Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology

Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology

Design and Analysis of Algorithm

th
18CS42 4 Sem
Table of Contents
Module Module Title Page
Number Number

1 Introduction 1-78

2 Divide and Conquer 79-137

3 Greedy Method 138-187

[Type here]
 4 Dynamic Programming 188-257

5 Backtracking 258-317

[Type here]
 MODULE – 1

INTRODUCTION

Course Outcomes(COs):
At the end of the course, the students will be able to attain the following
skills.
CO1 Gain knowledge on various algorithmic concepts to solve
problems.
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 CO2 Apply the basic knowledge of mathematical fundamentals for
finding time complexity of recursive and non-recursive
algorithms.
CO3 Analyse various problems and choose appropriate algorithmic
technique to use for solving real time problems.

CO4 Design algorithms for various real time applications.

CO5 Conduct investigation on societal problems and develop code

using contemporary computing languages.
CO6 Work in team and communicate effectively on
various algorithmic techniques.

Agenda
 What is an Algorithm?
 Algorithm Specification
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 Analysis Framework
 Performance Analysis: Space complexity, Time complexity
 Asymptotic Notations: Big-Oh notation (O), Omega notation (Ω),
Theta notation (Θ), and Little-oh notation (o)
 Mathematical analysis of Non-Recursive Recursive Algorithms with
Examples .
 Important Problem Types: Sorting, Searching, String processing, Graph
Problems, Combinatorial Problems.
 Fundamental Data Structures: Stacks, Queues, Graphs, Trees, Sets and Dictionaries.

Learning Outcomes of Module -1

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Students will be able to
 Representing real world problem into algorithmic
notation.
 Performance analysis of an algorithm.
 Important problem types.
 Fundamental Data structures.

What is an algorithm?
Algorithmic: The sprit of computing – David Harel.

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Another reason for studying algorithms is their usefulness
in developing analytical skills.
Algorithms can be seen as special kinds of solutions to
problems – not answers but rather precisely defined
procedures for getting answers.

What is an algorithm?
Recipe, process, method, technique, procedure,
routine,… with the following requirements:
1. Finiteness
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  terminates after a finite number of steps

2. Definiteness
 rigorously and unambiguously specified

3. Clearly specified input

 valid inputs are clearly specified

4. Clearly specified/expected output

 can be proved to produce the correct output given a
valid input

5. Effectiveness
 steps are sufficiently simple and basic

Algorithm
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• Can be represented in various forms
• Unambiguity/clearness
• Effectiveness
• Finiteness/termination
• Correctness

What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions
for solving a problem, i.e., for obtaining a required
output for any legitimate input in a finite amount of
time.
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 Problem

Algorithm

Input Output
“Computer”
Why study
algorithms?
• Theoretical importance
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 – the core of computer science

• Practical importance
– A practitioner’s toolkit of known algorithms

– Framework for designing and analyzing algorithms for new problems

Euclid’s Algorithm
Problem: Find gcd(m,n), the greatest common divisor of two
nonnegative, not both zero integers m and n

Examples: gcd(60,24) = 12, gcd(60,0) = 60, gcd(0,0) = ?

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Euclid’s algorithm is based on repeated application of equality
gcd(m,n) = gcd(n, m mod n)
until the second number becomes 0, which makes the problem
trivial.

Example: gcd(60,24) = gcd(24,12) = gcd(12,0) = 12

Two descriptions of Euclid’s algorithm

Step 1 If n = 0, return m and stop; otherwise go to Step 2

Step 2 Divide m by n and assign the value of the remainder to r
Step 3 Assign the value of n to m and the value of r to n. Go to
Step 1.
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while n ≠ 0 do
r ← m mod n
m← n
n←r
return m

Other methods for computing

gcd(m,n)
Consecutive integer checking algorithm
Step 1 Assign the value of min{m,n} to t
Step 2 Divide m by t. If the remainder is 0, go to Step 3;
otherwise, go to Step 4
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Step 3 Divide n by t. If the remainder is 0, return t and stop;
otherwise, go to Step 4
Step 4 Decrease t by 1 and go to Step 2
Is this slower than Euclid’s algorithm?
How much slower?

Other methods for gcd(m,n)[cont.]

Middle-school procedure
Step 1 Find the prime factorization of m
Step 2 Find the prime factorization of n
Step 3 Find all the common prime factors
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Step 4 Compute the product of all the common prime factors
and return it as gcd(m,n)

Is this an algorithm?

How efficient is it?

Sieve of Eratosthenes
Input: Integer n ≥ 2
Output: List of primes less than or equal to n for p ← 2 to n do
A[p] ← p for p ← 2 to sqrt(n) do if A[p] 0 //p hasn’t
been eliminated on previous passes j ← p* p
while j ≤ n do

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 A[j] ← 0 //mark element as eliminated
j←j+p

Example: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Output: 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19

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Fundamental steps in solving problems

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 Fundamental steps in solving problems

Statement of the problem Development of

mathematical model Design of the algorithm
Correctness of the algorithm Analysis of
algorithm for its time and space complexity
Implementation Program testing and
debugging Documentation
Important problem types
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• Sorting
• Searching
• String processing
• Graph problems
• Combinatorial problems
• Geometric problems
• Numerical problems

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 Graph Problems

• Informal definition
– A graph is a collection of points called vertices, some of
which are connected by line segments called edges.
• Modeling real-life problems – Modeling WWW
– Communication networks
– Project scheduling …
• Examples of graph algorithms
– Graph traversal algorithms
– Shortest-path algorithms
– Topological sorting
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 Linear Data Structures
• Arrays 
– Doubly linked list (next +
– A sequence of n items of the same data previous pointers)
type that are stored contiguously in Arrays
computer memory and made  fixed length (need preliminary

accessible by specifying a value of the reservation of memory)

array’s index.  contiguous memory locations

• Linked List  direct access

– A sequence of zero or more nodes  Insert/delete


each containing two kinds of Linked Lists
information: some data and one or  dynamic length
more links called pointers to other  arbitrary memory locations
nodes of the linked list.  access by following links
– Singly linked list (next pointer)  Insert/delete

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 a1 a2 … . an
Stacks and Queues

• Stacks

– A stack of plates
• insertion/deletion can be done only at the top.
• LIFO

– Two operations (push and pop)

• Queues

– A queue of customers waiting for services

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 • Insertion/enqueue from the rear and deletion/dequeue from the
front.
• FIFO

– Two operations (enqueue and dequeue)

Priority Queue and Heap

 Priority queues (implemented using heaps)

 A data structure for maintaining a set of elements, each associated with
a key/priority, with the following operations
 Finding the element with the highest priority
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  Deleting the element with the highest priority
 Inserting a new element
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6 8
 Scheduling jobs on a shared computer 5 2 3

968523

Graphs
• Formal definition

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 – A graph G = <V, E> is defined by a pair of two sets: a finite set V of items
called vertices and a set E of vertex pairs called edges.

• Undirected and directed graphs (digraphs).

• What’s the maximum number of edges in an
undirected graph with |V| vertices?
• Complete, dense, and sparse graphs
– A graph with every pair of its vertices connected by an edge is called
complete, K|V|

1 2

3 4

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 Graph Representation
• Adjacency matrix
– n x n boolean matrix if |V| is n.
– The element on the ith row and jth column is 1 if there’s an edge from ith vertex
to the jth vertex; otherwise 0.
– The adjacency matrix of an undirected graph is symmetric.
• Adjacency linked lists
– A collection of linked lists, one for each vertex, that contain all the vertices
adjacent to the list’s vertex.
• Which data structure would you use if the graph is a 100 -node star shape?

