PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

MOTION IN 2 DIMENSIONS

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

IN REALITY…
Air resistance does affect the motion of y
projectiles, destroying the symmetry of their
trajectories. The less dense the projectile,
the more noticeable the drag effect. x

𝝆𝑪𝑨
𝒂𝒙 = − 𝒗𝒙 𝒗𝟐𝒙 + 𝒗𝟐𝒚
𝟐𝒎

𝝆𝑪𝑨
𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈 − 𝒗𝒚 𝒗𝟐𝒙 + 𝒗𝟐𝒚
𝟐𝒎

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Any particle travelling at constant speed around a circle
is engaged in uniform circular motion.
v
The magnitude of v is constant,
but since v is everywhere r r
tangent to the circle, its O
direction changes continuously. v
r
In the particle model the centre
of the circle lies outside the particle, v
and we speak of orbital motion.
Later we shall apply the same principles to the rotation or
spin of extended objects about axes within themselves.
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

PERIOD
The time taken for the particle to complete
one revolution (rev) is called the period, T,
of the motion. v

Hence v = 2 r r
T
O

E.g. Calculate the speed of a point on

the rim of a CD in a 50x drive…

v = 2 r 50  10000 rpm  T = 6 ms

T
 v = 2  0.06 = 63 m/s
0.006
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ANGULAR POSITION
It will be more convenient to describe the position of an
orbiting particle in terms of polar coordinates rather
than xy-coordinates.
y
 , called the angular position
of the particle, … r s
is positive when measured

counterclockwise (ccw) O x
from the positive x-axis;
is conveniently measured in radians (SI unit), where 1 rad
is the angle subtended at the centre by an arc length s = r;
is the single time-dependent quantity of circular motion.
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ANGULAR POSITION
Notes:  (rad)  s and y
r
s = r ( in rad).
r s
The radian is a 
dimensionless unit O x
(as is any unit of angle).

360 = 2 r rad = 2 rad = 1 rev

r
1 rad = 360 = 57.3  60
2

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ANGULAR VELOCITY
Change in angular position is y tf = t i + t
called angular displacement, .
r 
Analogous to linear motion, the rate ti
f
of change of angular position is r
called average angular velocity: O i x

average angular velocity = 

t
Allowing t→0, we get (instantaneous) angular velocity:

  lim  = d Units: [rad/s] (SI), but also…

t → 0 t dt
[°/s, rev/s, and rev/min  rpm]

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ANGULAR VELOCITY
Notes: A particle moves with uniform circular motion if
and only if its angular velocity  is constant.

 = 2 rad , sign by inspection…

T
>0
Angular velocity is positive
for counterclockwise motion….

…negative for clockwise motion.

<0
The graphical relationships we
developed for position s and velocity vs
in linear motion apply equally well to
angular position  and angular velocity …
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

Angular velocity  is equivalent to the slope of a -vs-t graph.
 (rad)
Eg: A particle moves around a
2
circle…
0
2 4 6 8 t (s) For the first 3 s the
–2  slope
velocity
–4
t
is  = −4 − 2 = −2 rad/s
t 3−0
 (rad/s)

0
2 4 6 8 t (s)

–2

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

Angular velocity  is equivalent to the slope of a -vs-t graph.
 (rad)
Eg: A particle moves around a
2
circle…
0
2 4 6 8 t (s) Between 3 s and 4 s the
–2 slope
velocity
–4 is  −4 − ( −4 )
= = 0 rad/s
t 1
 (rad/s)

0
2 4 6 8 t (s)

–2

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

POSITION GRAPHS → VELOCITY GRAPHS

Angular velocity  is equivalent to the slope of a -vs-t graph.
 (rad)
Eg: A particle moves around a
2
circle…
0
2 4 6 8 t (s) Between 4 s and 8 s the
–2  slope
velocity
–4
t is  = 0 − ( −4 ) =  rad/s
t 4
 (rad/s)

0
2 4 6 8 t (s)

–2

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

FINDING POSITION FROM VELOCITY

A body’s angular position after a time interval t can be
determined from its angular velocity using  f =  i + t .

