality; (vii) hierarchy.
Chapter 2
Exercise 2.1 Determine the density of bone if it is composed of 50 vol.% hydroxyapatite
and 50 vol. % collagen. Density of HAP = 3.14 g/cm3 and density of collagen = 1.03
g/cm3.

Solution:
𝑔
The density of bone = 50% × 3.14 𝑐𝑚3 + 50% × 1.03𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

= 2.085𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

Exercise 2.2 Using values from the Ashby plots (Fig. 2.11), determine the strength and
Young’ s modulus of bone and compare them with the values given in the plots. Use both
Voigt and Reuss averaging techniques for properties, P:
𝑃 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 ,
1 𝑉1 𝑉2
= +
𝑃 𝑃1 𝑃2

Solution:
We can assume that bone has 50% vol.% hydroxyapatite and 50% vol.% of collagen.
And the density of HAP = 3.14 g/cm3, the density of collagen = 1.03 g/cm3.
Using Voigt,
𝜌 = 3.14 × 50% + 1.03 × 50% = 2.085 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
we can get density of bone is 2.085𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 , and according to the Ashby plot, we can get
the strength and young’s modulus:
𝜎𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑔𝑡 = ~500 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝐸𝑉𝑜𝑖𝑔𝑡 = ~10 𝐺𝑃𝑎
Using Reuss,
1 50% 50%
= +
𝜌 3.14 1.03
𝜌 = 1.552 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
then the strength and young’s modulus:
𝜎𝑅𝑒𝑢𝑠𝑠 = ~100 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝐸𝑅𝑒𝑢𝑠𝑠 = ~5 𝐺𝑃𝑎
From the Ashby plots,
The values given in the plot for the compact bone,
𝜎 = 100~600 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝐸 = 8~50 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Exercise 2.3 Describe the different levels of the hierarchy of the lobster exoskeleton.

Solution:
Level I: Chitin molecules that form the basis of lobster exoskeleton.
Level II: Chitin molecules form the alpha-chitin crystal.
Level III: Chitin protein nanofibrils in nanometer size.
Level IV: Chitin protein fibrils consist of several nanofibrils.
Level V: Fibrous bundles.
Level VI: 180 degree stacking sequence bouligand structure in micro size.
Level VII: Different layers: epicuticle, exocuticle, and endocuticle form the exoskeleton.

Exercise 2.4 Spider web is, perhaps, the strongest biological material. It is not given in
the Ashby plot. Obtain its strength from the literature and put it on the plot. What is its
elastic modulus?

Solution:
The tensile strength is around 1300 MPa, when at it’s maximum strain (~476%), the
young’s modulus is around 281.1 MPa.

Exercise 2.5 Explain how levels of hierarchy affect mechanical strength and toughness.

Solution:
Hierarchical structures can be defined as a group of molecular units/aggregates that are in
contact with other phases, which in turn are similarly assembled at increasing length scales.
The stiffness, strength, and toughness of a structure depend on the level in the hierarchy
and on the total number of levels in the hierarchy. The smallest scale is more perfect, and
the flaws are smaller. Thus the Young’s modulus and strength are higher. As we move up,
there are weak interfaces, sacrificial bonds, voids, cracks, etc., that contribute to a lowering
of Young’s modulus and strength. However, there are more effective mechanisms to retard
the propagation of damage. This results in an increase in toughness.

Exercise 2.6 How many times does a heart valve open and close in ten years? Make
necessary assumptions about daily rhythm.

Solution:
If an individual averages 80 beats per minute, that’s 4800 beats per hour, 115200 beats per
day, 42 million per year, and 420 million in ten years.

Exercise 2.7 (a) For the cycloid in Fig. 2.9(a), which has a period of 330 mm, determine
the radius of the circle.
(b) If the highest point on each cusp is 130 mm, how would you correct the equation to
reproduce the curves shown in the plot?
(c) Show that the trajectory from lowest to lowest point is equal to 8r.
Solution:
(a) For the cycloid, the period is 300 um, so 2𝜋 × 𝑟 = 330 𝑢𝑚; then we
can get
𝑟 = 52.5 𝑢𝑚
(b) If the highest point on each cusp is 130 um, the original should be 2r,
130
which is equal to 105 um. So the factor 𝑘 = = 1.24. Thus, the equation should
2𝑟

be multiply by a factor k = 1.24.

(c) We can find the parametric equation:
𝑥 = 𝑟(𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃),
𝑦 = 𝑟(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
then the trajectory from lowest to lowest point can be calculate as follows:
𝜃=2𝜋
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝜃=2𝜋
𝜃
𝑆= ∫ √( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 2𝜃sin( ) 𝑑𝜃 = 8𝑟
𝜃=0 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜃=0 2

Exercise 2.8 Using the Kelvin– Voigt model for bone, which is a mixture of collagen and
hydroxyapatite, determine the strain as a function of time if it is subjected to a constant
stress. This is called a creep test.
Given:
𝐸𝑚 = 100 𝐺𝑃𝑎; 𝜂 = 109 𝑃𝑎 𝑠; 𝜎 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Solution:
Using the Kelvin model for creep test, the relation between stress, strain and young’s
modulus can be as follows:
𝑑𝜀(𝑡)
𝜎(𝑡) = 𝐸𝜀(𝑡) + 𝜂
𝑑𝑡
plug in E, 𝜂, 𝜎, and then solve the differentiation equation:
𝑑𝜀(𝑡)
109 + 1011 𝜀(𝑡) = 108
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜀(𝑡)
+ 100𝜀(𝑡) = 0.1
𝑑𝑡
𝜀(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑒 −100𝑡 + 0.001
since when t = 0, 𝜀(𝑡) = 0, thus C = -0.001
then 𝜀(𝑡) = −0.001𝑒 −100𝑡 + 0.001

Exercise 2.9 A Maxwell element for a viscoelastic system simulating collagen fibril
consists of a spring and a dashpot connected in series. If the cross-section is equal to 200
nm and the length is 10 μm, determine the stress as a function of time if the machine
crosshead is stopped at a stress of 100MPa.
Given:
𝐸 = 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎; 𝜂 = 109 𝑃𝑎 𝑠.

Solution:
Using the Maxwell model:
𝑑𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜎 1 𝑑𝜎
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜂 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
𝜎 1 𝑑𝜎
+ =0
𝜂 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
𝜎 = 𝜎0 𝑒 −(𝐸/𝜂)𝑡
𝜎 = 100𝑒 −𝑡

Exercise 2.10 Describe the hierarchical levels in the Achilles tendon.

Solution:
Level I: Triple helical collagen molecule, around 1 nm;
Level II: Collagen molecules form collagen fibril, ~20 – 150 nm;
Level III: Collagen fibre, ~1 – 20 um;
Level IV: Primary fibre bundle formed by collagen fibre, ~15 – 400 um;
Level V: Secondary fibre bundle (fascicle), ~20 – 1000 um;
Level VI: Tertiary fibre bundle, ~1 – 3 mm;
Level VII: Tendon unit, 2 – 12 mm.

Exercise 2.11 For the Maxwell model, obtain an expression for the stress as a function of
time for a fixed length (stress relaxation).

Solution:

𝑑𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜎 1 𝑑𝜎
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜂 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
Since the length is constant,
𝜎 1 𝑑𝜎
+ =0
𝜂 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
𝜎 = 𝜎0 𝑒 −(𝐸/𝜂)𝑡

Exercise 2.12 Obtain the strain as a function of time for a Maxwell model if the stress is
kept constant (creep).

Solution:
 𝑑𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜎 1 𝑑𝜎
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜂 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
Since the stress 𝜎 is constant,
𝑑𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝜎
=
𝑑𝑡 𝜂
𝜎
𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑡
𝜂
Chapter 3
Exercise 3.1 Using the equation for the ellipsis, estimate the minor axes of a circular
perforation having a diameter of 3 mm if the skin stretches to a maximum of 0.2 and 0.4 in
the directions parallel to and perpendicular to the Langer lines, respectively. Make
necessary assumptions.

Solution:

Exercise 3.2 The stress–strain relationship for human skin is given in Fig. E3.2 for the
directions parallel and perpendicular to the Langer lines. Using the following equation,
calculate the parameters K1, K2, and ε2 for the two cases:

where H is a Heaviside function. The equation has two terms: a quadratic one and a linear
one (see more details in Chapter 9). Show the results graphically, comparing the
experimental results and predictions.

Solution:

Exercise 3.3 Fit the two curves found in Exercise 3.2 into the Fung equation (see Chapter 9,
Eqn. (9.14)).

Solution:
Exercise 3.4 Determine the minor axis of the crimped structure in Figs. 3.11 and 3.12.

Solution:

Exercise 3.5 Assuming that the force required to break a hydrogen bond is equal to ~4 pN,
calculate the stress required to open up the alpha-helix structure of the peptide chains in
collagen. Hint: Do this by estimating the number of bonds per unit area in a plane.

Solution:

Exercise 3.6 Read the paper Shergold et al. (2006).

(1) Derive Eqn. 10 from Eqn. 1.
(2) Can you express Eqn. 10 in terms of strain?
(3) Modify Eqn. 10 to incorporate the effect of strain rate. Use data from the paper.

Solution:
Exercise 3.7 Collagen is one of the most important structure proteins in nature. What is the
origin of the 67 nm periodicity? Explain the three stages of the J-curve behavior of collagen
fiber under tensile loading.

Solution:
Each fibril has transverse striations, which are spaced approximately 67 nm apart. These
striations are due to the staggering of the individual collagen molecules. The length of each
collagen molecule is approximately 300 nm, which is about 4.4 times the distance of
stagger, 67 nm. The gap between adjacent chains is about 35 nm (67×5−300 = 35), and the
overlap is about 32 nm (300−67×4 = 32). Thus, there is a periodicity in the structure (35nm
+ 32nm=67 nm).
In the beginning, as the collagen fiber is extended, passive tension increases. This small
increase in stress gives large extensions. However, at higher strains, collagen begins to
straighten and align with the axis of force, they become stiffer and more difficult to extend.
Then when the stress approaches the failure point, the collagen breaks.

Exercise 3.8 A micro-balloon used for expanding a stent (see Fig. E.3.8) has a cylindrical
shape inside the stent. It is made of nylon, with a diameter of 5 mm when completely
expanded. The wall thickness is 30 μm. If the tensile strength of the nylon is 80 MPa, what
is the maximum pressure that can be applied to the vessel?

Solution:

Exercise 3.9 Collagen fibrils with a 200 nm diameter are subjected to tension. The fibrils
are known to yield at a stress of 200 MPa (Shen et al., 2008). What is the load that an
Achilles tendon can take, if the diameter is 1.5 cm?

Solution:

Exercise 3.10 Assuming that the collagen in the Achilles tendon is crimped and forms a
zig-zag pattern with the tensile axis, what is the total strain that can be accommodated at
complete stretching as a function of the initial zig-zag angle of the structure?

Solution:

Exercise 3.11 A powerlifting competition took place in Socorro, New Mexico, that pitched
a local strong man, El Hulko, a former Jamaican sprinter, El Animal, and a local professor,
El Loco. Powerlifting is a brutal sport consisting of three primitive elements: squat, bench,
and dead lift.
(a) Present the biomechanical forces in the three events.
(b) Using measurements from extremely muscular individuals, obtain the theoretical
maximum weights that can be lifted.
(c) Who got the third place (Bronze medal) in the competition?

Solution:
(a) Doing squats needs the usage of the muscles of the thighs, hips and buttocks. This
exercise focuses on the strength of the lower body. Benches, on the other hand, focus
on the strength of the upper body, mainly arms and shoulder. Deadlifting requires the
strength of lower back, hamstrings and quadriceps.
(b) Depending on different measurements, the maximum weights that can be lifted should
vary from 450 – 550 kg.
(c) Local professor may get the third place.