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 0111 2 3 4
0001 4
0001 4

0000

Weighted Graphs

• Weighted graphs
– Graphs or digraphs with numbers assigned to the edges.

5
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 1 2
6 9 7
3 4
8
Graph Properties -- Paths and Connectivity

• Paths
– A path from vertex u to v of a graph G is defined as a sequence of
adjacent (connected by an edge) vertices that starts with u and ends with
v.
– Simple paths: All edges of a path are distinct.
– Path lengths: the number of edges, or the number of vertices – 1.
• Connected graphs

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 – A graph is said to be connected if for every pair of its vertices u and v
there is a path from u to v.
• Connected component
– The maximum connected subgraph of a given graph.

Graph Properties -- Acyclicity

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• Cycle
– A simple path of a positive length that starts and ends a
the same vertex.

• Acyclic graph
– A graph without cycles
– DAG (Directed Acyclic Graph)
1 2

3 4

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 Trees
• Trees
– A tree (or free tree) is a connected acyclic graph.
– Forest: a graph that has no cycles but is not necessarily connected.
• Properties of trees

– For every two vertices in a tree there always exists exactly one simple
path from one of these vertices to the other. Why?
• Rooted trees: The above property makes it possible to select an arbitrary vertex in a free tree
and consider it as the root of the so called rooted tree.
• Levels in a rooted tree. rooted

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 3
1 3 5 4 1 5

 |E| = |V| - 1 2 4 2

Rooted Trees (I)

• Ancestors
– For any vertex v in a tree T, all the vertices on the simple path from
the root to that vertex are called ancestors.
• Descendants
– All the vertices for which a vertex v is an ancestor are said to be
descendants of v.
• Parent, child and siblings

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 – If (u, v) is the last edge of the simple path from the root to vertex v, u
is said to be the parent of v and v is called a child of u.
– Vertices that have the same parent are called siblings.
• Leaves
– A vertex without children is called a leaf.
• Subtree
– A vertex v with all its descendants is called the subtree of T rooted at
v.

Rooted Trees (II)

• Depth of a vertex
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 – The length of the simple path from the root to the vertex.

• Height of a tree
– The length of the longest simple path from the root to a leaf.
h=2
3

4 1 5

Ordered Trees
• Ordered trees

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 – An ordered tree is a rooted tree in which all the children of each vertex
are ordered.
• Binary trees
– A binary tree is an ordered tree in which every vertex has no more than
two children and each children is designated s either a left child or a right
child of its parent.
• Binary search trees
– Each vertex is assigned a number.
– A number assigned to each parental vertex is larger than all the numbers
in its left subtree and smaller than all the numbers in its right subtree.
• log2n h n – 1, where h is the height of a binary tree and n the size.

9 6
6 8 3 9
5 2 3 2 5 8

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Computing time functions
1 constant

log n logarithmic

n linear

n log n n-log-n

n2 quadratic

n3 cubic

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 2n exponential

n! factorial

Values of some important functions as n

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 Order of growth
• Most important: Order of growth within a
constant multiple as n→∞

• Example:
– How much faster will the algorithm run on computer that is
twice as fast?

– How much longer does it take to solve problem of double

input size?
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 Best-case, average-case, worst-case
For some algorithms efficiency depends on form of input:

• Worst case: Cworst(n) – maximum over inputs of size n

• Best case: Cbest(n) – minimum over inputs of size n

• Average case: Cavg(n) – “average” over inputs of size n

– Number of times the basic operation will be executed on typical input.

– NOT the average of worst and best case.
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 Asymptotic order of growth
A way of comparing functions that ignores constant
factors and small input sizes
• O(g(n)): class of functions f(n) that grow no faster than g(n)

• Θ(g(n)): class of functions f(n) that grow at same rate as g(n)

• Ω(g(n)): class of functions f(n) that grow at least as fast as g(n)

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 Establishing order of growth using the definition

Definition: f(n) is in O(g(n)) if order of growth of f(n) ≤ order of

growth of g(n) (within constant multiple),
i.e., there exist positive constant c and non-negative integer n0
such that
f(n) ≤ c g(n) for every n ≥ n0

Example:
• 5n+2 is O(n); c= 7 and n0 = 1

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Note : The Upper Bound indicates that the function will be the worst case that it
does not consume more than this computing time.

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 Big-oh

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Establishing order of growth using the definition

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 Big-omega

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 Establishing order of growth using the definition

Definition: f(n) is in Ɵ(g(n)) iff there exists three positive

constants c1,c2 and n0 with the constraint that c1 g(n) ≤ f(n)
≤ c2 g(n) for every n ≥ n0 .

Example:
• 3n+2 is Ɵ (n)
• c1 g(n) ≤ f(n) ≤ c2 g(n) for every n ≥ n0
• 3 n ≤ 3n+2 ≤ 4 n for every n0 = 2, c1 = 3, c2 = 4

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 Big-theta

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 Properties of asymptotic order of growth

• f(n) O(f(n))

• f(n) O(g(n)) iff g(n) (f(n))

• If f (n) O(g (n)) and g(n) O(h(n)) , then f(n) O(h(n))

Note similarity with a ≤ b

• If f1(n) O(g1(n)) and f2(n) O(g2(n)) , then f1(n) +

f2(n) O(max{g1(n), g2(n)})
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 Time efficiency of nonrecursive
algorithms
General Plan for Analysis

• Decide on parameter n indicating input size

• Identify algorithm’s basic operation
• Determine worst, average, and best cases for input of size n
• Set up a sum for the number of times the basic operation is
executed

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• Simplify the sum using standard formulas and rules

Establishing order of growth using limits

0 order of growth of T(n) < order of growth of g(n

)

lim T(n)/g(n) c > 0 order of growth of T(n) = order of

growth of g(n
n→∞

= ∞ order of growth of T(n) > order of growth of g(n

Examples:

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• 10n vs. n2

• n(n+1)/2 vs. n2

Example: Sequential search

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Worst case - O(n) Best case - Ω(n)
Average case – Θ(n/2)

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Example 1: Maximum element

Analysis
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1. Input parameter : n 3.
2. Basic operation:
Comparison A[i] >
max
4.

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Example 2: Element uniqueness
problem

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 Analysis
1. Input parameter is input size n 2. Basic
operation: Comparison A[i] == A[j]

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 Є O(n2)

3.

4.
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Department of ISE

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Example 3: Matrix
multiplication

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 Analysis
1. Input parameter is input size n2 X n2
2. Basic operation: Comparison C[i,j] == C[i,j] + A[i,k] *
B[k,j]

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3.

