Natalie Gustin

Professor Dilley

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

21 June 2023

Term Paper

The youngest of the three Abrahamic religions, Islam found its influence growing during

the seventh century. Abundant conflict between the many powerful civilizations in the Near East,

particularly between the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires, set the background for the

development of Islam. The political strife during this emergence has led many Western scholars

to believe that Islam developed “almost without religious faith” (xi), instead having more

political, social, or economic catalysts. In Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam,

Fred M. Donner disagrees with this widely held view. Instead, he presents the idea that Islam

began as a religious movement, entirely concerned with piety and righteous behavior, and that

the Umayyad dynasty was not a manipulator of Islam but, rather, instrumental uniters of the

Islamic faith. Through documents like the Umma Document and inscriptions on the Dome of the

Rock, as well as the Qur’an and other primary documents from the time, Donner crafts an image

of the origins of Islam that many Western scholars have failed to consider.

Though not an official chapter, the Preface offers an important look into the context of

Donner’s argument. Within the Preface, Donner explains the historical beliefs about Islam held

by many Western scholars; that is, that Islam did not develop as a religious movement but a

political one (xi). These scholars believed Islam was a social reform movement (Hubert

Grimme), a response to economic stress (W. Montgomery Watt), or, most commonly, a

nationalist political movement (L. Caetani, C. H. Becker, B. Lewis, P. Crone, G. Bowersock, I.

(xii), arguing that the religion developed out of an “intense concern for attaining personal

salvation through righteous behavior” (xii).

The first chapter, titled “The Near East on the Eve of Islam,” discusses the historical

context leading up to and contemporary with the development of Islam, mentioning details from

as early as the time of Alexander the Great in the fourth-century B.C.E (5) up to the fall of the

Byzantine Empire in the 5th century C.E. (20). First, Donner discusses, broadly, the time period

in which the Prophet Muhammad lived - late antiquity (1). This period was marked by a gradual

transition away from what were traditionally considered “classical” cultures, such as

Greco-Roman and Iranian cultures, and a time period in which the Abrahamic religions began to

become widespread. Two civilizations of particular note that Donner highlights are the Byzantine

Empire and the Sasanian Empire (3), which spanned present-day Northern Africa and Southwest

Asia. These empires, frequently in conflict, represented two different religious demographics -

Christians and Zoroastrians. Additionally, this chapter establishes the importance of Mecca and

Yathrib, two cities that would eventually become the heart of Islamic society (34). This chapter

provides a foundational understanding of the cultural influences on Islam and the environment in

which it developed and responded to, and Donner utilizes this foundation to provide a basis for

his analysis of the origins of Islam.

The second chapter, titled “Muhammad and the Believers’ Movement,” predominantly

focuses on early Islam, particularly the life of Muhammad and the practices he partook in.

Muhammad, born in Mecca in the mid-to-late sixth century CE, was an orphaned member of the

Quraysh tribe (40). Mecca, for context, was a bustling town, attracting many communities due to

their involvement with religion and commerce. The Ka’ba was the center of many pagan
religious ceremonies, and its status as a haram, a sacred area, allowed commerce to flourish (40).

Muhammad was particularly active in commerce, managing his wife’s caravan trading company,

and gained widespread acclaim for his trustworthiness and intelligence (40). During a personal

retreat in 610, it is said that Muhammad began to receive revelations from God through Gabriel.

These revelations became the Qur’an. People in Mecca, many of whom were pagan polytheists,

were not easily swayed, and Muhammad was forced to leave Mecca and turn to smaller

communities to gain supporters for his religious movement.

Muhammad’s community of “Believers,” as they were called at the time, had four

important beliefs: the oneness of God, the inevitability of the Last Day, the importance of

righteous and pious behavior, and a belief in revelations and prophets (41). This movement

wasn’t considered a distinct religion during Muhammad’s lifetime, and it was because of these

broad beliefs centered on monotheism that both Jews and Christians found themselves part of the

Believers’ movement.

A particularly significant part of this chapter is Donner’s criticism of the sources many

scholars use to draw their opinions on the origins of Islam. Many of these sources were

developed after Muhammad’s life and with a specific objective: to affirm Muhammad’s status as

the prophet (51). The contradictions and obvious storytelling present in the vast amount of

sources available to historians make it evident that most of them cannot be taken at face value

(51). We thus must compare these accounts to physical evidence we have from the time period,

such as archaeological finds and analyses of major archaeological dig sites.

Donner uses the third chapter, titled “The Expansion of the Community of Believers,” to

illustrate the development of Islam after the death of Muhammad. It was after Muhammad’s

death that documentary evidence began to emerge, indicating the Believers’ developing society;
coins, texts from Believers, and information from non-Believers describing the actions of the

Believers provided a potentially more accurate description of the culture and activities of the

time period than the Quran would, as they often weren’t as manipulated into indicating the

validity of the prophet (91). Near the end of Muhammad’s life, the community of Believers grew

rapidly throughout the Arabian Peninsula. No longer did Muhammad have to resort to swaying

small groups of polytheists and pagans towards his cause; now, with control over major armies

and political power, communities came to Medina and Mecca to search him out and offer their

support and surrenders as he gained power and began conquering new regions (95).