Exercise 3.12 A person is conducting squats. Calculate the force exerted by the quadriceps
muscles to lift their weight. Make necessary assumptions using your own body. Each
muscle fiber has the capacity to lift 300 μg and has a diameter of 5 μm. What is the
maximum weight you can lift?
Solution:
Chapter 4
Exercise 4.1 Assuming an average cell diameter of 15 μm, calculate the fraction of the
human body that is extracellular material. Make necessary assumptions and justify them.
Obtain the number of cells from the web.

Solution:

Exercise 4.2 Using the spectrin network, calculate the changes in length undergone by the
three sides of the trellis if the cell is stretched in uniaxial strain by 20%. Assume that each
segment has an initial length of 100 nm.

Solution:

Exercise 4.3 Calculate the pressure required to increase the volume of a red blood cell by
20%. Assume that all the strength is due to a spectrin network, that the actin “masts” stay
perpendicular to surface, and that the cell is spherical. Given: diameter of unit = 100 nm;
response of spectrin is linear; for a stretch ratio of 3, a force of 20 pN has to be applied.

Solution:
Exercise 4.4 Provide at least five methods to test the mechanical properties of cell(s) and
explain the mechanisms.
(a) Determine the lateral deflections undergone by an 8 μm long actin filament with a
diameter of 10 nm. The load is perpendicular to the axis of the filament and is equal to 7
pN.
(b) Find the deflection undergone by a microtubule having an external diameter of 25 nm if
the cross-sectional area is the same as that of the actin filament.
Given: E = 1.5 GPa.

Solution:
Nanoindentation, AFM, Molecular force spectroscopy, Micropipette aspiration, Microflow
based assay, Optical trap/laser tweezers.

Exercise 4.5 Calculate the buckling loads for the two cases in Exercise 4.4 and explain
the differences between them.

Solution:

Exercise 4.6 What is the structural advantage for a microtubule to be hollow? Determine
the flexural rigidity ratio, F/v, for the case of a microtubule with outer diameter 28 nm and
inner diameter 12 nm, and compare it with that of a microtubule with the same
cross-sectional area.
Solution:

Exercise 4.7 Determine the pressure inside a cell at which a lipid bilayer will crack using
the Griffith equation (explained in Chapter 6). The crack has a length of 20 nm and the
thickness of the lipid bilayer is 4 nm.

Solution:

Exercise 4.8 Determine the lateral deflections undergone by: (a) a 5 μm actin filament with
a diameter of 10 nm; (b) a microtubule of the same length with an external diameter of 20
nm and a wall thickness of 1.5 nm. Given: The force is 0.2 pN and is perpendicular to the
long axis; E = 1.5 GPa.

Solution:

Exercise 4.9 Determine the lateral deflections undergone by an 8 nm diameter actin

filament and by a microtubule with an external diameter of 15 nm and wall thickness of 1.1
nm, if the applied force is 2 pN. Given: E = 1.3 GPa.

Solution:
Chapter 5

Exercise 5.1 Knowing the volume percentage of each constituent in bone (40 vol.%
hydroxyapatite (HAP); 10 vol.% water; 40 vol.% collagen), calculate the weight
percentages. Given: density of collagen = 1.03 g/cm3; density of HAP = 3.116 g/cm3.

Solution:
Assume the total volume is V, then, the total mass M will be:
𝑀 = (40% × 3.116 + 10% × 1.0 + 40% × 1.03) × 𝑉 = 1.7144𝑉 𝑔
So, the weight percentage of each constituent:
3.116
𝑤%𝐻𝐴𝑃 = 40% × = 72.7%
1.7144
1.0
𝑤%𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 10% × = 5.83%
1.7144
1.03
𝑤%𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 40% × = 24.03%
1.7144

Exercise 5.2 If the density of dry bone is 2.06 g/cm3, and assuming that it is composed
of 50 vol.% HAP and 50% collagen, determine the density of HAP.

Solution:
Since the dry bone consists of HAP and collagen, the density of collagen is 1.03𝑔/𝑐𝑚3, so
the density of HAP:
1/2(𝜌𝐻𝐴𝑃 + 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑛 ) = 𝜌𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝜌𝐻𝐴𝑃 = 3.09𝑔/𝑐𝑚3

Exercise 5.3 Using the Jäger and Fratzl equation (5.1), determine the Young’ s modulus
of bone for four different aspect ratios of the HAP platelets: 2, 20, 30, and 100. Assume that
the volume percentage of HAP is 40%. Given:
𝐸𝐻𝐴𝑃 = 50 𝐺𝑃𝑎; 𝐸𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙 = 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎; 𝐺𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙 = 0.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Solution:
The Jäger and Fratzl equation:
1 4(1 − Φ)
= + 1/Φ𝐸𝑚
𝐸 𝐺𝑝 Φ2 𝜌2
in this problem, 𝐺𝑝 = 0.4 𝐺𝑃𝑎; Φ = 0.4; 𝐸𝑚 = 50 𝐺𝑃𝑎;
when 𝜌 = 2, 𝐸 = 0.106 𝐺𝑃𝑎
when 𝜌 = 20, 𝐸 = 6.957 𝐺𝑃𝑎
when 𝜌 = 30, 𝐸 = 10.91 𝐺𝑃𝑎
 when 𝜌 = 100, 𝐸 = 18.605 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Exercise 5.4 How do the values for the Young’ s modulus of bones compare with
predictions of the Voigt and Reuss averages?

Solution:
As we can see from problem 5.3, the elastic modulus of composite increases significantly
as the mineral aspect ratio increases. The elastic modulus saturates at the Voigt limit, ~20
GPa. And the Reuss average is around ~1 GPa.

Exercise 5.5 What are the distinguishing microstructural features in biominerals?

Explain how these microstructural features affect the mechanical properties.

Solution:
Biological materials such as shells, teeth, and bones are hierarchically structured
composites of protein and mineral constituents with exceptional mechanical properties.
Despite the complex hierarchical structures, the smallest building blocks of the mineral
phase are usually on a nanometer length scale. For example, bone minerals are platelets
40– 100 nm in width and 2– 4 nm in thickness. Hydroxyapatite minerals in enamel of tooth
are rod- or needle-like crystals, 15– 20 nm in thickness. The nano-sized minerals play an
important role in enhancing mechanical performance by optimizing strength and
maximizing fracture tolerance.
Another distinct characteristic of biominerals is their high aspect ratio. Mineral crystals
developed in biological systems often have platelet-, rod- or needle-like shape with high
aspect ratio (30– 40 in bone minerals, ~10 in abalone nacre). The high aspect ratio of
minerals compensates for the low modulus of the protein phase. The hard mineral
constituents with high aspect ratio carry most of the load, and the protein constituents
transfer stress between minerals via shear.

Exercise 5.6 A composite consists of 60 vol.% polymeric matrix (shear modulus 1 GPa)
and 40 vol.% mineral reinforcements (elastic modulus 100 GPa). Calculate the elastic
modulus of the composite if the mineral constituents are in the following geometries:
(a) sphere (aspect ratio = 1);
(b) platelet (aspect ratio = 10);
(c) needle (aspect ratio = 100).

Solution:
Using the Jäger and Fratzl equation:
 1 4(1 − Φ)
= + 1/Φ𝐸𝑚
𝐸 𝐺𝑝 Φ2 𝜌2
In this problem, 𝐺𝑝 = 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎; Φ = 0.4; 𝐸𝑚 = 100 𝐺𝑃𝑎;
for sphere, 𝜌 = 1, 𝐸 = 0.067 𝐺𝑃𝑎
for platelet, 𝜌 = 10, 𝐸 = 5.714 𝐺𝑃𝑎
for needle, 𝜌 = 100, 𝐸 = 37.736 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Exercise 5.7 Explain how aragonite crystals tend to have a hexagonal base, whereas the
structure is orthorhombic.

Solution:
Aragonite is a polymorph of calcite. The crystal structure of calcite is hexagonal, and the
aragonite has the same chemistry as calcite but a different structure. In the aragonite
structure, the trigonal symmetry is destroyed. And two of Aragonite's more compact
structure is composed of triangular carbonate ion groups (CO3), with a carbon at the center
of the triangle and the three oxygens at each corner. Unlike in calcite, the carbonate ions do
not lie in a single plane pointing in the same direction. Instead they lie in two planes that
point in opposite directions; destroying the trigonal symmetry that is characteristic of
calcite's structure. To illustrate this, imagine the symmetry of anequilateral triangle; a three
fold rotation with three mirror planes that cross in the center. Now join two of these
triangles together at their bases and you have a diamond-shaped figure with the symmetry
of a two fold rotation with one mirror plane in the middle. This is what the effect of the two
carbonate planes with opposite orientations has on the symmetry of this structure.
Aragonite has an orthorhombic symmetry (2/m 2/m 2/m) instead of calcite's "higher"
trigonal (bar 3 2/m) symmetry.

Exercise 5.8 Derive expressions for the volume of the orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and
hexagonal unit cells exhibited by the three polymorphs of calcium carbonate (they are used
in Example 5.1).

Solution:
The volume of orthorhombic unit cell:
assume 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 90°,
𝑉 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐
the volume of trigonal rhomobohedral unit cell:
there are two descriptions of trigonal rhomobohedral lattice systems,
Hexagonal axes:
Assume 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 90°, 𝛾 = 120°,
 𝑉 = √3/2 × 𝑎𝑏𝑐

Rhomobohedral axes:
assume 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐, 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 ≠ 90°,

𝑉 = 𝑎3 √1 − 3 cos 2𝛼 + 2 cos 3𝛼
the volume of hexagonal unit cell:
assume 𝑎 = 𝑏 ≠ 𝑐, 𝛼 = 60°, 𝛾 = 90°,

𝑉 = √3/2 × 𝑎𝑏𝑐

Exercise 5.9 What is the origin of the name aragonite (Google the question)?

Solution:
Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the two common, naturally occurring, crystal
forms of calcium carbonate, CaCO3 (the other form being the mineral calcite). It is formed
by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater
environments. Aragon, Spain is where Aragonite was first discovered and from where the
mineral gets its name. Aragonite, also called Tchazar Crystal, is a common carbonate
mineral. It is unfortunately often thought of as the poor cousin to calcite. But aragonite is
an interesting and attractive mineral in its own right. It forms interesting habits and can
have a soft pretty color. Its modes of formation and relationship to calcite are both curious
and intriguing.

Exercise 5.10 Calculate the critical radius for the nucleation of calcium carbonate
crystals if their surface energy is ~1 J/m2 (de Leeuw and Parker, 2008). The free energy
difference is equal to 100 MJ/m3.

Solution:
Since in the nucleation, the free energy and surface energy has the relation:
4
∆𝐺 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝛾 − 𝜋𝑟 3 ∆𝐺𝑣
3
𝜕∆𝐺
when = 0, the critical radius for the nucleation can be solved,
𝜕𝑟
2𝛾 2×1
𝑟∗ = = = 20 𝑛𝑚
∆𝐺𝑣 100 × 106

Exercise 5.11 (a) Calculate the ratio between the heterogeneous and homogeneous
critical energies for nucleation if the angles with the substrate are 10, 90, and 170°. (b)
Explain the differences and discuss the effect on the nucleation rate.