Є O(n3)

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 Selection Sort
Algorithm SelectionSort (A[0..n-1])
//The algorithm sorts a given array by selection sort
//Input: An array A[0..n-1] of orderable elements
//Output: Array A[0..n-1] sorted in ascending order
for i  0 to n – 2 do
min  i
for j  i + 1 to n – 1 do
if A[j] < A[min]
min  j
swap A[i] and A[min]
Time efficiency: Θ(n ) comparisons (in the worst case)
2

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 Solve recurrence relations
• X(n) = x(n-1) + 5 for n>1, x(1) = 0 X(n) =
x(n-1) + 5 X(n) = x(n-2) + 5+5 = x(n-2) +
2 *5 X(n) = x(n-3) + 3*5

X(n) = x(n-n-1) + n-1 * 5 = x(1) + (n-1) *

5 = O(n-1) = O(n)
Solve x(n) = 3x(n-1) for n>1, x(1) =4

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x(n) = 3x(n-1)
= 3[3x(n-2)]
= 32 x(n-2)
= 33 [x(n-3)]
= 34 [x(n-4)]
-
-
= 3n-1 [x(n-n-1)] =3n-1 [x(1)] = 3n-1
[4] = 4/3 * 3n

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 Solve

1. X(n) = x(n/2) + n for n>1 2. T(n) = T(n/2) +

T(n/2) + 3 for n> 2 T(2) = 2, T(1) = 1

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 Plan for Analysis of Recursive
Algorithms
• Decide on a parameter indicating an input’s size.
• Identify the algorithm’s basic operation.
• Check whether the number of times the basic op. is executed
may vary on different inputs of the same size. (If it may, the
worst, average, and best cases must be investigated separately.)
• Set up a recurrence relation with an appropriate initial
condition expressing the number of times the basic op. is
executed.

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• Solve the recurrence (or, at the very least, establish its
solution’s order of growth) by backward substitutions or
another method.
Example 1: Recursive evaluation of
n!
Definition: n ! = 1 2 … (n-1) n for n ≥ 1
and 0! = 1 Recursive definition of n!: F(n) = F(n-
1) n for n ≥ 1 and
F(0) = 1

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Size:
Basic operation:
Recurrence
relation:
Solving the recurrence for M(n)

M(n) = M(n-1) + 1, M(0) = 0

Refer Notes

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 Tower of Hanoi Problem
• In this problem, we have n disks of different sizes and
three pegs.
• Initially, all the disks are on the first peg in order of
size, the largest on the bottom and the smallest on
top.
• The goal is to move all the disks to the third peg,
using the second one as an auxiliary if necessary.

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• We can move only one disk at a time, and it is
forbidden to place a larger disk on top of a smaller
one.
Example 2: The Tower of Hanoi

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 Puzzle

1 3

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Recurrence for number of moves:

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Solving recurrence for number of

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 moves

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Tree of calls for the Tower of Hanoi
Puzzle
n

n- n-
1 1

n-2 n-2 n-2 n-2 ... ... ...

2 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Fibonacci numbers
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The Fibonacci numbers:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …

The Fibonacci algorithm (recursive )

Fib(n)
{
If n<=1
return n
Else
Return F(n-1) + F(n-2)

• The recurrence equation for this problem is:

T(n) = T(n-1) + T(n-2) for n>1 and the initial
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conditions are T(0) =0, T(1) = 1 Solution to
recurrence relation:
T(n) = T(n-1) + T(n-2) T(n) –T(n-1) –T(n-2) = 0
This is of the form ax(n) +bx(n-1) +cx(n-2) =0
Which is a homogeneous second order linear
relation with constant co-efficients.

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 Little oh Notation (o)
• The asymptotic upper bound provided by
Onotation may or may not be asymptotically
tight. The bound 2n2 = O(n2) is asymptotically
tight but the bound 2n = o(n2) is not.
• We use o-notation to denote an upper bound
that is not asymptotically tight • f(n) = o(g(n));

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 f(n) is equal to the little oh of g(n), iff f(n) < c,
g(n) for any +ve constant c>0, no>0 and n>no
Establishing order of growth using limits
)
0 order of growth of T(n) < order of growth of g(n

lim T(n)/g(n) c > 0 order of growth of T(n) = order of

growth of g(n
n→∞

= ∞ order of growth of T(n) > order of growth of g(n

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 Examples:
• 10n vs. n2

• 5n + 2 vs. n

Property of the Asymptotic Notations

1. Theorem :If t1(n) Є O(g1(n)) and t2(n) Є O(g2(n)),

then t1(n) + t2(n) Є O(max{g1(n), (g2(n)})

2. Theorem: If f(n) = am nm + - - - - + a1 n + a0 and am

>0, then f(n) = O(nm)
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 Brute Force
A straightforward approach, usually based directly on the
problem’s statement and definitions of the concepts involved

Examples:
1. Computing an (a > 0, n a nonnegative integer)

2. Computing n!

3. Multiplying two matrices

4. Searching for a key of a given value in a list

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 Brute-Force Sorting Algorithm
Selection Sort Scan the array to find its smallest element and
swap it with the first element. Then, starting with the second
element, scan the elements to the right of it to find the
smallest among them and swap it with the second elements.
Generally, on pass i (0 i n-2), find the smallest element in
A[i..n-1] and swap it with A[i]:
A[0] . . . A[i-1] | A[i], . . . , A[min], . . ., A[n-1]
in their final positions

Example: 7 3 2 5

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 Analysis of Selection Sort

Time efficiency: Θ(n^2)

Yes
In place:

Stability: yes
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 Brute-Force String Matching
• pattern: a string of m characters to search for
• text: a (longer) string of n characters to search in
• problem: find a substring in the text that matches the pattern
Brute-force algorithm
Step 1 Align pattern at beginning of text
Step 2 Moving from left to right, compare each character of
pattern to the corresponding character in text until
• all characters are found to match (successful search); or
• a mismatch is detected

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Step 3 While pattern is not found and the text is not yet
exhausted, realign pattern one position to the right and
repeat Step 2
Examples of Brute-Force String Matching

1. Pattern: 001011
Text: 10010101101001100101111010
2. Pattern: happy
Text: It is never too late to have a
happy childhood.

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 95
Pseudocode and Efficiency

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Time efficiency: Θ(mn) comparisons (in the worst case)
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 Brute-Force Strengths and
Weaknesses
• Strengths
– wide applicability
– simplicity
– yields reasonable algorithms for some important
problems (e.g., matrix multiplication, sorting, searching,
string matching)

• Weaknesses
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– rarely yields efficient algorithms
– some brute-force algorithms are unacceptably slow
– not as constructive as some other design techniques

MODULE – 2
DIVIDE AND CONQUER

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 Divide-and-Conquer
The most-well known algorithm design strategy
1. Divide instance of problem into two or more
smaller instances
2. Solve smaller instances recursively
3. Obtain solution to original (larger) instance by
combining these solutions

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 Divide and conquer involves three steps, at
each level of recursion.

• Divide: Divide the problem into a number of

sub problems
• Conquer: Conquer the sub problems by solving
them recursively. If the sub – problem sizes are
small enough, then solve the subproblem in a
straight forward manner.

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• Combine: combine the solutions to the
subproblems to get the solution to the original
problem.
Divide-and-Conquer Technique (cont.)

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 103
 Divide-and-Conquer Examples
• Sorting: merge sort and quicksort • Finding min
and max element in an array • Binary search •
Multiplication of large integers • Matrix
multiplication: Strassen’s algorithm
General Divide-and-Conquer Recurrence
T(n) = aT(n/b) + f (n) where f(n) (nd), d 0

Master Theorem: If a < bd, T(n) (nd)

If a = bd, T(n) (nd log n)
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 If a > bd, T(n) ( nlog b a )
Note: The same results hold with O instead of .
(n^2)

Examples: T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n T(n) ? (n^2log n)

T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2 T(n) ?
(n^3)
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3 T(n) ?