Graphically, the change in angular position ( = t) is

given by the area “under” a -vs-t graph:
 (rad/s) During the time
2 interval 2 s to 8 s
 the body’s angular
 displacement is
t
0 t (s) t = 2 rad/s  ( 8 − 2 ) s
2 4 6 8
  = 12 rad
( i.e. 6 revs ccw )
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

THE rtz-COORDINATE SYSTEM

To facilitate the resolution of angular quantities, we
introduce the rtz-coordinate system (centred on the
orbiting particle and travelling around with it) in which…
the r-axis (radial axis) points from the particle towards
the centre of the circle in which the particle is travelling;
the t-axis (tangential axis) is tangent to the circle, pointing
in the anticlockwise direction;
the z-axis is perpendicular to the plane of motion.
z
z
t
r O r

t
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

THE rtz-COORDINATE SYSTEM

Viewed from above
(with the z-axis
pointing out of the z
t
screen) the axes are
shown travelling
around with the r
particle…

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

THE rtz-COORDINATE SYSTEM

Notes: As in xyz-coordinate system, the r-, t-, and z-axes
are mutually perpendicular.
The rtz-coordinate system is used only to resolve
vector quantities associated with circular motion
into radial and tangential components.
The measurement of these quantities must
necessarily take place in other reference frames.
Given some vector A in the
plane of motion, making r
t
an angle of  with the r-axis, A

Ar = A cos A cos A sin
At = A sin
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

VELOCITY and ANGULAR VELOCITY

The velocity vector v has t
only a tangential component, vt . vt s vt
s = r
Differentiating with respect to time…

r
v t = ds = r d
r O
dt dt
vt [m/s
Hence vt =  r and  = /s] 
rad
r  m 

vr = 0 vt =  r vz = 0

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ACCELERATION and ANGULAR VELOCITY

Although the magnitude of v remains constant in uniform
circular motion, its direction changes continuously, so
the particle must be accelerating.
Motion diagram analysis
reveals that the a
a
acceleration is centripetal. a
a
Notes:
For uniform circular motion, since vf
the lengths of successive v ’s are all vi −v i
the same, the magnitude of a is constant.
v vf
These are all average velocity vectors…
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ACCELERATION and ANGULAR VELOCITY

Q
The instantaneous velocity and
acceleration vectors are everywhere v v
at right angles to each other. Q'  P' v
v
During time interval t …
ar
the particle travels an arc length vt P

between P and P' (PP'  vt); O ar
both the angular position and v turn
through angles of  ; a
v
…so OPP' ||| P'QQ'

 v  v t   v  v 2
a = lim  v = v 2

v r t r t → 0  t r
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ACCELERATION and ANGULAR VELOCITY

In vector notation: t

a= v
r(
2
, towards centre of circle ) vt

And since v =  r… ar = 2r

ar
r O

Centripetal acceleration has

only a radial component, ar …
2
ar = v =  2r at = 0 az = 0
r

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

DYNAMICS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

From Newton II…

Fnet = ma =(mv
r
2
, towards centre of circle )
z t
r v
O Fnet

Note! As always, Fnet is simply the result of any number

of forces being applied by identifiable agents.
(It is NOT some new, disembodied force!)

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

DYNAMICS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

z t
r v
O Fnet

In terms of r-, t-, and z-components:

2
( Fnet ) r = Fr = mar = mv
r
= m 2r

( Fnet ) t = Ft = mat = 0

Necessarily so!
( Fnet ) z = Fz = ma z = 0
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

IT’S ALL RELATIVE…

http://www.xkcd.com/
A webcomic of romance, sarcasm, math, and language.
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

IT’S ALL RELATIVE…

http://www.xkcd.com/
A webcomic of romance, sarcasm, math, and language.
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

IT’S ALL RELATIVE…

http://www.xkcd.com/
A webcomic of romance, sarcasm, math, and language.
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

Determine the maximum speed at which a car can corner on

an unbanked, dry tar road without skidding.
2 z
 Fr = fs = r
mv
n
r r t
v
rf s
v = O
m
fs
v will be a maximum when fs reaches w
its maximum value: fs = fs max = sn

Fz = n – w = 0  n = w = mg

rf s max r smg
 vmax = =
m m
 vmax = srg
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

A highway curve is banked at an angle  to the horizontal.