Solution:
(a) The relation between the heterogeneous and homogeneous critical energies for
nucleation is:
∗ ∗
1 3 1
∆𝐺ℎ𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐺ℎ𝑜𝑚 ( − cos 𝜃 + cos 3𝜃 )
2 4 4
so the ratio can be calculated:
∗
∆𝐺ℎ𝑒𝑡
when 𝜃 = 10°, ∗ = 1.78 × 10−4 ;
∆𝐺ℎ𝑜𝑚
∗
∆𝐺ℎ𝑒𝑡 1
when = 90°, ∗ = ;
∆𝐺ℎ𝑜𝑚 2
∗
∆𝐺ℎ𝑒𝑡
when = 170°, ∗ = 0.9998 .
∆𝐺ℎ𝑜𝑚

(b) Heterogeneous nucleation, nucleation with the nucleus at a surface, is much more
common than homogeneous nucleation. Heterogeneous nucleation is typically understood
to be much faster than homogeneous nucleation using classical nucleation theory. This
predicts that the nucleation slows exponentially with the height of a free energy barrier
ΔG*. This barrier comes from the free energy penalty of forming the surface of the
growing nucleus. For homogeneous nucleation, the nucleus is approximated a sphere but in
the heterogeneous nucleation, liquid droplets on the surface of substrate are not complete
spheres and so the area of the interface between the droplet and the surrounding fluid is less
than a sphere's 4𝜋𝛾 2. This reduction in surface area of the nucleus reduces the height of the
barrier to nucleation and so speeds nucleation up exponentially. And when the angles with
the substrate are smaller, the nucleation speed will become much faster.
Chapter 6

Exercise 6.1 Find a shell on the web and apply the spiral logarithmic equation to it.
Show the match between the shell and the equation, and provide an explanation.

Solution:
It can be easily find a shell on the website to show the logarithmic spiral curve on the shell.
The equation:
𝑟 = 𝑒 𝐶 𝑒 𝜃 tan 𝛼
Where r is the radial coordinate of a point along the curve and 𝜃 is the angular coordinate.
Since the successive growth surface has the growth velocity that composes two vectors:
one is the radial direction dr and one is the tangential direction ds. So that is why this
logarithmic spiral can be formed, which is the mathematical explanation of successive
surface cell growth.

Exercise 6.2 Assuming that the abalone creates one layer in 24 hours (based on Lin and
Meyers (2005) and that growth only occurs in six months per year, calculate the yearly
increase in the diameter of the shell if self-similarity is maintained. Measure the ratio from
the existing shell provided by Lin and Meyers (2005).

Solution:
From the data provided by Lin and Meyers (2005), the growth rate of thickness is one tile
per day, which is 0.5 um per day. And assume it is 6 month per year, so the yearly increase
in thickness is 90 um per year. Since the thickness/diameter ration for abalone is
approximately 1/50, so the increase in the diameter of the shell is 4.5 mm per year.

Exercise 6.3 The growth in the c -direction (Vc) is ten times the growth in the a and b
directions for aragonite. However, this growth velocity is reduced to 0.01Vc as the
biomineralization is going through the holes in the organic layer. Assuming that this layer
has a thickness of 50 nm, calculate the angle of the “ Christmas tree” arrangement.

Solution:
Since the real c – direction growth rate is
𝑣𝑐′ = 0.01𝑣𝑐 = 0.1𝑣𝑎𝑏
𝑣𝑎𝑏 1
tan 𝛼 = ′ = = 10
𝑣𝑐 0.1
𝛼 = 84.3°

Exercise 6.4 Determine the maximum tensile stresses undergone by the Saxidomus
shell specimens tested in three-point bending with a span of 20mm. Data given in Table
E6.4.

Solution:
The maximum tensile stress
𝑀𝑐
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐼
where M is bending moment, and c is the distance from the neutral axis to the surface, and
I is the moment of inertia, we can calculate:
𝐹 𝐿
𝑀 = × = 𝐹𝐿/4
2 2
in which L = 20 mm, and F is the loading force, and also we can calculate I:
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼=
12
where b is the width, and h is the thickness of the samples, by averaging the data in the
table 6.4, and plug in the numbers, we can get an average maximum tensile stress:
𝜎 = 93.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Exercise 6.5 For the data in Table E6.4, make a Weibull plot and determine the modulus
and the stress at a probability of failure of 0.5.

Solution:
The detailed derivation ofWeibull analysis is presented in Chapter 2 (Section 2.8). The
survival probability of a brittle material is given by
𝜎
[−( )𝑚 ]
𝑃(𝑉0 ) = 𝑒 𝜎0

where m is theWeibull modulus and σ0 is the characteristic strength. The higher the
value of m, the less is the material’ s variability in failure strength. The failure probability
can be written as
𝜎
[−( )𝑚 ]
𝐹(𝑉0 ) = 1 − 𝑃(𝑉0 ) = 1 − 𝑒 𝜎0

If N samples are tested, we rank their strengths in ascending order, and the probability of
survival can be determined by
𝑃𝑖 (𝑉0 ) = (𝑁 + 1 − 𝑖)/(𝑁 + 1)
The Weibull modulus can be obtained from the slope in the double logarithm for 1/P (V )
(or 1/[1 – F (V )]) and the logarithm for σ . The intercept at lnln [1/(1 – F )] = 0 corresponds
to the characteristic strength σ0 , which has a failure probability of 0.63 (= 1 – 1/e). The
calculated P (V ), F (V ), ln σ and ln[ln(1/P (V ))] are summarized in Table 6.5. The results
are plotted in Fig. 6.5a. Figure 6.5b shows the Weibull distribution with the preceding
parameters superimposed on the data points:

Table 6.5
Sample i Tensile stress σ P(V) F(V) ln σ ln[ln(1/P(V))] F(Weibull)
(Mpa)
1 51.32965769 0.9375 0.0625 3.93826 2.740493007 0.08016614
2 55.84700529 0.875 0.125 4.02261 2.013418678 0.10635645
3 66.02849099 0.8125 0.1875 4.1900 1.571952527 0.183520271
4 68.62072946 0.75 0.25 4.22859 1.245899324 0.207201353
5 70.41141286 0.6875 0.3125 4.25435 0.981647055 0.224482066
6 93.51337065 0.625 0.375 4.53810 0.755014863 0.498535219
7 97.58939668 0.5625 0.4375 4.58076 0.552752143 0.551598751
8 102.4439915 0.5 0.5 4.62931 0.366512921 0.613852977
9 102.9641077 0.4375 0.5625 4.63438 0.190339326 0.620405377
10 104.6587376 0.375 0.625 4.65070 0.019356889 0.641541526
11 108.4036277 0.3125 0.6875 4.68586 0.151132538 0.686856689
12 110.0529063 0.25 0.75 4.70096 0.32663426 0.706088605
13 111.7589656 0.1875 0.8125 4.71634 0.515201894 0.725446504
14 124.8965492 0.125 0.875 4.82748 0.732099368 0.8521393
15 128.0318912 0.0625 0.9375 4.85227 1.019781441 0.875792605

Fig. 6.5a
 Fig. 6.5b
So, strength at 50% failure probability can be calculated:
𝜎50% 3.52
𝐹(𝑉0 ) = 50% = 1 − exp[− ( ) ]
103.9
𝜎50% = 93.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Exercise 6.6 (a) Determine the velocity that a shrimp hammer can reach if it accelerates
at 10000g (98 m/s2) and the telson has a length of 3 cm and describes a circular motion
with an angle of 60°. (b) Assuming that the hammer decelerates on a hard prey over a
distance of 2 mm, what force can it exert? Estimate the mass of the “fist” from Fig. 6.48.
Assume a density of 2 g/cm3.

Solution:
The distance that the hammer moves in the acceleration is:
1
𝑠 = × 𝜋𝑅 = 0.0314 𝑚
3
so the velocity it can reach is:

𝑣 = √2𝑎𝑠 = √2 × 98000 × 0.00314 = 24.8 𝑚/𝑠

assume the volume of the fist is 3𝑐𝑚 × 1𝑐𝑚 × 1𝑐𝑚 = 3𝑐𝑚3 , so the mass can be 6 g.
 1
𝐹𝑆 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝐹 = 923.16 𝑁

Exercise 6.7 Determine the density and elastic modulus of cancellous bone if the cell
size is 500 μm and the strut width is 100 μm. Compact bone has a density of 2 g/cm3 and
elastic modulus of 20 GPa. Use Eqn. (6.23) and derive it appropriately.

Solution:

Figure shows an open-cell structure, consisting of straight beams with a square

cross-section. In the model, the cell size l, and the beam thickness t.
Assume the cellular materials density is ρ∗ , the solid materials density is ρs .
Calculating the mass,
𝑚 = 𝜌∗ × 𝑙 3 = 𝜌𝑠 × 𝑙𝑡 2 × 12
𝜌∗ 𝑡
= 12( ) 2
𝜌𝑠 𝑙
since l = 500um, t = 100um, ρs = 2 g/cm3 ,
𝜌∗ = 0.96 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
From equation 10.12 on the text book,
𝐺 ∗ 3 𝜌∗ 2
= ( ) = 0.0864
𝐸𝑠 8 𝜌𝑠
𝐺 ∗ = 1.728 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Exercise 6.8 Explain with illustrations the growth mechanism of the brick-and-mortar
structure in abalone nacre.
Solutions:
There are several steps for the growth mechanism of the brick-and-mortar structure in
abalone nacre:

(i) Organic scaffolding forms as interlamellar membranes between the layers of tiles
arresting c -direction growth. (ii) A new tile begins growing through the porous membrane.
(iii) The new tile grows in every direction, but faster along the c -axis. (iv) A new porous
organic membrane is deposited, arresting the c -axis growth of the new tile while allowing
continued a - and b -axis growth; also, mineral bridges begin to protrude through the
second organic membrane while sub-membrane tiles continue to grow along the a - and b
-axes, and eventually abut against each other; then a third layer of tiles begins to grow
above the membrane. As shown, the bridges are believed to be the continuation of mineral
growth along the c -axis from a previous layer of tiles. They protrude through the
growth-arresting layers of proteins, creating a site on the covering organic layer where
mineralization can continue. These mineral bridges are the seed upon which the next tile
forms.

Exercise 6.9 What are the toughening mechanisms of abalone nacre at the meso-,
micro-, and nano-length scales? Explain with illustrations.

Solution:
In the nano-scale, nanoasperities on the aragonite tiles are responsible for the mechanical
strength. These nanoasperities create frictional resistance to sliding, in a manner analogous
to rough fibers in composite material. And also, there are mineral bridges between the
adjacent tiles, and the sliding of the tiles requires the breaking of bridges and the
subsequent frictional resistance. Another mechanism is the organic layers acting as
viscoelastic glue.
In the meso-scale, crack deflection plays a significant role in the mechanism of toughening.
The effect of the viscoelastic organic interruptions between meso-layers or even individual
aragonite tiles is to provide a crack deflection layer such that it becomes more difficult for
the cracks to propagate through the composite.

Exercise 6.10 Sponge spicules are made mainly of amorphous silica yet have
exceptional toughness compared with glass. Why? Explain with illustrations.

Solution:
The sponge has a hierarchical structure of glass fibers. Each of the fibers or struts of the
cage is a bundle of spicules (100 lm diameter). The spicule consists of layers of concentric
lamellae; the lamella thickness ranges from 1.3 lm near the core and gradually becomes
thinner to 0.3 lm at the outer surface. The thickness of the lamellae scales with the diameter
of the overall spicule – larger diameter spicules have thicker lamellae. Sandwiched
between the lamellae is a thin layer of a protein ‘glue’ that binds the layers together. Closer
inspection of a lamella reveals it is composed of spherical nanoparticles (100 nm) that are
also held together by proteins. The structure of concentric rings has some analogy with
osteons in cortical bone, another example of a material with excellent crack arresting
capability. And it also has been shown that the lamellar structure in creases by 2-orders of
magnitude the load Pc necessary to nucleate a crack.

Exercise 6.11 Estimate the tensile strength of an abalone shell perpendicular to the tile
layers. Given:
E = 100 GPa;
KIc = 1.2 MPa m1/2;
Number of asperities/bridges per tile = 3500;
1% of asperities are bridges.