Merge Sort Algorithm

Mergesort(low, high)
//Given an array A of n elements. This algorithm sorts the elements in

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//ascending order. The variables low and high are used to identify the
//positions of first and last element in each partition.
1. If (low< high)
2. mid = (low+high)/2;
3. Mergesort (low,mid);
4. Mergesort(mid+1,high);
5. Merge(low,mid,high);
6. End if
7. Exit

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 Merge Algorithm
Merge(low, mid, high)
// The variables low, mid, and high are used to identify the
portions of elements in each partition.
1. Initialize i=low, j= mid+1, h=low;
2. while ((h <= mid) && (j <= high)) 3.
if (a[h] < a[j]) b[i++] =
a[h++]; else
b[i++] = a[j++];

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 Cont…
4. if (h > mid)
for(k = j; k <= high; k++)
b[i++] = a[k]; else
for (k = h; k <= mid; k++)
b[i++] = a[k];
5. for (k = low; k <= high; k++)
a[k] = b[k];

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 Mergesort
• Split array A[0..n-1] into about equal halves and make
copies of each half in arrays B and C
• Sort arrays B and C recursively
• Merge sorted arrays B and C into array A as follows:
– Repeat the following until no elements remain in one of the arrays:
• compare the first elements in the remaining unprocessed portions of the
arrays
• copy the smaller of the two into A, while incrementing the index indicating
the unprocessed portion of that array

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– Once all elements in one of the arrays are processed, copy the
remaining unprocessed elements from the other array into A.

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Mergesort Example

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 8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4

8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4
The non-recursive version
of Mergesort starts from
8 3 2 9 71 5 4
merging single elements
into sorted pairs.
8 3 2 9 7 1 5 4

3 8 2 9 1 7 4 5

2 3 8 9 1 4 5 7

1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9

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Analysis of Mergesort

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• All cases have same efficiency: Θ(n log n)
• Number of comparisons in the worst case is
close to theoretical minimum for
comparisonbased sorting:
log2 n! ≈ n log2 n - 1.44n

• Space requirement: Θ(n) (not in-place) • Can be

implemented without recursion
Quicksort
• Select a pivot (partitioning element) – as the first element

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 p
i
•
j
A[i] p A[i] p
p

A[i] p A[i] p
• Exchange the pivot with the last element in the first (i.e., )
subarray — the pivot is now in its final position
• Sort the two subarrays recursively
• Note : Invented by

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 Quick Sort Algorithm
Quick sort(low, high)
// A is an array of elements.
// The variables low and high are used to identify the positions of first and
// last elements in each partition.
If(low< high) then
J= partition(low, high)
Quick sort( low, j-1)
Quick sort(j+1, high)
End if
Exit

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 Partition Algorithm
Partition(low, high)
//This procedure partitions the element into two lists and places the pivot
//element into a appropriate place. Low = first element of the array, high
= //last element of the array, a[low] = pivot. Step 1. Set pivot = a[low];
i = low +1; j = high;
Step 2. Repeat step 3 while (a[i] < pivot && i < high)
Step 3. i++;
Step 4. Repeat step 5 while (a[j] > pivot)
Step 5. j--; Step
6. If(i<j)
swap a[i] and a[j]
go to step 2 else
swap a[j] and pivot
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Step 7. Return (j)

Quicksort Example
5 3 1 9 8 2 4 7
2 3 1 4 5 8 9 7
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 7 8 91
2 3 4 5 7 8 9

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 Analysis of Quicksort
• Best case: split in the middle — Θ(n log n)
• Worst case: sorted array! — Θ(n2) T(n) = T(n-1) + Θ(n)
• Average case: random arrays — Θ(n log n)

• Improvements:
– better pivot selection: median of three partitioning
– switch to insertion sort on small subfiles
– elimination of recursion
These combine to 20-25% improvement

• Considered the method of choice for internal sorting of large

files (n ≥ 10000)
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 Binary Search
Algorithm Binary_Search( A[0…n-1], Key)
Input: Given an array of n elements in sorted order and key is an element to be
searched.
Output: Returns the position of key element, if successful and returns -1
otherwise.
1. Set first = 0, last = n-1 2.
While (first < = last)
mid = (first +last) / 2
if (key == A[mid])
return (mid+1); // successful
else if ( key < A[mid] ) last
= mid – 1 else

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 first = mid+1
end while
3. return -1 // unsuccessful

Analysis
Best Case: Best case occurs, when we are
searching the middle element itself. In that case,
total number of comparisons required is 1. there
fore best case time complexity of binary search is
Ω(1).

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 Worst Case: Let T(n) be the cost involved to
search ‘n’ elements. Let T(n/2) be the cost
involved to search either left part or the right part
of an array.
Analysis
T(n) = a if n = 1
T(n/2) + b otherwise

T(n/2)  Time required to search either the left

part or the right part of the array.
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b  Time required to compare the middle element.
Where a and b are some positive integer constants.
T(n) = O(log 2n )
Analysis
Average Case:
The average case occurs when an element is found some
where in the recursive calls, but not till the recursive call ends.
The average number of key comparisons made by binary search
is only slightly smaller than that in this worst case.
T(n) = log 2n

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The average number of comparison in a successful search is
T(n) = log 2n – 1
The average number of comparison in a unsuccessful search is
T(n) = log 2n + 1
Algorithm for straight forward maximum and
minimum
StraightMaxMin(a,n,max,min)
// set max to the maximum and min to the minimum of a[1:n].
{
max := min := a[1];
for i := 2 to n do
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 {
if(a[i] > max) then max := a[i];
if(a[i] < min) then min := a[i];
}
}

Analysis
• This algorithm requires 2(n-1) element
comparisons in the best, average, and worst
cases.
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• Now the Best case occurs when the elements
are in increasing order. The number of element
comparisons is n-1.
• The worst case occurs when the element are in
decreasing order. In this case number of
comparisons is 2(n-1).

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Finding maximum and minimum using
divide and conquer technique
Algorithm max_min(i, j, max, min)
{
// Input: a[1:n] is a global array. Parameters i and j
are integers, 1<=i <= j<= n.
// output: to set max and min to the largest and
smallest values in a[i: j], respectively.

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If (i == j) then // Small(P) { max = min  A[i];
}
else if ( i =j-1) then // Another case of Small(P)
{
if (A[i] < A[j]) then
{
max  A[j]
min  A[i]
}
else
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 {
max  A[i]
min  A[j]
}
}
else
{
// if P is not small, divide P into sub problems. //
Find where to split the set mid
:= (i+j)/2;

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 // Solve the sub problems.
max_min(i,mid,max,min);
max_min(mid+1, j, max1,min1); //
Combine the solutions if( max <
max1) then max := max1; if( min >
min1) then min:= min1;
}
}
Analysis
0 n=1
T(n) = 1 n=2
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 T(n/2) + T(n/2) + 2 n>2

When n is a power of two, n = 2k for some positive integer k, then

T(n) = 2T(n/2) + 2
= 2T(2k-1) ) + 2
= 2(2T(2k-2) + 2) + 2
= 22T(2k-2) + 22 + 2
= 23T(2k-3) + 23 + 22 + 2
...
= 2k-1 T(2k-(k-1)) + 2k-2 + 2k-1 + - - - + 21
= 2k-1 + 2k-2 + - - - + 21
= 2. (2k-1 – 1)/ 2-1 = O(n)