Determine the maximum speed at which a car can take this
corner without the assistance of friction.
z
2
 Fr = nr = mvr
t
r r
rnr v
v = O
m
nr = n sin
z
Fz = nz – w = 0  nz = w i.e. n cos = mg n
nz
mg 
n =
cos
r nr
rmg sin
v =
m cos 
w
 v = rg tan
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

CIRCULAR ORBITS
The force which keeps satellites (including the Moon)
moving in circular orbits around the Earth is nothing
other than the gravitational force of the Earth on them.
A near-Earth satellite will
maintain its circular orbit r
w
only if its centripetal
acceleration ar is equal to g.

I.e. if a r =
( vorbit )
2
=g vorbit
r w
w
 vorbit = rg

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

In 1957 Earth’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik I, was put into

orbit 300 km above the Earth’s surface by the USSR.
How long did observers have to wait between sightings?

vorbit = rg = ( 6.37  106 + 3  105 )  9.8 = 8085 m/s

v = 2 r    6
T = 2 6.67 10 = 5184 s = 86 min
T 8085

Whereas the period of Earth’s natural satellite, the Moon

(384 000 km away) is…

T = 2 r = 2 r = 2 r  8
 T = 2 3.84 10 = 39 330 s = 11 hours ??!
v rg g 9.8

The problem lies in the fact that g is only a local constant

which can be used only near the surface of the Earth…
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ConcepTest©
The figure shows a binary star
system. One of the stars is twice
as massive as the other. m 2m

Which force diagram correctly

shows the forces on the stars?

A F B 2F
2F 2F

C 2F D 4F
F F

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Any two particles in the universe exert a mutually
attractive force on each other which is proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance of their separation.
m1m2
F1 on 2 = F2 on 1 = G 2
r

Notes: G is the universal gravitation constant.

G = 6.67  10–11 N m2/kg2.
The equation holds for extended spherical masses
(e.g. planets) provided r, the distance between
their centres, is large compared to their sizes.
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Any two particles in the universe exert a mutually
attractive force on each other which is proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance of their separation.
m1m2
F1 on 2 = F2 on 1 = G 2
r

Notes: G is the universal gravitation constant.

G = 6.67  10–11 N m2/kg2.
The equation holds for extended spherical masses
(e.g. planets) provided r, the distance between
their centres, is large compared to their sizes.
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

For a body of mass m at the surface of the Earth:
M em
FEarth on m = G But this is the body’s weight, w = mg…
Re 2
Hence, for Earth,
M e m 6.67  10 −11 Nm 2 /kg 2  5.98  10 24 kg
mg = G 2 = = 9.83 m/s 2
Re ( 6.37  10 m )
6
2

(Why not 9.80 m/s2?)

The value of the gravitational constant on the surface of

any planet, gplanet, is thus a direct consequence of the
size and mass of that planet.
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

VARIATION OF g WITH HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND

Height, h Example g (m/s2)

0m Sea level 9.83
5 900 m Kilimanjaro 9.81
10 000 m Jet airliner 9.80
350 000 m International Space Station 8.85
35 900 000 m Geosynchronous satellite 0.22

For a satellite a distance h above the earth’s surface:

GM e GM e gearth
g= = 2 2 =
( Re + h) 2
Re (1 + h / Re ) (1 + h / Re ) 2
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

CIRCULAR ORBITS
We can now derive more vorbit
universal formulae for any m
FM on m
satellite:
2
mv
FM on m = G Mm = ma r = orbit
r2 r
M r
 vorbit = GM
r

And, since vorbit = 2 r = GM ,

T r

T =
2 4
GM ( )
2
r3

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

CIRCULAR ORBITS
So the correct period of the Moon is…

T =
2 4
GM
2
r3 ( )
 4  2 ( 8)
3
T =  2
−11 24 
3.84  10
 6.67  10  5.98  10 
 T = 2.37  106 s = 27.4 days

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

INERTIAL and GRAVITATIONAL MASS

The connection between inertial mass (found by meas-
uring a body’s acceleration a in response to a force F)
and the gravitational mass which causes two bodies to
attract each other is not immediately apparent…
To date, however, the most precise experiments have
been unable to determine any measurable difference
between the two.
Einstein’s general theory of relativity explains this
principle of equivalence (minert = mgrav) as a fundamental
property of space-time.