Solution:
The number of bridges can be easily acquired, 1% of the total numbers, which is 35. And
according the graph 6.30, we can see from 6.30(c) the curve that the mineral bridge
diameter is around 50 nm. So the maximum stress for one mineral bridge can be calculated
as follow:
𝐸 100
𝜎𝑡ℎ = = = 3.33 𝐺𝑃𝑎
30 30
so the total tensile strength is:
𝜎 = 𝑓𝜎𝑡ℎ = 116.55 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Exercise 6.12 Calculate the tensile strength of abalone nacre parallel to the tile (or
tablet) layers if the shear strength of the interfaces is 20MPa, and the tiles have a thickness
of 0.5 μm and a diameter of 10 μm.

Solution:
We can use the equation
 𝜎𝑡 𝑡 = 2𝜏𝑆
2𝑆
in which 𝑡 = 0.5 𝜇𝑚, 𝜏 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎, ~2.5
𝑡

𝜎𝑡 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Exercise 6.13 Express the Halpin - Tsai equation for composites and show how it can be
applied to the carnivorous worm Glycera.

Solution:
Halpin–Tsai model is a mathematical model for the prediction of elasticity of composite
material based on the geometry and orientation of the filler and the elastic properties of the
filler and matrix. The model is based on the self-consistent field method although often
consider to be empirical. So, it is a set of empirical relationships that enable the property of
a composite material to be expressed in terms of the properties of the matrix and
reinforcing phases together with their proportions and geometry.
The carnivorous marine worm Glycera has teeth that contain a copper mineral atacamite
(Cu2 (OH)3 Cl). These minerals are contained in mineralized fibrils. These mineralized
fibrils are similar to the ones that form in dentin and bone. Again, we have a composite
structure with hard fibers embedded in a softer protein matrix. The degree of
mineralization varies along the tooth, and the hardness and the elastic modulus are directly
related to the mineralization. So the Halpin - Tsai equation, well known in the composite
field, to calculate the hardness and the Young’ s modulus upper and lower bounds. The
upper bound corresponds to loading parallel to the fiber direction; the lower bound
corresponds to loading perpendicular to it.
Chapter 7

Exercise 7.1 If the removal torque for the orthodontic mini-implant shown in Fig. E7.1
is 17 Ncm, calculate the shear strength of the interface. Use the dimensions shown in Fig.
B7.5.

Solution:
The shear stress can be calculated as follows
2𝑇
𝜏=
𝑛/𝐷𝐴
where T is the torque, n is the number of threads, D is the diameter of the implant, A is the
resisting area. We can see from the fig., n=8,
𝐴 = 2𝜋(𝐷1 𝐿1 + 𝐷2 𝐿2 + 𝐷3 𝐿3 ) = 2𝜋(1.48 × 0.225 + 2 × 0.275 + 2 × 0.26)
= 8.8 𝑚𝑚2
2𝑇 2 × 17 𝑁𝑐𝑚
𝜏= = = 3.26 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑛/𝐷𝐴 8 × 0.148𝑐𝑚 × 8.8 × 10−6 𝑚2

Exercise 7.2 See Fig. E7.2.

(a) Determine the parameters in the Ramberg– Osgood equation for antler bone. How do
these values compare with cortical bone?
(b) Express the strength vs. strain rate as a mathematical equation.
(c) If the mineral is insensitive to strain rate, why is such a dependence observed?
(d) What happens to the toughness as strain rate is increased?

Solution:
(a) the Ramberg-Osgood equation:
𝜎
𝐸 = = 𝐶(𝜀̇/𝜀0̇ ) 𝑑
𝜀
From Fig. E7.2, when 𝐸 = 20 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝜀̇ = 103 𝑠 −1 , 𝐸 = 10 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝜀̇ = 1𝑠 −1 , 𝐸 =
5 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝜀̇ = 10−3 𝑠 −1
The parameters can be calculated
𝐶 = 10 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝑑 = 0.1
When comparing with cortical bone, the C value for bovine cortical bone is 12 GPa, d
is 0.018, we can see the strain-rate sensitivity of antler bone is bigger than cortical
bone.

𝛾̇
(b) 𝜏𝑎𝑝 = 𝜏 ∗ (𝛾 ̇ ) 𝑚 , where 𝛾̇ is the strain rate, m is the strain-rate sensitivity,
0

𝜏𝑎𝑝 is the applied stress, and the other two terms are material parameters.
(c) The stain-rate sensitivity of bone is primarily due to the collagen.
Polymers have a high strain-rate sensitivity and thermal softening.
 (d) The toughness increases with strain rate. This is due to the combined
effects of strain rate on the elastic modulus and strength of bone.
Exercise 7.3 A fracture toughness specimen made from antler bone is tested in three
point bending. It has a thickness of 2mm and the toughness is 4.5MPam1/2. Is this a valid
plane-strain fracture-toughness value? Given: Eb = 20GPa; ry = 0.1mm.

Solution:
Plan-strain condition for mode I fracture toughness measurement:
1
𝐾𝐼𝐶 2
4.5𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑚2 2
𝐵 ≥ 2.5 ( ) = 2.5 ( ) = 3.2𝑚𝑚
𝜎𝑦 125 𝑀𝑃𝑎
the thickness given is 2mm, so it is not a valid plane-strain fracture-toughness value.

Exercise 7.4 The J integral was determined for a bone specimen. The value is equal to
0.5 kN/m. Determine an effective toughness. Assume Eb = 20GPa.

Solution:
𝐾𝑐 = (𝐸 × 𝐽𝑐 ) 1/2
in which J=0.5 KN/m, E=20 GPa,
𝐾𝑐 = 3.16 𝑀𝑃𝑎𝑚1/2

Exercise 7.5 The mineral content of antler bone (~35 vol. %) is lower than that of bone
(~50 vol. %). What is the effect on the Young’ s modulus? Calculate the Young’ s modulus
using the Voigt average. Given: EHAP = 100 GPa; Ec =1 GPa.

Solution:
The Voigt model:
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉ℎ𝑎 𝐸ℎ𝑎 + 𝑉𝑐 𝐸𝑐
so:
𝐸𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 35% × 100 + 65% × 1 = 35.65 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 50% × 100 + 50% × 1 = 50.5 𝐺𝑃𝑎
The elastic modulus increases with mineral content in bony tissues.

Exercise 7.6 Calculate the elastic modulus for bone using the Katz equation. The
fractions of HAP crystals are oriented to the tensile axis as in Table E7.6. Given: Poisson
ratio for bone = 0.45; Poisson ratio for collagen = 1/3.

Solution:
 𝐸𝑐 𝑉𝑐 (1 − 𝑣𝑐 𝑣𝑏 )
𝐸𝑏 = + ∑ 𝐸ℎ𝑎 𝑉ℎ𝑎 𝑓𝑖 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜑𝑖 − 𝑣𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜑𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜑𝑖 )
1 − 𝑣𝑐2
we can get from the table,
𝑓1 = 30%, 𝜑1 = 15°; 𝑓2 = 30%, 𝜑1 = 45°;
𝑓3 = 30%, 𝜑3 = 90°; 𝑓4 = 10%, 𝜑4 = 0°;
1
assume that 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉ℎ𝑎𝑝 = 50%, 𝑣𝑐 = 3 , 𝑣𝑏 = 0.45, 𝐸ℎ𝑎 = 100 𝐺𝑃𝑎,
the answer can be calculated,
𝐸𝑏 = 8.14 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Exercise 7.7 Bone characteristically consists of HAP platelets with a thickness of 1 nm

and diameter of 50 nm. Assuming that the volume percentage is 50%, determine
(a) The Jäger– Fratzl degree of mineralization;
(b) The Young’ s modulus.
Note: In equation, γ = [2(1 + ν )]−1 .

Solution:
𝑙+𝑎
The axial periodicity of the staggered collagen structure yields = 33.5 𝑛𝑚, so a = 16.7
2

nm, the mineral volume fraction ∅ = 50% , which is the Jager-Fratzl degree of
mineralization.
𝑙𝑑 50×1
Sine ∅ = (𝑙+𝑎)(𝑏+𝑑) = 67×(𝑏+1) = 0.5, b=0.5 nm,

The young’s modulus can be calculated:

𝐸 𝑑(𝑙 + 𝑎) 𝑙 𝛾(𝑙 − 𝑎)(𝑙 + 𝑎) 𝛾𝑎(𝑙 + 𝑎)
= + (1 + ) + 2
+
𝐸𝑐 𝑎𝑏 2𝑎 4𝑏 2𝑏(2𝑏 + 𝑎)
assume the possion’s ratio is 0.3, so 𝛾 = 0.385
𝐸
𝐸′ = = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4
𝐸𝑐
𝐸1 = 8.02, 𝐸2 = 2.5, 𝐸3 = 855, 𝐸4 = 24.3

assume 𝐸𝑐 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎, so we can get young’s modulus

𝐸 = 44.5 𝐺𝑃𝑎

Exercise 7.8 Gao et al . (2003 ) applied the Jäger– Fratzl model (see Fig. E7.8 ) and
obtained a maximum strength for bone using the Griffith equation. The mineral cracks as
shown in Fig. E7.8.
(a) Calculate the maximum strength for the following two cases, using the Griffith equation.
Given: (i) mineral platelets have thickness of 1mm and diameter of 10 nm; (ii) mineral
platelets have thickness of 1 nm and diameter of 50 nm. Assume γsurf = 1 J/m2 ; EHAP
= 100 GPa.
(b) How do these values compare with the real strength of bone? Explain, using hierarchy
of structure.

Solution:
(a) The young’s modulus of different aspect ration of bone can be calculated:
1 4(1 − Φ)
= + 1/Φ𝐸𝑚
𝐸 𝐺𝑝 Φ2 𝜌2
We assume, 𝐺𝑝 = 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎; Φ = 0.5; 𝐸𝑚 = 100 𝐺𝑃𝑎;
When 𝜌 = 10, 𝐸 = 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎; 𝜌 = 50, 𝐸 = 43.1 𝐺𝑃𝑎
The Griffith equation to calculate the maximum strength:

𝛾𝐸
𝜎𝑚 = 𝛼 √
ℎ
𝜎𝑚 ≅ 𝐸/2𝜋
h is the thickness of the mineral, and 𝐸1 = 1 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐸2 = 43.1 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝛾 = 1 𝐽/𝑚2,
𝜎𝑚1 = 159 𝑀𝑃𝑎; 𝜎𝑚2 = 6.86 𝐺𝑃𝑎

(b) The calculated strength is much higher than the real strength of bone. Since the bone
has a hierarchy structure, and the smallest scale is more perfect, as we move up, there are
weak interfaces, sacrificial bonds, voids, cracks, etc., that contribute to a lowering of
young’s modulus and strength. That is why the real strength is much smaller that the model
we are calculating.

Exercise 7.9 A skier takes a bad fall and his ski gets stuck in a tree while his body twists
in the air. As a result, torsional forces are applied to his leg, which lead to the fracture of his
tibia. Unfortunately, the bindings did not release due to improper maintenance. The ski is
2m long, and the position of the boot is approximately in the center. Given: tensile strength
of bone = 80 MPa; tibia dimensions (assume hollow cylinder): internal diameter, 24 mm,
external diameter, 14mm.
(a) Determine the type of fracture that is characteristic of this type of loading.
Explain, using sketches. Hint: Take a piece of chalk and twist it.
(b) Calculate the torque applied to the bone at failure.
(c) What force has to be exerted by the tip of the ski to generate this torque?
(d) What is this type of fracture called in the medical profession? Comment on the
appropriateness of the name.

Solution:
 (a) The fracture type is Helical fracture.
(b) The area of fracture surface is 𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑅12 − 𝑅22 ) = 681.4 𝑚𝑚2 , so the
torsion force: 𝐹 = 𝜎𝐴 = 54512 𝑁, and the torque: 𝑇 = 𝐹𝑙 = 𝐹 × (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) =
1035.7𝑁𝑚
𝑇 1035.7
(c) 𝐹 = = = 1035.7 𝑁
𝑙 1

(d) Spiral fracture. This fracture is caused by torsional stresses, and is known
in the medical community as a spiral fracture. However, this name is not correct,
as a helix describes the crack trajectory better than a spiral. Tensile stresses are
highest along surfaces, making a 45º angle with the torsional stresses.