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 Multiplication of Large Integers
Consider the problem of multiplying two (large) n-digit integers
represented by arrays of their digits such as:
A = 12345678901357986429 B = 87654321284820912836
The grade-school algorithm:
a1 a2 … an
b1 b2 … bn
(d10) d11d12 … d1n
(d20) d21d22 … d2n
…………………

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 (dn0) dn1dn2 … dnn

Efficiency: Θ(n2) single-digit multiplications

First Divide-and-Conquer
Algorithm
A small example: A B where A = 2135 and B = 4014
A = (21·102 + 35), B = (40 ·102 + 14)
So, A B = (21 ·102 + 35) (40 ·102 + 14)
= 21 40 ·104 + (21 14 + 35 40) ·102 + 35 14

In general, if A = A1A2 and B = B1B2 (where A and B are n-digit,

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A1, A2, B1, B2 are n/2-digit numbers),
A B = A1 B1·10n + (A1 B2 + A2 B1) ·10n/2 + A2 B2

Recurrence for the number of one-digit multiplications M(n):

M(n) = 4M(n/2), M(1) = 1
Solution: M(n) = n2

Second Divide-and-Conquer
Algorithm
A B = A1 B1·10n + (A1 B2 + A2 B1) ·10n/2 + A2 B2

The idea is to decrease the number of multiplications from 4 to 3:

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 (A1 + A2 ) (B1 + B2 ) = A1 B1 + (A1 B2 + A2 B1) + A2 B2,

I.e., (A1 B2 + A2 B1) = (A1 + A2 ) (B1 + B2 ) - A1 B1 - A2 B2,

which requires only 3 multiplications at the expense of (4-1) extra
add/sub.

Recurrence for the number of multiplications M(n):

M(n) = 3M(n/2), M(1) = 1 What if we count
Solution: M(n) = 3log 2n = nlog 23 ≈ n1.585 both multiplications and additions?

Example of Large-Integer
Multiplication
2135 4014
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 = (21*10^2 + 35) * (40*10^2 + 14) =
(21*40)*10^4 + c1*10^2 + 35*14 where c1 =
(21+35)*(40+14) - 21*40 - 35*14, and
21*40 = (2*10 + 1) * (4*10 + 0)
= (2*4)*10^2 + c2*10 + 1*0 where c2 =
(2+1)*(4+0) - 2*4 - 1*0, etc.

This process requires 9 digit multiplications as opposed to 16.

Matrix Multiplication

• Brute-force algorithm

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 c11 c12 a11 a12 b11
b12
= *
c21 c22 a21 a22 b21 b22

a11 * b11 + a12 * b21 a11 * b12 + a12 * b22

=
a21 * b11 + a22 * b21 a21 * b12 + a22 * b22
8 multiplications
Efficiency class in general: (n3) 4
additions
Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication
• Strassen’s algorithm for two 2x2 matrices (1969):
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 c11 c12 a11 a12 b11
b12
= *
c21 c22 a21 a22 b21 b22

C1 = E + I + J- G C2 = D + G
=
C3 = E + F C4 = D + H + J - F
D = A1(B2 – B4)
E = A4( B3 – B1)
F = (A3 + A4) B1
G = (A1 + A2) B4 7 multiplications
H = (A3 – A1) (B1 + B2)
I = (A2 – A4) (B3 +B4) 18 additions
J = (A1 +A4)(B1 +B4)
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 Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication
A= B=1 21 1
3 42 2

A1 = 1, A2 =2, A3 = 3, A4 = 4
B1 = 1, B2 = 2, B3 = 2, B4 = 2
1. D = A1(B2 – B4) = 1(1 – 2) = -1
2. E = A4(B3-B1) = 4(2-1) = 4
3. F = (A3 + A4) B1 = (3+4)1 = 7
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4. G = (A1 + A2)B4 = (1+2)2 = 6
5. H = (A3 – A1) (B1 + B2) = (3-1)(1+1) = 4
6. I = (A2 – A4)(B3+B4) = (2-4)(2+2) = -8
7. J = (A1+A4)(B1+B4) = (1+4)(1+2) =
15

C1 = E +I+J-G = 4+(-8) +15-6 = 5

5 5
C2 = D + G = -1 +6 = 5 C = 11 11

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C3 = E + F = 4 + 7 = 11
C4 = D + H + J – F = -1 +4 +15 -7 = 11

Strassen’s Matrix Multiplication

Strassen observed [1969] that the product of two
matrices can be computed in general as follows:
C00 C01 A00 A01 00 01 B
B
= *
C10 C11 A10 A11 B10 B11

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 M1 + M 4 - M 5 + M 7 M3 + M 5
=
M2 + M 4 M 1 + M 3 - M2 + M 6

Formulas for Strassen’s Algorithm

M1 = (A00 + A11) (B00 + B11)

M2 = (A10 + A11) B00

M3 = A00 (B01 - B11)

M4 = A11 (B10 - B00)

M5 = (A00 + A01) B11

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 M6 = (A10 - A00) (B00 + B01)

M7 = (A01 - A11) (B10 + B11)

M 4 = A11 (B10 - B00)
= 4 * (2 - 1) = 4
A00 A01 B00 B01
M5 = (A00 + A01) B11
1 1 = (1 + 2) * 2 = 6
21

3 2 M6 == (A (3 10- 1)- A * (1 + 1) = 00) (B00

42
+4 B 01)

A10 A11 B10 B11 M7 = (A01 - A11) (B10 + B11)

= (2 - 4) * (2 + 2) = -8
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M1 = (A00 + A11) (B00 + B11)
= (1 + 4) * (1+2) = 15 C00 C01

5 5
M2 = (A10 + A11) B00 M1 + M4 - M5 + M7 M3 + M5
=
= (3 + 4) * 1 = 7
11 11
M

M3 = A00 (B01 - B11) 2 + M4 M1 + M3 - M2 + M6

= 1 * (1 - 2) = -1
C10 C11
M 4 = A11 (B10 - B00)
= 4 * (1 - 5) = -16
A00 A01 B00 B01
M5 = (A00 + A01) B11

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 2 2 = (2 + 1) * 2 = 6
15

3
412 M6 == (A (3 10- 2)- A * (5 + 2) = 00) (B00 +7 B 01)

A10 A11 B10 B11 M7 = (A01 - A11) (B10 + B11)

= (1 - 4) * (1 + 2) = -9
M1 = (A00 + A11) (B00 + B11)
= (2 + 4) * (5+2) = 42 C00 C01

11 6
M2 = (A10 + A11) B00 M1 + M4 - M5 + M7 M3 + M5
=
= (3 + 4) * 5 = 35
19 14
M3 = A00 (B01 - B11) M2 + M4 M1 + M3 - M2 + M6
= 2 * (2 - 2) = 0
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 C10 C11

Solve
102 1
0101
4
1 10
A = 2104
013 0B =
20115021
1 350

A1 A2 B1 B2

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 10
21
01
0141102104

0130201150211350

A3 A4 B3 B4
1. D = A1 (B2 – B4)

0 11
1
1 0-
* 0450

41
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 1 0 -1 0
*
4 1 -5 4

-6 0
-9 4

2. E = A4 (B3 – B1)

Analysis of Strassen’s Algorithm

If n is not a power of 2, matrices can be padded with zeros.