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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

NON -UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

If the speed of an orbiting body
varies, the body is exhibiting
non-uniform circular motion. t
at ar
In such cases, in addition to 
ar
centripetal acceleration, the t r

body also has non-zero anet at
dv t
tangential acceleration: a t = anet
dt
The net acceleration vector, anet ,
is given by anet = a r + a t ,
−1 
at 
where a = ar + at
2 2
and  = tan  .
 ar 
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

DYNAMICS OF NON-UNIFORM
CIRCULAR MOTION
The resultant force (the sum of any
t
number of individual forces) acting
on an orbiting particle can always (Fnet)r
be resolved into tangential and r

radial components if required… (Fnet)t

2
Fnet
( Fnet ) r = Fr = mar = mvr = m 2r

( Fnet ) t = Ft = mat

( Fnet ) z = Fz = ma z = 0
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

VERTICAL CIRCLES
Motion in a vertical circle is NOT uniform.
As a result of gravity, on its way at = 0
down, the body speeds up; on ar ar
at at
the way up it slows down... anet anet
ar ar
going down, at & vt are parallel; at anet anet at
ar ar
going up, at & vt are antiparallel. anet anet
at at = 0 at
Only at the top and bottom is at = 0.
Elsewhere, the net acceleration is given by anet = a r + a t .
The magnitude and direction of this net acceleration
change continuously in a complex way…
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

VERTICAL CIRCLES
The net force, Fnet, which produces this
acceleration, is made up of the
body’s weight and the tension w T
force provided by the string. T Fnet
w Fnet T
Like the acceleration, Fnet Fnet
w
varies around the circle… T
T Fnet
…but at the top and bottom, Fnet
w
where at = 0, Fnet is centripetal.
w
Note:
At the top of the circle Fnet is the sum of T and w .
At the bottom, Fnet is given by the difference of the two.
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

VERTICAL CIRCLES
Apparent weight is actually a sensation arising from the
contact forces which support you, rather than an
awareness of the gravitational force of the Earth which
acts simultaneously on every part of you.
r
At the bottom of a vertical circle…
m ( vbot )
2 n
Fr = n + w = nrˆ + w ( − rˆ ) = rˆ t
r vbot
m ( vbot )
2 w
 wapp =n= w+
r
The extra force required to achieve this
is what “adds to your g’s” in a bottom turn.
42
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ConcepTest©

A car is rolling over the top

of a hill at speed v.
At this instant,

A n>w
B n=w
C n<w
D we can’t tell about n without knowing v

43
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

VERTICAL CIRCLES
vtop
At the top of a vertical circle…
m ( vtop )
2 t
n w
Fr = n + w = nrˆ + wrˆ = rˆ
r
m ( vtop )
2 r
 wapp = n = −w
r
If (because of lack of speed) this term
w
becomes too small (i.e. < w), n disappears,
the body “comes unstuck” and goes into free fall.
The speed at which n = 0 is called the critical speed, vc:
m ( vc )
2 vc
g
0= − mg  vc = rg and  c = w
r r
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PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

We are now in a position to
understand why the measured
value of g = 9.80 m/s2 is less
than the value we calculated
from Newton’s law of universal
gravitation (g = 9.83 m/s2).

Objects on the rotating Earth are in

circular motion, so there must be a
net force towards the centre. Thus wapp = mgapp = n < Fgrav.

At mid-latitudes the reduction is about 0.03 m/s2,

hence the measured value gapp = 9.80 m/s2.
45
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

ConcepTest©

The sketch shows a ball being B

swung around in a vertical circle A C
at the end of a piece of string. D

If the string breaks at the instant E

shown, along which path will the
ball continue?

46
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

MOTION IN A CIRCLE
Learning outcomes:
At the end of this chapter you should be able to…
Apply kinematics and dynamics knowledge, skills and
techniques to circular motion.

Manipulate angular quantities and formulae against the

background of an angular (rtz-) coordinate system.

47
PHY1012F NEWTON’S LAWS MOTION IN A CIRCLE

NEWTON’S LAWS
The goals of Part I, Newton’s Laws, were to…
Learn how to describe motion both qualitatively and
quantitatively so that, ultimately, we could analyse it
mathematically.
Develop a “Newtonian intuition” for the explanation of
motion: the connection between force and acceleration.