The death of Muhammad led to a brief struggle for power, after which Abu Bakr,

Muhammad’s close advisor, eventually took over in 632 CE (98). The empire only grew during

and after Bakr’s reign, becoming notably more militant, with his armies conquering areas from

the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley (105). However, despite the broadening of land, no

archaeological evidence has been found that indicates that there was widespread destruction

(which is displayed in many Muslim sources). It’s more likely that the Believers allowed

monotheistic people of the book (Jews and Christians) to continue practicing their faith;

essentially, all that would have changed was the leadership and the taxes (109). Those who

weren’t monotheistic or who resisted the transfer of power, however, may have been the victims

of this alleged destruction.

It was also at this time that Islam began to be recognized as a religion separate from

Christianity. Christian scholars began shifting away from referring to Islam as “heresy” and

instead referred to it as if it were its own religion altogether. Donner additionally points to this as

evidence of Islam’s religious origin (223); because this was simply an Abrahamic movement
about monotheism rather than an attempt to create a new religion to grab power and assert

influence, the intentions behind it may be purer.

The fourth chapter provides a historical analysis of the First and Second Civil Wars

within the Near East. These wars were a vital part of Islam’s development into what we know to

be Islam today; conflict over the leadership positions and general confusion following the death

of Muhammad increased tension amongst Believers during the First Civil War, and similar power

struggles also influenced the Second Civil War. This era in Islamic history still remains an era of

shame as the community turned against each other and away from Allah. Though they faced

much protest, the Umayyads eventually reestablished their rule and their dynasty.

Chapter five details the continued evolution of Islam following the civil wars described in

chapter four and concludes Donner’s description of the development of Islam. The post-civil

wars era marked the emergence of the Islam that many of us are familiar with today. The modern

term “Muslim,” rather than “Believer,” began to take shape as boundaries hardened to include

only those who were both monotheistic and who followed Quranic law rather than just those who

were monotheistic (204). Additionally, Ummayad leader Abd al-Malik began reigniting the fear

of the Last Judgement (as indicated by his many constructions, including the construction of the

Dome of the Rock) and revitalizing Islam within the Empire (199). Most significantly, the Arab

identity began to emerge during this time period as the Islamic empire began to solidify (218).

Connections between the Arabic language and the physical geography, as well as the emerging

religious identity of “Muslim,” created a strong sense of community amongst those who fell into

these groups. Donner brings up this point to counter the idea that Islam was a nationalist

movement - because the Arab identity had not yet formed when Muhammad was active, it would

have been impossible for Islam to have developed as a result of it.

he mentions in his preface (that being that Islam is devoid of a religious origin), his argument

lacks the same nuance that he criticizes the opposing view’s argument for leaving out. It would

be impossible to say that the entirety of the Islamic faith, as we know it today, has been

untouched by politics. In fact, much of the evidence he presents that is intended to counter the

arguments of Western scholars seems to support the idea that Islam, even during its founding,

was influenced by its social and political context. The early passages of the book detail the

intricate and delicate political situation of Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean, with religion

taking a prominent place between the Sasanian and Byzantine Empires. Constant

Donner presents an interesting point about the spread of Islam, though, that strongly

supports his argument, which is that many sources related to the period of “Islamic conquest” are

likely fabricated to support the story of Muhammad as the Prophet. The physical and

documentary evidence, such as archaeological evidence and records written by outsiders,

indicates that, in most cases, there was very little or no destruction involved in the transfer of

power to Islamic leadership within Christian and Jewish communities. The origin stories of Islam

that many Western scholars base their assumptions on may indicate a more militant and political

situation than it actually was. Additionally, the actions taken by the movement indicate the

importance of righteous behavior and a fear of the Last Day; the development of mosques and

major monuments, a move to Jerusalem, and an insistence on the practice dictated and performed

by Muhammad were widely held from the start.

Ultimately, it would be impossible to know Muhammad’s intentions as he began to share

his revelations. Whether or not he used the widespread belief in prophecy in an attempt to gain

power or shifted his revelations to account for the social environment of the time may always be
up for debate. It would arguably be impossible for any major cultural movement to be unaffected

by the social and political climate, and Islam is no exception. The insistence on righteous

behavior was likely in response to what the Believers considered immoral acts that were

occurring all around them, and the emphasis on monotheism and prophecy during a time in

which both were of increasing importance (in both Christianity and Judaism) drew many

monotheists into the movement.

To conclude, Donner’s argument has its weaknesses, but it also has its strengths. Islam

was clearly a religious movement emphasizing monotheism and the Quran, but no movement

ever exists in a vacuum. The systems at work around Muhammad and the Believers created

changes in the religion, just as the religion created changes in the systems around Muhammad

and the Believers.