Number of multiplications:
M(n) = 7M(n/2), M(1) = 1

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 M(n) = 7M(2 k-1)
= 7[7M(2 k-2)] = 7 2 M(2 k-2)]
= 7 k M(2 k-k)] = 7 k (1)

Solution: M(n) = 7log 2n = nlog 27 ≈ n2.807 vs. n3 of brute-force alg.

Advantages and Disadvantages

• Difficult problems is broken down into sub
problems and each sub problem is solved
independently.

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• It gives efficient algorithms like quick sort,
merge sort, streassen’s matrix multiplication.
• Sub problems can be executed on parallel
processor.
Disadvantage
• It makes use of recursive methods and the
recursion is slow and complex.

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 Decrease-and-Conquer
The decrease and conquer technique is almost similar to the
divide and conquer technique, but instead of dividing the
problem into size n/2, it is decremented by a constant or
constant factor.
There are three variations of decrease and conquer
• Decrease by a constant
• Decrease by a constant factor
• Variable size decrease
The problems can be solved either top down (recursively) or
bottom up ( without recursion)

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 Decrease by a constant
• In this type of variation, the size of an instance
is reduced by the same constant ‘1’ on each
iteration. So, if a problem is of size ‘n’ , then a
sub problem of size ‘n-1’ is solved first but
before a sub sub problem of size ‘n-2’ is solved
and so on.

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Decrease by a constant

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 1 2 n
…….
Problem of Size n

1 ……. n-1

Sub Problem of Size (n – 1)

….
(n -2)

Solution to sub problem

Solution to the Original

Problem

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 Decrease by a constant
Example: Consider a problem for computing a n
where n is a positive integer exponent Let f(n)
= a n a n = a n-1 . a = a n-2 . a . a = a n-3 . a
.a.a = a. a. a. a. . . n times
The above definition is a recursive
definition i.e, a top down approach
F(n) = f(n-1 ) . a if n> 1
Eg: Insertion sort, Depth First Search, a if n = 1
Breath First Search, Topological Sort

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 Decrease by a constant factor
• In this type of variation, the size of instance is
reduced by a constant factor on each iteration
(most of the case it is 2).
• So, if a problem of size ‘n’ is to be solved then
first the sub problem of size n/2 is to be solved
which in-turn requires the solution for the sub
sub problem n/4 and so on.

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Decrease by a constant factor

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 1 2 n
…….
Problem of Size n

1 ……. n/2

Sub Problem of Size (n / 2)

(n / 4)
---

Solution to sub problem

Solution to the Original

Problem

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 Decrease by a constant factor
Example: Consider a problem for computing an
As the problem is to be halved each time (Since
the constant factor is 2, to solve a n, first solve an/2 ,
but before solve an/4 and so on.

an = (an/2 ) 2 if n is even and > 1

(an-1/2 ) 2 if n is odd and > 1 a
if n = 1
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 Decrease by a constant factor
The efficiency of this variation i.e decrease by a
constant factor is O(log n) because, the size is
reduced by at least one half at the expense of no
more than two multiplications on each iteration

Eg: Binary search and the method of bisection,

Fake coin problem

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 Variable size decrease
In this type, the reduction in the size of the
problem instance is varied from one iteration to
another.
Eg: Euclid’s algorithm for computing GCD
of two nos.
gcd (m,n) = gcd (n, m mod n) if n> 0
m if n=0

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 Eg: Computing a median, Interpolation Search and
Binary Search Tree
DAGs and Topological Sorting
A dag: a directed acyclic graph, i.e. a directed graph with no
(directed) cycles

a b a b

a dag not a dag

c d c d

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Arise in modeling many problems that involve prerequisite
constraints (construction projects, document version control)
Vertices of a dag can be linearly ordered so that for every edge its
starting vertex is listed before its ending vertex (topological
sorting). Being a dag is also a necessary condition for topological
sorting to be possible.
Topological Sorting Example

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Order the following items in a food chain
tiger

human

fish
sheep

shrimp

plankton wheat

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 DFS-based Algorithm
DFS-based algorithm for topological sorting

– Perform DFS traversal, noting the order vertices

are popped off the traversal stack
– Reverse order solves topological sorting problem
– Back edges encountered?→ NOT a dag!
Example:

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 b a c d

e f g h

Source Removal Algorithm

Repeatedly identify and remove a source (a vertex with no
incoming edges) and all the edges incident to it until either no
vertex is left or there is no source among the remaining
vertices (not a dag)

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 a b c d

Example: 1 e f g h

Efficiency: same as efficiency of the DFS-based algorithm, but how would you
identify a source? How do you remove a source from the dag?

a d
c
b e
Example 2

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 Source Removal Algorithm
Topological Sort(G)
1. Find the indegree INDG(n) of each node n of
G.
2. Put in a queue Q all the nodes with zero
indegree.
3. Repeat step 4 and 5 until G becomes empty.

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4. Repeat the element n of the queue Q and add
it to T (Set Front = Front +1).

Source Removal Algorithm

5. Repeat the following for each neighbour, m of
the node n a) Set INDEG(m) = INDG(m)-1
b) If INDEG(m) = 0 then add m to the rear end
of the Q.
6. Exit.
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Note: For Problems refer class notes

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 MODULE – 3
GREEDY METHOD

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Greedy Method

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• Approach for Solving problem
• Used for Solving Optimization Problem
• Optimization Problem : Problems which demands
minimum/maximum results
• Example:
12 hrs Minimum cost
A B
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5……

Optimal solution Feasible solutions

There will be only one minimum solution

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 Strategies used for Optimization
Problem
• Greedy Method
• Dynamic Programming
• Branch and Bound
Greedy Technique
Greedy algorithms, construct a solution through a
sequence of steps, each step expanding a partially
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 constructed solution obtained so far, until a complete
solution to the problem is reached.

feasible -it has to satisfy the problem’s constraints

 locally optimal - it has to be the best local choice
among all feasible choices available on that step
 irrevocable - once made, it cannot be changed on
subsequent steps of the algorithm

24-08-2020 4

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General method control abstraction
Algorithm Greedy(a, n)
// a[1..n] contains the ‘n’ inputs
{
Solution := 0; //Initialize the solution
for i:= 1 to n do
{
X : = Select(a);
If Feasible(Solution, x) then
Solution:= Union(Solution, x);
}
Return Solution;
}
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 Applications of the Greedy Strategy
• Optimal solutions:
– change making for “normal” coin denominations
– minimum spanning tree (MST)
– single-source shortest paths
– simple scheduling problems
– Huffman codes

• Approximations/heuristics:
– traveling salesman problem (TSP)
– knapsack problem
– other combinatorial optimization problems

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Differences b/w Divide and conquer and greedy
Method

178
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 Change-Making Problem
• Problem Statement: Given coins of several
denominations find out a way to give a customer an
amount with fewest number of coins.
• Example: if denominations are 1,5,10, 25 and 100 and
the change required is 30, the solutions are,
• Amount : 30
• Solutions : 3 x 10 ( 3 coins )
6 x 5 ( 6 coins )
1 x 25 + 5 x 1 ( 6 coins )
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 1 x 25 + 1 x 5 ( 2 coins )
The last solution is the optimal one as it gives us change only with 2
coins.
Change-Making Problem

Given unlimited amounts of coins of denominations d1 > … >dn,

give change for amount n with the least number of coins

Example: d1 = 25c, d2 =10c, d3 = 5c, d4 = 1c and n = 48c

Greedy solution is optimal for any amount and “normal’’ set of

denominations

Solution: <1, 2, 0, 3>

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cashier’s Algorithm

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Algorithm coinchange()
//Input: Denomination d[1] > d[2] >
{25,10,1} for 30c
d*3+ … d*n+
//Amount to obtain change – C
// Output: The optimal number of
coins for change of C, is stored in
Coins[i]
for i  1 to n do
{
Coins[i] = C/d[i];
C = C mod d[i]
Print coins[i]
}

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 Change-Making Problem

For example, d1 = 25c, d2 = 10c, d3 = 1c, and n = 30c

Solution: <1, 0, 5>

May not be optimal for all denominations

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 Knapsack Problem (Fractional
knapsack problem)

Given n objects and a knapsack or bag. Object i has a

weight wi and the knapsack has a capacity m. if the
fraction Xi, 0<=Xi<=1, of object i is placed into the
knapsack, then a profit of Pi*Xi is earned.