Exercise 7.10 The stainless steel plate shown in Fig. E7.10 was inserted into a patient’ s
humerus.
(a) Calculate the force required to bend it plastically (yield stress = 350MPa).
(b) Calculate the force required to extract each of the screws. Make measurements on the
X-ray photograph to calculate the necessary dimensions. Given: Plate width = 1 cm.

Solution:
Assume the thickness of the plate is 0.5 cm, the length of support span is 12 cm. So the
fracture strength
3𝐹𝐿
𝜎= = 350 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2𝑏𝑑 2
𝐹 = 486 𝑁
since there are three screws on each side of the plate, so the torque at each side is :
𝐹𝐿 0.12
𝑀= = 486 × = 14.58 𝑁𝑚
4 4
so for the screw in the first right, the force the extract it is
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝐹1 = = 291.6 𝑁; 𝐹2 = = 486 𝑁; 𝐹3 = = 729 𝑁
𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3

Exercise 7.11 Calculate the force applied to the ball of the femur if a person jumps from
a height of 2m and decelerates the body by flexing the knees in such a manner that the
speed of the body is reduced to zero after it has traveled 50 cm. Use sketches in your
calculations.

Solution:
Since the conversation of energy during the process:
 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝐹𝑠
m is the mass of the person, we assume it is 60 kg, g is the gravity 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 , h is the height
2 m. F is the force, and s is the travel distance 50 cm.
𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝐹= = 2352 𝑁
𝑠

Exercise 7.12 Stress shielding is a serious problem in some implants since bone
remodels and the decrease of stress leads invariably to the weakening of the bone.
Calculate the stresses in the femur head bone with and without an implant. Consider three
cases:
titanium implant, E = 113 GPa;
stainless steel implant, E = 205 GPa;
carbon– polymer (polysulfone– PEEK) composite implant, E = 30GPa.
Given: outer diameter of femur = 3 cm; inner diameter = 1.5 cm; Eb = 20GPa.

Solution:
The theoretical stress according to the Griffith’s law, can be estimated as
𝜎𝑡ℎ ≅ 𝐸/30
when there is implant, the total young’s modulus can be calculated based on the Voigt’s
𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑒 +𝐸𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
model.𝐸 = 2

when there is no implant: 𝜎𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 667 𝑀𝑃𝑎

for the titanium implant: 𝜎𝑇𝑖 = 2.2 𝐺𝑃𝑎
for the stainless steel implant: 𝜎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 3.75 𝐺𝑃𝑎
for the carbon – polymer implant: 𝜎𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 = 833 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Exercise 7.13 A bone has been drilled for insertion of screws. What is the effect on the
tensile strength? Assume intact bone strength = 120MPa.

Solution:
The tensile strength will decrease after being drilled for insertion of screws, because the
drilled holes in bones will cause stress concentration.

Exercise 7.14 A carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composite is being considered for the

stem component in a total hip joint replacement. The goal is to create an implant with a
Young’ s modulus matched to the one of bone to minimize resorption due to stress
shielding. The fibers are aligned with the stem axis. Calculate the volume fraction of
carbon in the composite to achieve optimum match. Given:
Ebone = 20 GPa;
Ecarbon = 600 GPa;
Epolymer = 2 GPa.

Solution:
The young’s modulus of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composite implant should be
comparable to that of the bone. Since the fibers are aligned with the stem axis, so the Voigt
model of composite can be used to calculate the young’s modulus. Assume the volume
fraction of carbon is f, so we can find:
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 = 𝑓𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 + (1 − 𝑓)𝐸𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑓 = 3%

Exercise 7.15 What is Wolff’ s law? Briefly describe the process of bone remodeling
using the examples of tennis players and archers.

Solution:
The mechanical strength is determined by the porosity and the manner in which this
porosity is structured, since the struts can align such that the strength is optimized in the
directions in which the stresses are highest. This remodeling was discovered by Wolff in
the 1800s and is known as Wolff’ s law.
The racquet-holding arm bones of tennis players become much stronger than those of the
other arm. Their bodies have strengthened the bones in their racquet-holding arm since it is
routinely placed under higher than normal stresses. The most critical loads on a tennis
player's arms occur during the serve. There are four main phases of a tennis serve and the
highest loads occur during external shoulder rotation and ball impact. The combination of
high load and arm rotation result in a twisted bone density profile. The same condition goes
with an archer, who uses bow and arrow, which makes the arm bones much stronger than
those of the other arm.

Exercise 7.16 What are the three types of bone cells and their functions?

Solution:
There are three types of bone cells: osteoblasts (bone-forming cells), osteoclasts
(bonedestroying cells), and osteocytes (derived from osteoblasts). These bone cells form
the basic multicellular units (BMUs). Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells.
They are located on the surface of osteoid seams and make a protein mixture known
as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone. Osteocytes are mostly inactive osteoblasts.
Osteocytes originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and become trapped and
surrounded by bone matrix that they themselves produced. Osteoclasts are the cells
responsible for bone resorption, thus they break down bone. New bone is then formed by
the osteoblasts. Bone is constantly remodeled by the resorption of osteoclasts and created
by osteoblasts.

Exercise 7.17 What is the fracture resistance curve (R curve) behavior? List and explain
at least three toughening mechanisms observed in bone at the micro- and meso-scales.

Solution:
The R curve graphically represents the resistance to crack propagation of the material as a
function of crack growth, and it is widely used in fiber-reinforced composites. It can be
experimentally determined by growing a crack of controlled size and measuring the stress
necessary to propagate it.
There are two main categories of toughening mechanisms: intrinsic and extrinsic
mechanism. In the extrinsic domain, Vashishth et al. (1997) established R -curve behavior
in cortical bone in which the fracture toughness (KIc ) increases with increasing crack
length, resulting from microcracks that develop in the process zone wake around the crack
tip. Collagen fiber bridging facilitates crack closure, thereby shielding the crack tip from
additional stress. Uncracked ligaments bridge the main crack, helping to support the load
and decreasing the energy needed to propagate the main crack. Finally, crack deflection
occurs where the Cook - Gordon crack deflection mechanism operates. Extrinsic
toughening mechanisms act to shield the crack from applied load. Four types of extrinsic
toughening mechanisms are present: crack deflection, uncracked-ligament bridging,
collagen-fibril crack bridging, and microcracking.

Exercise 7.18 Armadillos, crocodiles, and turtles all have armor. Explain the
similarities and design strategies in natural armor materials.

Solution:
The mineralized armors share many similar structural features: (1) the main constituents of
these mineralized tissues are bone, consisting of collagen fibers and hydroxyapatite
minerals; (2) the bony plates are connected by soft tissues or joints; (3) they are covered by
keratinous layers on the outer surface; (4) they are sandwiched composites with a dense
cortex and a porous core.

Exercise 7.19 Estimate the life of a hip implant made of titanium if it contains initial
flaws with length 2c = 200 μ m and a height 2a = 100 μ m. Assume that the forces
applied on the artificial hip are as follows:
walking, 2W ;
running, 6W ,
where W is the weight of the person. The fatigue response of titanium is given in Figure
E7.19. The person is assumed to (a) walk three hours per day, (b) walk for three hours and
jog for 20 minutes. Make all the necessary assumptions.

Solution:

Exercise 7.20 A roof repairman fell and fractured the femur neck. After inspecting the
fracture, the surgeon decided to install the contraption, shown in Fig. E7.20, called the
Dynamic Hip Screw. Why didn’ t the surgeon opt for a total hip arthroplasty (even knowing
that his fee would be higher for the latter)? Note: The individual experienced excruciating
pain for several years and the plate was finally removed. He still carries it in his pocket as a
reminder of the vagaries of life…

Solution:
Dynamic hip screw (DHS) or Sliding Screw Fixation is a type of orthopaedic implant
designed for fixation of certain types of hip fractures which allows controlled dynamic
sliding of the femoral head component along the construct. One common use is internal
fixation of intertrochanteric fractures of the femur, which are common in old osteoporotic
patients. There are 3 components of a dynamic hip screw, including a lag screw (inserted
into the neck of the femur), a side plate and four cortical screws (fixated into the proximal
femoral shaft) The idea behind the dynamic compression is that the femoral head
component is allowed to move along one plane; since bone responds to dynamic stresses,
the native femur may undergo remodeling and proper fracture healing.
Arthroplasty (literally "reforming of joint") is an orthopedic surgical procedure where the
articular surface of a musculoskeletal joint is replaced, remodeled, or realigned
by osteotomy or some other procedure. It is an elective procedure that is done to relieve
pain and restore function to the joint after damage by arthritis or some other type of trauma.
This would involve replacing both the acetabulum (hip socket) and the head and neck of
the femur. The purpose of this procedure is to relieve pain, to restore range of motion and
to improve walking ability, thus leading to the improvement of muscle strength. Risks and
complications in hip replacement are similar to those associated with all joint replacements.
They can include dislocation, loosening, impingement, infection, osteolysis, metal
sensitivity, nerve palsy, pain and death.

Exercise 7.21 An overactive graduate student decided to take sky diving lessons with
results displayed in Fig. E7.21. The tibia fractured in two places. The fractures occurred in
both tibia and fibula at angles of ~45° with the bone axis. An intramedullary rod was
inserted surgically to reduce the fracture.
(a) Why are the fractures at 45°?
(b) If the compressive strength of bone is ~150MPa, what compressive load was applied to
the bones? How many times body mass (70 kg) is this?
(c) What are the shear stresses on the intramedullary rod (at 45°) and in the screws?
Which would fail first? Assume that the student weighs a hefty 90 kg and that the dynamic
load equals three times her weight.

Solution:
(a) Materials always fail under shear stress, and 45 degree to the principal
direction is the plane of maximum shear. That’s the plane along which the material
is being distorted most severely, and will therefore break first.
(b) Assume the diameter of femur is 5 cm, so the area can be calculated
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 1.96 × 10−3 𝑚2
Since maximum shear stress is in 45 degree, and 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 75 𝑀𝑃𝑎 then the load:
𝐹 = 𝜎𝐴 = 2.94 × 105 𝑁,
𝐹
𝑚 = = 3 × 104 𝑘𝑔 ≅ 429𝑚0
𝑔
(c) The load is 𝐹 = 3𝑚𝑔 = 2646 𝑁, assume the diameter of the rod is 2 cm,
and the diameter of screw is 5 mm, so for the rod at 45 degree, the shear stress is
1 1 𝐹
equal to 𝜏𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 2 𝜎 = 2 × 𝐴 = 4.2 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐹
While for the screw, the shear stress is equal to𝜏𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 = 𝐴 = 33.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎
So if the screw and rod are the same material, then the screw will fail first.
Chapter 8
Exercise 8.1 An artery with dimensions inner diameter = 12 mm, outer diameter = 20 mm
is subjected to increasing pressures. The tensile strength of the collagen–elastin matrix is
equal to 10 MPa at a strain of 0.17 and 50 MPa at a strain of 0.25; assume an exponential
Fung stress–strain relationship:
(a) Determine the parameters A and α.
(b) At what pressure will it burst? Assume that the volume remains constant during
expansion (υ = 0.5).

Solution:

Exercise 8.2 Keratin from the beak of a toucan follows the Ramberg –Osgood law. The
linear part of the stress–strain curve is shown in Fig. 8.35(b); the tests in Fig. 8.35(b) were
conducted at 10–3 s−1. Determine what the slopes should be at 10–1 and 10–5 s−1. The
Ramberg–Osgood exponent for beak keratin is equal to d = 0.05.

Solution:
Exercise 8.3 Calculate the weight of a breast implant filled with silicone (density 1.3 g/
cm3) if the diameter is 12 cm and the height is 6 cm. Assume an oblate spheroid. What
weight advantage would be obtained using a saline solution (density 1.1 g/cm3)?