The objective is to maximize the total profit earned.

Since the knapsack capacity is m, we require the total
weight of all chosen objects to be at most m.

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 Knapsack Problem - 1
Obtain the optimal solution for the knapsack
problem using greedy method given the
following:

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M = 15 n
=7
p1,p2,p
3,p4,p5,
p6,p7 =
10,5,15,
7,6,18,3
w1,w2,
w3,w4,
w5,w6,
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w7=
2,3,5,7,1
,4,1

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 189
There are several greedy methods to obtain the feasible solutions.

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 Profits = Solution Vector = (1, 0,1, 4/7,0,1,0)= (1, 0,1, 0.57,0,1,0)

Optimal solution using this method is (x1, x2, x3,x4,x5,x6,x7) = (1, 0,1, 0.57,0,1,0)

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with profit = 47

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Profits = Solution Vector = (1, 1,4/5,0,1,1,1)= (1, 1,0.8,0,1,1,1)
Optimal solution using this
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method is (x1, x2, x3,x4,x5,x6,x7) = (1, 1,0.8,0,1,1,1) with profit = 54
Optimal solution is not guaranteed using method 1 and 2

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 Optimal solution is (x1, x2, x3,x4,x5,x6,x7) = (1, 0.67,1,0, 1,1,1)
with profit [1*10+0.67*5+1*15+0*7+1*6+1*18+1*3]= 55.34

Profits = Solution Vector = (1, 2/3,1,0, 1,1,1)= (1, 0.67,1,0, 1,1,1)

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 Weight=[1*2+0.67*3+1*5+0*7+1*1+1*4+1*1]=15
This greedy approach always results optimal solution
Knapsack Problem (Fractional
knapsack problem)

Given n objects and a knapsack or bag. Object i has a

weight wi and the knapsack has a capacity m. if the
fraction Xi, 0<=Xi<=1, of object i is placed into the
knapsack, then a profit of Pi*Xi is earned.

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The objective is to maximize the total profit earned.
Since the knapsack capacity is m, we require the total
weight of all chosen objects to be at most m.

Knapsack problem

197
Knapsack Algorithm

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Algorithm Greedy Knapsack(m,n)
//p[1:n] and w[1:n] contain the profits and weights respectively, of the n
objects ordered such that p[i]/w[i] >= p[i+1]/w[i+1].
// m is the knapsack size and x[1:n] is the solution vector
{
for i := 1 to n do x[i] := 0.0; //Initialize x
U := m;//sack capacity for
i:=1 to n do
{ if (w[i] > U) then break; // weight of an object is greater than sack capacity
x[i] := 1.0; U:=U-w[i];
}
If(i<=n) then x[i]:=U/w[i];
}

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 Analysis: Disregarding the time to initially sort the object, each
of the above strategies use O(n) time

Problem - 2

Obtain the optimal solution for the knapsack

problem using greedy method given the
following: M=40 , n=3 w1,w2,w3 = 20,25,10
p1,p2,p2 = 30,40,35

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 Job Sequencing with Deadline

Given an array of jobs where every job has a deadline

and associated profit, the job is to be finished before
the deadline. It is also given that every job takes single
unit of time. So the minimum possible deadline for any
job is 1. the objective is to maximize total profit,
provided only one job can be scheduled at a time.
Problem 1

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For the following sequence of job, give the snapshot
of execution which will achieve maximum profit.

Jobs n= 5
p1,p2,p3,p4,p5 = 20,15,10,1,6 d1,d2,d3,d4,d5
= 2, 2, 1, 3,3

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 Problem 1

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 204
Job Sequencing with Deadline

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 Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
Spanning tree of a connected graph G: a connected acyclic
subgraph of G that includes all of G’s vertices

6 c 6 c c
a a a
4 1 1 1
4
2 2
d d d
b 3 b b 3

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 Minimum spanning tree of a weighted, connected graph G: a
spanning tree of G of the minimum total weight
Example:

6 c 6 c c

a a a
1 1 1
4 4
2 2

d d d
b b b 3
3

COST=11 COST=6

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 208
Minimum Cost spanning Tree
algorithms

• Prim’s algorithm • Kruskal’s algorithm

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MST – Prim’s algorithm

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 Efficiency
The time efficiency of depends on the data
structures used for implementing the priority
queue and for representing the input graph.
Since we have implemented using weighted
matrix and unordered array, the efficiency is
O(|V2|).

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 If we implement using adjacency list and the
priority queue for min-heap, the efficiency is
O(|E|log|V|).
Kruskal’s algorithm
Kruskal's algorithm finds MST of a weighted
connected graph G=<V,E> as an acyclic subgraph
with |V| - 1 edges. Sum of all the edges weight
should be minimum.

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The algorithm begins by sorting the graph’s edges
in increasing order of their weights.
Then it scans this sorted list starting with the
empty sub graph and it adds the next edge on the
list to the current sub graph, if such an inclusion
doesn’t create a cycle and simply skipping the
edges.

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 Time complexity
The crucial check whether two vertices belong to the same
tree can be found out using union -find algorithms.

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 Shortest paths – Dijkstra’s
algorithm
The Dijkstra’s algorithm finds the shortest path
from a given vertex to all the remaining vertices
in a diagraph.
The constraint is that each edge has nonnegative
cost. The length of the path is the sum of the costs
of the edges on the path.

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We have to find out the shortest path from a
given source vertex ‘S’ to each of the
destinations (other vertices ) in the graph.