Solution:

Exercise 8.4 The saline solution in breast augmentation surgery can be introduced in liquid
form after the empty implant has been inserted. What happens to the solution when it is
heated to room temperature?

Solution:
As temperature goes up, the density of saline solution decreases. So the implant may
shrink.
Exercise 8.5 Early breast implants used a polyvinyl alcohol formaldehyde polymer sponge.
What negative effects were caused by these implants?

Solution:
The sponge is sensitive to water. As humidity changes the shape, tensile strength can also
change.

Exercise 8.6 Do breast implants burst when a diver descends beyond a critical depth? Why?
What effects would long-distance running have on the implants?

Solution:
Yes. As the force exerts perpendicularly on the breast, it pushes the implant elonged in the
transverse direction. If the stress exceeds the ultimate tensile strength, it will burst.
For long-distance runners, the implants may experience periodical tensile strength. It may
increase the probability of puncturing and misshaping.

Exercise 8.7 What is the Bouligand structure? List at least three natural materials that have
this structure and explain with sketches.

Solution:
Bouligand strcture is characterized by a characteristic sequence of layers in which each
layer is offset at a specific angle to its neighbor.
Bone, crab exoskeleton and fish scale all have this structure.

Exercise 8.8 Spiders can produce two types of silk: major ampullate (MA) silk and viscid
silk. Compare MA and viscid silk based on their function, microstructure, and mechanical
properties.

Solution:
Function: MA silk fibers form the web frame and the spider’s dragline. The viscid silk form
the glue covered catching spiral.
Microstructure: The microstructure of the MA silk provides a support framework, which is
able to produce the required viscoelastic response. It can be thought of as a semi-crystalline
material, wich an amorphous region.
Mechanical properties: MA silk is much stiffer and stronger than the viscid silk fibers. It
can have an elastic modulus on the order of 10 GPa, and a maximum strength of over 1 GPa.
On the other hand, viscid silk has good extensibility withstanding up to 500 % strain before
failure.

Exercise 8.9 What is BioSteel®? Explain how it is made and give at least two potential
applications.

Solution:
Biosteel is a high-strength based fiber material made of the recombinant spider-silk-like
protein from the milk of transgenic goats.
The company creates lines of goats to produce recombinant versions of either the MaSp1
or dragline I from Nephila clavipes or MaSp2 dragline proteins in their milk. When the
female goat lactate, the milk containing the recombinant silk, was to be harvested and
subjected to chromatographic techniques to purify the recombinant silk proteins.

Exercise 8.10 The data in Table E8.10 were obtained by measuring the pressure applied to
a lumen and its increase in radial diameter. The lumen is inserted into the arteries and
inflated at the region of constriction. From these results, plot the radial stress vs. strain
experienced by the lumen. The wall thickness is 0.014 in. What is the failure stress of the
polymer (low-density polyethylene)?

Solution:
Chapter 9
Exercise 9.1 what is the distribution of stresses in an artery that has internal stresses such
that
(a) α = 180°;
(b) α = 150°?
At what internal pressure will the stress outside and inside the wall become the same?
Assume (i) that the stress from the pressure decays linearly to zero at the external surface,
and (ii) a linear elastic behavior with E = 400 MPa. Given: ID = 15 mm; OD = 22 mm.

Solution:

Exercise 9.2 Read the following paper: M. J. Buehler, Nanomechanics of collagen fibrils
under varying cross-link densities: atomistic and continuum studies, J. Mech. Behav.
Biomed. Mater. 1, 2008, 59–67.
(a) Referring to Fig. 3 of this paper, apply the Ogden equation and obtain parameters.
(b) Compare strength of one collagen fibril with the strength of skin. Discuss the
difference. How do the Ogden parameters compare?

Solution:

Single collagen fibril is stronger than skin. Since skin is composed of collagen, elastin and
hydrated sol-gel substance, the overall property is determined by all components. Since the
other two are not as tough as collagen, the overall property (skin) is not as good as collagen
fibril alone.

Exercise 9.3 An artery with the dimensions given below is subjected to increasing
pressures. At what pressure will it burst if the maximum stress in the artery wall is 30 MPa?
Given: ID = 15mm; OD = 22mm.

Solution:

Exercise 9.4 Medical doctors have known for centuries that bullet wounds produce skin
perforation that is not circular, but elongated. The same phenomenon is observed in skin
perforations for the insertion of cylindrical percutaneous devices. Why?

Solution:
It is because that skin is an orthotropic material. Along the langer lines, the perforations are
elongated and not circular.

Exercise 9.5 Derive Eqn. (9.19).

Solution:

Exercise 9.6 Skin from the belly of a rabbit is governed approximately by the following
equation.
In the longitudinal direction, k = 20 MPa; in the transverse direction, k = 10 MPa.

(a) If a stress of 17 MPa is applied to the skin biaxially, what are the strains in the two
directions?
(b) Sketch the orientation of the Langer lines in the belly.
(c) Interpret the results in terms of the waviness of the collagen molecules.

Solution:

The collagen molecules tend to align more in the transverse direction compared to the
longitudinal direction. It makes this direction more stretchable.
Exercise 9.7
(a) Using the Hill equation, plot the stress vs. strain curves for a muscle at strain rates of
10–2 s−1 and 1s−1.Given:σ0 =200MPa; a=10MPa;b=1 s−1.
(b) Is this a fast- or slow-twitch muscle?

Solution:

Exercise 9.8 Using the WLC model, plot the force f vs. extension z for a protein at 200 and
320 K. Given: stretched length = 300 μm, persistence length = 70 μm.

Solution:

Exercise 9.9 Using the Mooney–Rivlin equation, calculate and plot the stress vs. stretch
ratio curves up to λ = 3. Given: C2 = 0.2 MPa; C1 = 0.2, and 2 MPa. Which one has the
loosest structure?

Solution:
Exercise 9.10 An artery with dimensions OD = 20 mm and ID = 17 mm is subjected to
pressures ranging from 80 mmHg to 130 mmHg.
(a) Determine the diameter of the artery of the systolic (highest) and diastolic (lowest)
points. The material in the artery follows the relationship σ = kε2, with k = 25 MPa. (a) Plot
the stress–strain curve due to the internal pressure and compare it with the
stress–strain response of the material.

Solution:
Chapter 10

Exercise 10.1 Both Ti and Ta are being investigated for the replacement of compact
bone.
(a) Determine the porosity of the foam needed to match that of the bone.
(b) What happens to stiffness as bone grows into metal foam?
(c) How would you change the design to eliminate this problem?

Solution:
(a) The porosity of compact bone is 5% - 10%.
(b) When the stiffness of metal plant Ti or Ta is higher than that of bone,
there is a phenomenon named stress shielding happens. It refers to the reduction in
bone density as a result of removal of normal stress from the bone by implant. This
can be explained by Wolff’s law. So, the stiffness of boen will decrease.
(c) The best design to eliminate this problem is to make the implant has the
same young’s modulus as bone.

Exercise 10.2 An arterial graft is made of porous silicon. After three months the pores
become filled. The inside diameter is 5mm and the wall thickness is 1 mm. The initial
porosity is equal to 0.2 (assume cylindrical pores).
(a) What is the function of the porosity?
(b) What should be the maximum size of pores for impeding blood from seeping out?
(c) If the pressure experienced by the patient is as high as 180 mmHg, determine the stress
in the graft.
(d) The silicon rubber has a tensile strength of 25 MPa. Considering the weakening by the
pores, what is the factor of safety of this prosthesis?

Solution:
(a) Arterial grafting is a surgical procedure performed to repair a blocked or
damaged artery, the materials may be veins or arteries from the individual’s own
vascular system or prosthetic materials. It is a scaffold that offered for the
remodeling of new arterials. So the porosity was giving a space for the new arterial
to produce.
(b) The maximum pore size is around 60 – 80 nm, and it is consistent with
pores in the capillary that can let the diffusion of small molecules and limited
amount of protein.
(c) The pressure is 180 mmHg, which is equal to 24 KPa. So the stress on the
graft is 24 KPa.
 𝜎∗
(d) The tensile strength of the graft is 𝜎 ∗ , and it can be calculated ≅
𝜎

𝜌∗
( 𝜌 ) 3/2

then, 𝜎 ∗ = 17 𝑀𝑃𝑎, which is higher than the stress on the graft.

Exercise 10.3 The combined effects of porosity and strain rate on bone strength have
been expressed by the following equation. If the fracture stress of compact bone at 103 𝑠 −1
is equal to 120 MPa, what is the fracture strength of cancellous bone with 50 vol.%
porosity at 10 𝑠 −1?

Solution:
According to Hight and Brandeau (1983), the strain rate sensitivity 𝑚 ≅ 0.06, so the
strength of cancellous bone at 10 s-1 can be calculated:
𝜎𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑠 1 10
( ) = ( )( 3 ) 0.06
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 2 10
𝜎𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑠 = 45.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Exercise 10.4 A titanium metal sponge is used to replace the inter-disc space in the
spinal column. Calculate its density if we want to match the elastic modulus of bone, E =
20 GPa. Calculate the corresponding strength.
Given: 𝐸𝑇𝑖 = 105 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦 = 450 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝐶1 = 0.3

Solution:
The young’s modulus and density Ti foam can be calculated use the equation:
𝐸∗ 𝜌∗ 2
= 𝐶1 ( )
𝐸𝑠 𝜌𝑠
the elastic modulus should match that of bone, so 𝐸 ∗ = 20 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐸𝑠 = 105 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐶1 =
0.3, 𝜌𝑇𝑖 = 4.5 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3, so the density of the metal sponge can be calculated
𝜌∗ = 3.6 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
the strength can be calculated using the following equation:
3 ∗
𝜎∗ − 𝜌
= 𝐶1 2 ( ) 3/2
𝜎𝑦 𝜌𝑠
𝜎 ∗ = 1.96 𝐺𝑃𝑎
Exercise 10.5 Determine the Young’ s modulus and strength of cancellous bone having
a density equal to 40% of that of compact bone. Assume that compact bone strength is
equal to 120MPa.

Solution:
𝐸∗ 𝜌∗
= 𝐶1 ( ) 2
𝐸𝑠 𝜌𝑠
∗
in which the 𝐸 is the young’s modulus of cancellous bone, and 𝐸𝑠 is the modulus of
compact bone, assume 𝐸𝑠 = 20 𝐺𝑃𝑎 , and the density ration is 40%, and 𝐶1 ≅ 1;
𝐸 ∗ = 3.2 𝐺𝑃𝑎
and the strength can be calculated:
3 ∗
𝜎∗ − 𝜌
= 𝐶1 2 ( ) 3/2
𝜎 𝜌𝑠
𝜎 ∗ = 30.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Exercise 10.6 Cellular solids and scaffolds have been widely applied in the biomedical
field. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of metallic, ceramic, and polymeric
foams, and explain the novel design strategies of composite scaffolds.

Solution:
Porous engineering scaffolds play an important role in regenerating tissues such as bone,
cartilage, and skin. Scaffolds for bone regeneration (osteogenesis) have to satisfy critical
criteria, including adequate mechanical properties, biocompatibility, biodegradability,
proper porosity, and osteoconductivity.
Metal scaffolds such as stainless steel, titanium, and titanium alloys (Ti 6Al-4V) are
common metal implants for osteogenesis. Titanium scaffolds with 86% porosity and 250 μ
m pores have been fabricated and used. Another application of metallic implants is to
create a porous surface by plasma-spraying, shot-blasting, or acid-etching. The lack of
tissue adherence and biodegradability has limited the use of pure metal scaffolds. Ceramic
scaffolds for osteogenesis are made mainly of hydroxyapatite, as well as tricalcium
phosphate (TCP), Bioglass®, and glass ceramics. Natural sources include hydroxyapatite
converted from coral (ProOsteon® ) or animal bone (Endobon® ) and deproteinized
bovine trabecular bone (Bio-Oss® ). Ceramic scaffolds are generally good in
osteointegration yet limited due to the brittleness and slow degradation rates. Polymeric
scaffolds have the advantage of biocompatibility and biodegradability. Natural polymers,
such as collagen, GAG, hyaluronic acid, silk fi broin, and chitosan, as well as synthetic
polymers (e.g. poly-lactide, poly-lactide-co-glycolide), are commonly used to synthesize
scaffolds. The major limitation of polymer-based scaffolds is their weak mechanical
properties. Various approaches and vigorous investigations have been carried out on the
synthesis of composite scaffolds. For example, coating hydroxyapatite scaffolds with a
HAP/polymer composite improves the mechanical properties. Polymer-based scaffolds
(collagen, collagen– GAG, chitosan) can be strengthened by ceramic coating or surface
mineralization. Coating porous titanium implants with calcium phosphate results in better
bone ingrowth. Other novel advances include the addition of growth factors, such as bone
morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), and transforming
growth factors (TGFs).

Exercise 10.7 Calculate the compressive strength of the cellular structure of Fig. 10.1 (a)
in two directions: longitudinal and transverse. Assume E = 5 GPa and compressive
strength of 20MPa. Make necessary assumptions.

Solution:
Since the cellular structure is anisotropic, so when using the open cell model, the cell
length and height should be different. From the SEM picture, assume the anisotropic ratio
ℎ
𝑅= = 3, then calculate the compressive strength of longitudinal 𝜎𝑙 , and transverse
𝑙

direction 𝜎𝑡 . Also, we can calculate that the plastic collapse ratio

𝜎𝑙 2𝑅
= = 4.5
𝜎𝑡 1 + ( 1 )
𝑅
and we can calculate the longitudinal stress:
𝜎𝑙 𝑡
= ( )3
𝜎𝑠 𝑙
From the SEM image, t/l = 0.2, so 𝜎𝑙 = 0.16 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑡 = 0.036 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Exercise 10.8 The collapse strength of equiaxed closed-cell plastic foams is given by a
equation, where ϕ is the ratio of the volume of face to volume of edge, p0 is the initial
fluid pressure, and patm is the atmospheric pressure. Answer the following questions.
(a) Given ϕ = 0.2, ρ* /ρs = 0.5, p0 = patm = 2 atm and σy = 150MPa, calculate the
collapse strength of the foam.
(b) Calculate the collapse strength of the foam if ϕ = 0.4.
(c) Calculate the collapse strength of the foam if ϕ = 1 and there is no pressure difference,
which is the case for open-cell foams.
(d) Plot σ*pl as a function of ϕ and discuss how the face/edge volume ratios affect the
collapse strength of closed-cell foams.

Solution:
 ∗
𝜎𝑝𝑙 𝜌∗ 3 𝜌∗ 𝑃0 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
≅ 0.3 (∅ ) 2 + 0.4(1 − ∅) +
𝜎𝑦 𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠 𝜎𝑦
plug in all the numbers,
∗
if ϕ = 0.2, then 𝜎𝑝𝑙 = 25.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎

∗
if ϕ = 0.4, then 𝜎𝑝𝑙 = 22 𝑀𝑃𝑎

∗
if ϕ = 1, then 𝜎𝑝𝑙 = 15.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎

as we can see from the diagram, the x axis is the face/edge volume ratio, and y axis is the
collapse strength. As ϕ increases, the strength decreases.

Exercise 10.9 Calculate the Young’ s modulus and compressive strength of the
cancellous bone of Fig. 10.3; the cell size is approximately 1 mm. Estimate the thickness of
the trabeculae. Assume E = 20 GPa for HAP and strength of 40 MPa. Make necessary
assumptions.

Solution:
∗
𝜌∗ 𝑡 𝐸∗ 𝜌∗ 𝜎𝑝𝑙 𝑡
Using the open cell model, = 𝐶1 ( 𝑙 ) 2 , = (𝜌 ) 2, = ( 𝑙 )3 ;
𝜌𝑠 𝐸𝑠 𝑠 𝜎𝑦𝑠

According to Fig. 10.3, the cancellous bone in the fig.10.3, assume t/l = 0.5, and the
𝜌∗
= 0.25, so the young’s modulus can be calculated:
𝜌𝑠
𝐸∗
= 0.0625, 𝐸 ∗ = 1.25 𝐺𝑃𝑎
𝐸𝑠
and the stress can be calculated:
𝜎∗
= 0.125, 𝜎 ∗ = 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎

Exercise 10.10 Cellular cores are not the only means to increase stiffness. Leaves have
structural elements that provide them with controlled stiffness. These stiffening elements
are called veins. When one principal vein runs the length of the leaf, the leaf is called
pinnate. When the veins radiate out like the fingers in the hand, they are called palmate
leaves. However, nature is ingenious and yet another strategy is shown in Fig. E10.10:
parallel veins create a zig-zag structure that, in itself, provides structural rigidity at a very
low weight penalty. This design shifts the weight of the leaf as far out of the neutral axis as
possible. The curious student should take a sheet of paper and fold it into this pattern,
checking the stiffness.
(a) Calculate the moment of inertia as a function of the angle between two adjacent
segments (a zig and a zag). Given: t = 1 mm; l = 15 mm.
(b) Propose a bioinspired design where the zig-zag concept of stiffening can be applied.

Solution:
(a) Assume the angle between the zigzag is 𝜃, and the mass of one segments
is m, so the inertia can be calculated:
1 𝑏 1 1 𝜃 1 𝜃
𝐼= 𝑚𝑙 2 + 𝑚 ( ) 2 = 𝑚𝑙 2 + 𝑚 ( 𝑙 sin ) 2 = 𝑚𝑙 2 (1 + 3𝑠𝑖𝑛2 )
12 2 12 2 2 12 2
(b) There are lots of architectures that using zig-zag design to increase
stiffness such as the Eiffel Tower.
Chapter 11
Exercise 11.1 Applying the equation for a cycloid, determine the parameters of the
serrations in the tooth of the Komodo dragon, shown in Fig. 2.9(b).

Solution:

Exercise 11.2 Using the Johnson–Kendall–Roberts equation, calculate the weight that four
paws of a gecko can sustain. The spatula diameter is 100 nm and their spacing is 300 nm.
(a) Use measurements that you can extract from Fig. 11.4, knowing that the gecko pictured
has a body length of 20 cm (not including the tail). Assume that the work of adhesion is: γ
= 15 mJ/m2.
(b) Continuing this reasoning, could a mature Nile crocodile climb the walls of the temples
of the pharaohs to stalk tourists? Explain quantitatively.

Solution:

This area can not be achieved by crocodiles, even given the same density of setae. So it is
not possible.

Exercise 11.3 Calculate the attachment force of a gecko, knowing that the spatulae have
semispherical caps with diameters of 100 nm. The fraction of the foot occupied by the
spatulae is 30%. The contact area of each foot is 1 cm2, the Hamaker constant is taken as 6
× 10–2 J, and D0 = 0.16 nm. Use the paper by Lin et al. (2009) to provide the equation for
interfacial energy.
Solution:

Exercise 11.4 In hydrophobic surfaces, the angle θ is higher than 90°. Using the following
equation, explain what values of the interfacial energy favor this effect:

Solution:
It means the interfacial energy between solid and gas is lower than solid-liquid interfacial
energy. Under such condition, it will favor this effect.

Exercise 11.5 Explain the principles of the cochlear implant that assists hearing. Can
piezoelectric ceramics assist this function? Name and briefly describe two piezoelectric
ceramics with wide technological applications.

Solution:
A cochlear implant is different from a hearing aid. Hearing aid amplify sounds so they may
be detected by damaged ears. Cochlear implants bypass damaged portions of the ear and
directly stimulate the auditory nerve. Signals generated by the implant are sent by way of
the auditory nerve to the brain, which recognized the signals as sound.
Yes, it can assist hearing. It can convert the sound signal to electrical signal.
Generation of high voltages, microbalances.

Exercise 11.6 What are the attachment mechanisms in nature? Give at least one example
for each mechanism.

Solution:
Interlocking: felines, hooks on burrs;
Friction: insects
Bonding: gecko

Exercise 11.7 What is the major adhesive mechanism of the gecko foot? Briefly describe
the hierarchical structure of the gecko foot. Plot pull-off strength as a function of fiber
radius.
Solution:
Bonding. Gecko feet are made of a myriad of thin rods, called setae, and each setae has a
number of spatulas at its tip.

Exercise 11.8 What are the major types of coloration in biological systems? Explain with
examples.

Solution:
The major types of coloration include nuptial plumage change, camouflage and aggression.

Exercise 11.9 Explain the origin of the blue color in Morpho butterfly wings? Use
illustrations.

Solution:
The blue color of the Morpho butterfly comes from the well-defined structure of the wings.
The wings consist of a translucent membrane covered by a layer of scales. Each scale is a
flattened outgrowth of a single cell that fits into a socket on the wing and is about 100 μm
long and 50 μm wide. The scales overlap like roof tiles and completely cover the
membrane, appearing as dust to the naked eye. Longitudinal ridges joined at intervals by
cross- ribs cover each scale. Ridges and cross-ribs frame a series of windows that open into
the interior of the scale, where the pigment granules are located. For more radiant color
observed in other species, the ridges are much higher and have a very precise nanostructure.
The cross-sectional view of the ridges reveals the discretely configured multiple slits,
which are spaced 200 nm apart. Interference occurs when light waves striking the wing
interact with light waves reflected by the wing. Though sunlight contains a full range of
wavelengths, only high-energy waves survive scattering events.

Exercise 11.10 What is a photonic crystal? Give three examples of a photonic crystal
structure in biological systems.

Solution:
Photonic crystal is a synthetic crystal that can manipulate or be sensitized to respond to
specific wavelength of light.
Feathers, scales and insect cuticles.

Exercise 11.11 Explain how a chameleon changes its color to adapt to its environment.
What is the microstructural design in skin when a chameleon turns green?

Solution:
The chameleon has pigment-containing cells called chromatophores, embedded in the
dermal layers. The chromatophores allow the chameleon to change its skin color.
Although the chameleon does not contain any green pigmentation, the yellow pigment and
the reflecting blue light at the iridophore layer produce the green color of the skin.
Chapter 12
Exercise 12.1 Leonardo’s magical sketches of flying machines are clearly inspired by birds
and bats. However, as the size (and therefore mass) of a bird increases, so do the forces on
its wings. Explain, using simple geometry, how the size of wings should increase with the
mass of a bird. (This is known as allometric scaling.)

Solution:
The size of wing and the mass of bird has a relation 𝑤 2 = 𝐶𝑚. As mass increases, the size
of wing should also increase.

Exercise 12.2 Leonardo’s airplane, had a wing span of approximately 7 m; the wings had a
width of approximately 2 m. The rule of thumb for birds and other low-velocity flying
machines is 5 kg/m2. Would Leonardo’s plane glide?

Solution:
𝑚 = 𝐴 ∗ 5𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 = 140𝑘𝑔. That value is too small for a plane. So it would not glide.

Exercise 12.3 On 4 August 2012, Oscar Pistorius became the first amputee (double,
below-the-knee) runner to compete at an Olympic Games. In the 400 m race, he took
second place in the first heat of five runners, finishing with a time of 45.44 s. He used an
Ossur Cheetah prosthesis, which has the characteristic J shape. It is manufactured with
carbon-fiber-reinforced composite blades. The blades return about 92% of the energy
stored into them elastically, whereas for biological legs this number is 93–95%. Did he
have an advantage over athletes with “conventional” legs? Explain.

Solution:
For biological legs, the energy reduced to the leg is higher than the artificial leg. It means
that Oscar Pistorius needs more energy to finish the race compared to other athletes. So he
didn’t have an advantage.

Exercise 12.4 Explain the shape-preserving chemical conversion of diatoms and give at
least three potential applications.

Solution:
Each frustule has a unique structure with ridge, pores and features. Since diatoms have a
hydrated silica cage by replacing the Si with another metal element. It would have the same
three-dimensional structures with nano-scale features.
Applications: sensor devices, catalysts, actuators.

Exercise 12.5 List at least two methods used to synthesize abalone nacre-like compo- sites
and briefly explain the procedures.
Solution:
Method by Meldrum and Ludwigs: A template-directed growth of biominerals resulted in
sea sponge structures. To produce these, a sea urchin skeleton plate was first infused with a
polymer. The skeleton was dissolved, leaving a porous polymer template. Solutions
containing Ca ions were filled into the mold, which nucleated and formed CaCO3.
Method by Almqvist: Almqvist fabricated several talc/polymer mixtures that were
processed to form a laminated structure with 10 wt.% polymer in the end product. Talc has
a platy morphology, and it was speculated that alignment of the plates could mimic nacre.
Several techniques were used to treat the mixtures: centrifuging, spinning cylin- der,
spinning plate, shearing plate, and dip coating by a glass slide.

Exercise 12.6 What is bacteriophage? Describe how it invades bacteria and reproduces.

Solution:
The bacteriophage (nicknamed “phage”) is a microbe that has nano-scale dimensions. The
T4 phage, resembling a Mars Lander, connects to the membrane of a bacterium through the
six legs. At that point, the tail sheath contracts and penetrates the wall. It enters the E. coli
bacterium through an ingenious process of contraction of the tail sheath, which forces the
tail core to penetrate the E. coli wall prior to injecting the DNA. This contraction is
accomplished by a martensitic-like transformation in the tail sheath. The contraction of the
tail sheath propels a needle (tail core) through the bacterium wall. This enables the release
of the DNA into the interior, where it uses the genetic machinery of the bacterium to
reproduce itself.

Exercise 12.7 Calculate the pull-off forces for 1 cm2 of PDMS tape produced by the Artz
group if it is made with pillars with 2 and 20 um. Use the theoretical curve.
Solution:

Exercise 12.8
(a) Calculate the force required to separate a hook from a loop in VELCRO.
(b) What is the force required to pull of 1 cm2 of this tape, assuming that all loops are
equally loaded?
Solution:
Exercise 12.9 Pyrolitic graphite is a wonderful material in terms of biocompatibility and
resistance to blood clotting. Thus, it is an excellent candidate for heart valves and is used in
bi-leaflet and tilting disk models. During an operation, the surgeon, a careless chap, nicks
the leaf with his ultrasharp surgical scalpel during insertion. The scratch has a depth of 0.3
mm. The maximum stress acting on the valve is 1 MPa.
(a) Calculate the number of cycles of the valve. Assuming 60 beats/min for the heart, what
is the time required for the crack to grow catastrophically for titanium?
(b) Calculate the number of cycles and time required for the crack to grow catastroph-
ically for pyrolytic graphite.
(c) Comment on the different slopes for pyrolytic carbon and titanium. The data are
extracted from Ritchie (1999).

Solution:
Exercise 12.10 Calculate the strain that is undergone by a stent structure when it is
expanded from 2 to 5 mm. Assume the wire diameter is 0.1 mm. Make other necessary
assumptions from Fig. E12.10.
Solution:
Chapter 13
Exercise 13.1 Compare the performance of the virus-derived batteries made by Belcher’
s group with conventional lithium-ion batteries by researching the literature.

Solution:
In a lithium-ion battery, lithium ions flow between the negatively charged anode, usually
graphite, and the positively charged cathode, usually cobalt oxide or lithium iron phosphate.
It was demonstrated by Belcher and co-workers that viruses can be engineered to build
both the negatively (Nam et al., 2006) and positively (Lee et al., 2009) charged ends of a
lithium-ion battery. The new virus-produced batteries have the same energy capacity and
power performance as state-of-the-art rechargeable batteries being considered to power
plugin hybrid cars, and they could also be used to power a range of personal electronic
devices. The new batteries can potentially be manufactured with a cheap and
environmentally benign process, inspired by nature. The viruses can recognize and bind
specifically to carbon nanotubes. In this case, each ion phosphate nanowire can be
electrically wired to conducting carbon nanotube networks. Electrons can travel along the
carbon nanotube networks, percolating throughout the electrodes to the iron phosphate and
transferring energy in a very short time. By incorporating carbon nanotubes, the cathode’s
conductivity can be increased without adding too much weight to the battery.

Exercise 13.2 By researching the literature, describe the steps that were required to
produce the first transgenic mouse.

Solution:
(Jaenisch, R. and Mintz, B. (1974) Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DNA of healthy adult
mice derived from preimplantation blastocysts injected with viral DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. 71: 1250–1254.)
(1) SV 40 DNA. Viral DNA was isolated and purified by sedimentation through sucrose
gradients. (2) Isolation of Embryos. Three week old females of the C3H inbred strain was
supervolated with hormone injection. (3) Microinjection. Blastocysts was microinjected.
(4) Extraction of Mouse DNA. (5) Preparation of highly labeled SV 40 DNA. (6)
Molecular Hybridization.

Exercise 13.3 Using sketches and explanations, describe electrospinning.

Solution:
Electrospinning uses an electrical charge to draw very fine (typically on the micro or nano
scale) fibres from a liquid. When a sufficiently high voltage is applied to a liquid droplet,
the body of the liquid becomes charged, and electrostatic repulsion counteracts the surface
tension and the droplet is stretched; at a critical point a stream of liquid erupts from the
surface. This point of eruption is known as the Taylor cone. If the molecular cohesion of
the liquid is sufficiently high, stream breakup does not occur (if it does, droplets are
electrosprayed) and a charged liquid jet is formed. As the jet dries in flight, the mode of
current flow changes from ohmic to convective as the charge migrates to the surface of the
fiber. The jet is then elongated by a whipping process caused byelectrostatic repulsion
initiated at small bends in the fiber, until it is finally deposited on the grounded collector.
The elongation and thinning of the fiber resulting from this bending instability leads to the
formation of uniform fibers with nanometer-scale diameters.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrospinning)

Exercise 13.4 C. T. Lim, at NUS in Singapore, used microfl uidics to separate healthy
red blood cells from those contaminated with malaria. This procedure was later adapted to
isolate selectively cancer cells in the blood stream. By researching the literature, find the
sources and write a description of the technique with sketches.

Solution:
The sorting of red blood cells from cells contaminated with malaria using microfluidics
method was discussed in the following literature:
H. W. Hou, C.T.Lin, et.al., Deformability based cell margination – A simple microfluidic
design for malaria-infected erythrocyte separation. Lab chip. 2010, 10, 2605-2613.
In blood vessels with luminal diameter less than 300mm, red blood cells (RBCs) which are
smaller in size and more deformable than leukocytes, migrate to the axial centre of the
vessel due to flow velocity gradient within the vessels. This phenomenon displaces the
leukocytes to the vessel wall and is aptly termed as margination. Here, we demonstrate
using microfluidics that stiffer malaria-infected RBCs (iRBCs) behave similar to
leukocytes and undergo margination towards the sidewalls. This provides better
understanding of the hemodynamic effects of iRBCs in microcirculation and its
contribution to pathophysiological outcome relating to cytoadherence to endothelium.

Exercise 13.5 Describe the sequence of procedures required to produce a genetically

modified plant.

Solution:
(1) Isolation of the gene that will be modified by extracting DNA from the host.
(2) Breaking of DNA into fragments; use of gel electrophoresis to separate different
lengths.
(3) Cloning of the gene of interest by polymerase chain reaction (PCR); the genes can also
be synthetically produced if the sequence is known.
(4) Insertion of gene into a plasmid, which is a double-stranded DNA. The process of
bonding is called “ligation”. The plasmid is called the “vector.”
(5) The vector is inserted into bacteria, such as E. coli; this process is called
“transformation”. About 1% of the bacteria accept the vector. This number can be
increased by electric or heat shock, which renders the membrane more permeable to the
plasmid. Bacteria are unicellular and reproduce clonally. Thus, the new bacteria contain the
vector. In plants, the vector plasmid is usually introduced into Agrobacterium .
(6) The bacteria that contain the vector are cultured in a proper medium, leading to their
“overexpression” (multiplication).
(7) Cells are “ lysed” in order to reduce the proteins.
(8) The target protein is purified, separating it from the others.
(9) The modified genetic material is inserted into the host genome.

Exercise 13.6 Find the original paper by Crick and Watson, copy the figure, and
comment on the significance of the results and the length of the contribution.

Solution:

On 25 April 1953, a paper appeared in Nature that was to transform the life sciences - from
biochemistry and agriculture, to medicine and genetics. James Watson and Francis Crick,
then at Cambridge University, reported the discovery of the structure of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) - the molecule that genes are made of. Crick and Watson used
model building to reveal the now famous double helix of DNA, but the X-ray
crystallographic data of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins at King's College, London,
were crucial to the discovery. The breakthrough also owed much to advances in
biochemical techniques, microscopy, chemical analysis and theories of chemical bonding
that had developed from the mid-19th century. The true significance of the DNA structure
was underlined around the same time by the final settlement of a decades-long controversy
over whether DNA or protein was the 'life molecule'. The true beauty of the model that
Crick and Watson built was that the structure immediately suggested function. As they
hinted, in their Nature paper: 'It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have
postulated suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material'. The discovery
of the DNA structure was the start of a new era in biology, leading, over the next two
decades, to the cracking of the genetic code and the realisation that DNA directs the
synthesis of proteins. There were technical advances too, such as DNA sequencing, genetic
engineering, and gene cloning. More recently, the complete sequences of many organisms
have been solved - including the human genome in June 2000. The next 50 years of the
DNA story will be all about realising the practical benefits of Crick and Watson's discovery
for humanity - in industry, medicine, food and agriculture.

Exercise 13.7 Give three examples of how a virus can be used to synthesize inorganic
materials and list the potential applications.

Solution:
Viruses have been used as scaffolds for the peptide-directed synthesis of magnetic and
semiconducting materials, and have been further exploited in the formation of nanowires
and liquid crystals.
The M13 phage pIII constructs used in the selection experiments, with the peptide
displayed only on one end of the filamentous phage, were used in the first M13-based
nanocrystal growth studies. In particular, two phage-bound peptide sequences that were
selected for ZnS, named Z8 and A7, were shown to control ZnS particle size and shape at
room temperature, under aqueous conditions.
Viruses are also being exploited through the development of viral scaffolds as a means of
templating or directing the nucleation and assembly of inorganic materials. Virus size and
shape have played an important role in this area, and these properties have dictated the size
shape of nanocrystals being grown. Rod-like TMV has also been used as a scaffold for
synthesis of nanotubes, including CdS, PbS, silica, and Fe2O3and.
As a result, viruses can function as inorganic templates to form inorganic tubes and wires
as well as function as cages for the controlled growth of inorganic nanocrystals.

Exercise 13.8 What are GEPIs? Explain with illustrations/sketches. Give at least three
potential applications of GEPIs.

Solutions:
GEPIs refers to Genetically engineered peptides for inorganics (GEPIs).
Sarikaya and co-workers (Sarikaya et al., 2003 ; Tamarler and Sarikaya, 2007 ) used
phages to find the proteins required for specific surface interactions. Of special interest to
materials scientists are protein interactions with inorganic substrates, such as silicon or
gold. They used a technique from the molecular biology fi eld called phage display (PD) to
select proteins that bind to selected inorganic surfaces. This was based on earlier work by
Brown (1997), who found that some proteins selectively bind to specific inorganic surfaces.
Sarikaya and co-workers engineered new polypeptides that selectively bound to different
inorganic substrates.