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 Example

4
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5
 1 2 3 4
5
Initially S 0 1 0 0 0 0

1 d ∞ 1 60 100 ∞ 10
60 100
1
10 60 10
2 3 0
10
20 3
50 20 2

5 20
4 50 20
5 4
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5
 Example

4
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5
 1 2 3 4 5

S 1 0 0 0 1

1 d 1 60 100 ∞ 10
60 100
1
10 60 100
2 3
10
20 3
50 20 2

5 20
4 50 20
5 4
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5
Example

4
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5
 1 2 3 4 5

S 1 0 0 1 1

1 d 1 60 100 15 10
60 100
1
10 60 100
2 3
10
20 3
50 20 2

5 20
4 50 20
5 4
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5
 Example

4
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5
 1 2 3 4 5

S 1 0 1 1 1

1 d 1 60 35 15 10
60 100
1
10 60 100
2 3
10
20 3
50 20 2

5 20
4 50 20
5 4
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5
Example Final distance form note 1 to all other nodes

4
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 1 2 3 4 5

S 1 1 1 1 1

1 d 1 60 35 15 10
60 100
1
10 60 100
2 3
10
20 3
50 20 2

5 20
4 50 20
5 4
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5
 4
b c
3 6
Example2 a 7 2
d
d
5 4
e 4
b c
3 6
2 5
Tree vertices Remaining vertices
a d e
7
a(-,0) b(a,3) c(-,∞) d(a,7)
e(-,∞)
4
4 b c
3 6
2 5
a d e
7
b(a,3) c(b,3+4) d(b,3+2) e(-,∞)
4

d(b,5) c(b,7) e(d,5+4)

4
b c
b c
3 6
2 5 3 6
a d e 2 5
7 a d e
4

4
c(b,7) e(d,9)
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 7 4

e(d,9)

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 Dijkstra’s algorithm
Dijkstra’s( s)
// Finds shortest path from source vertex to all other vertices
//Input: Weighted connected graph G=<V,E> with nonnegative
weights and its vertices s
//Output: The length of distance of a shortest path from s to v
{
1. for i = 1 to n do // Intialize S[i] =
0;
d[i] = a[s][i];
2. S[s] = 1; //Assume 1 as the source
vertex d[s] = 1;
236
 Dijkstra’s algorithm
3. for i = 1 to n do
{
Choose a vertex u in v-s such that d[u] is
minimum
S=sꓴu
for each vertex v in v-s do d[v] = min{
d[u], d[u]+c[u,v]}
}
}
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 Key points on Dijkstra’s
algorithm
Doesn’t work for graphs with negative weights
(whereas Floyd’s algorithm does, as long as there
is no negative cycle).
Applicable to both undirected and directed graphs.

Efficiency O(|V2|) for graphs represented by weight

matrix and array implementation of priority queue

238
O(|E|log|V|) for graphs represented by adj. lists and
min-heap implementation of priority queue

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 MODULE – 4
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

Dynamic Programming
Invented by American mathematician Richard Bellman in the
1950s to solve optimization problems

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Optimization Problem : Problems which demands minimum/maximum
results

Dynamic “ means “changing” Programming”

means “planning”
Dynamic Programming is a general algorithm design technique
for solving problems with overlapping sub-problems.

Main idea:
-Solve smaller instances once.
-Record solutions in a table.
-Get solution to a larger instance from some smaller instances.
-Optimal solution for the initial instance is obtained from that table.
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 Principle of Optimality

Problems can be solved by taking sequence of

decisions to get optimal solutions

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Exam Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 243
ple: Fibonacci numbers

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Example: Fibonacci numbers

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Examples of DP algorithms

249
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 Department of ISE VIDHYA VIKAS Institute of Technology and
Mgmt

Multistage Graph
A Multi stage graph G = <V,E> which is a directed graph. In this
graph all the vertices and partitioned into K stages where
K>=2.

In multistage graph problem we have to find the shortest path

from source to sink.

The cost of each path is calculated by using the weight given

along that edge.

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In multistage graph can be solved using forward and
backward approach.

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Warshall’s Algorithm: Transitive Closure

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 Warshall’s Algorithm: Transitive
Closure

Constructs transitive closure T as the last matrix in the sequence

of n-by-n matrices R(0), … , R(k), … , R(n) where
R(k)[i,j] = 1 iff there is nontrivial path from i to j with only the first
k vertices allowed as intermediate
Note: that R(0) = A (adjacency matrix), R(n) = T (transitive closure)

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 Warshall’s Algorithm (recurrence)
On the k-th iteration, the algorithm determines for every pair of
vertices i, j if a path exists from i and j with just vertices 1,…,k
allowed as intermediate

{
R(k)[i,j] =
R(k-1)[i,j]

or
(path using just 1 ,…,k-1)

R(k-1)[i,k] and R(k-1)[k,j] (path from i to k

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 and from k to j
using just 1 ,…,k-1)
k

Initial condition?
j
Warshall’s Algorithm (matrix generation)

Recurrence relating elements R(k) to elements of R(k-1) is:

R(k)[i,j] = R(k-1)[i,j] or (R(k-1)[i,k] and R(k-1)[k,j])
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It implies the following rules for generating R(k) from R(k-1):
Rule 1 If an element in row i and column j is 1 in R(k-1),
it remains 1 in R(k)

Rule 2 If an element in row i and column j is 0 in R(k-1),

it has to be changed to 1 in R(k) if and only if the
element in its row i and column k and the element in
its column j and row k are both 1’s in R(k-1)

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 Warshall’s Algorithm (pseudocode and analysis)

Time efficiency: Θ(n3)

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 Floyd’s Algorithm: All pairs shortest paths
Problem: In a weighted (di)graph, find shortest paths between
every pair of vertices
Same idea: construct solution through series of matrices D(0), …,
D (n) using increasing subsets of the vertices allowed
as intermediate
Example:

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268
 Floyd’s Algorithm (matrix generation)

On the k-th iteration, the algorithm determines shortest paths

between every pair of vertices i, j that use only vertices among
1,…,k as intermediate
D(k)[i,j] = min {D(k-1)[i,j], D(k-1)[i,k] + D(k-1)[k,j]}

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 D(k-1)[i,k]
k
i
D(k-1)[k,j]
D(k-1)[i,j]

j
Initial condition?

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Time efficiency: Θ(n3)
Note: Works on graphs with negative edges but without negative
cycles.
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 Optimal Binary Search Tree
Binary Tree

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total number of BSTs with n nodes is given
by C(2n,n)/(n+1)

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Cost of searching any Key

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 18

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of BST-Frequencies

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 Optimal Binary Search Tree
Problem: Given n keys a1 < …< an and probabilities p1, …, pn
searching for them, find a BST with a minimum average
number of comparisons in successful search.
Since total number of BSTs with n nodes is given by C(2n,n)/(n+1),
which grows exponentially, brute force is not recommended.

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Example: What is an optimal BST for keys A, B, C, and D with
search probabilities 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.3, respectively?

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 C

B D
Average # of comparisons
= 1*0.4 + 2*(0.2+0.3) + 3*0.1
A = 1.7

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Obtain the optimal binary search tree for the
following

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(do, if, int, while) with the following
probability(0.1,0.2,0.4,0.3)

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 Knapsack Problem
Given n objects of known weights w1,w2…wn and
profit p1, p2, … pn for those n objects and a knapsack
of capacity M i.e is not exceeding the weight M. Let a
variable xi be ‘0’ if we do not select the object ‘i’ or ‘1’
if we include the object ‘i’ into the knapsack.

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The objective is to maximize the total profit earned.
Since the knapsack capacity is M, we require the
total weight of all chosen objects to be at most M.

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 Knapsack problem

For the given instances of problem obtain the

optimal solution for the knapsack problem

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The capacity of knapsack is W=5

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To find items to be selected

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 Knapsack Problem by DP (pseudocode)
Algorithm DPKnapsack(int: w[1..n], int: p[1..n], M)
int: V[0..n,0..M] for j := 0 to M do V[0,j] := 0 for
i := 0 to n do V[i,0] := 0
for i := 1 to n do
for j := 1 to M do
if w[i] j and p[i] + V[i-1,j-w[i]] > V[i-1,j] then
V[i,j] := p[i] + V[i-1,j-w[i]];
else
V[i,j] := V[i-1,j];
return V[n,M]

Running time and space: O(nW).

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 310
 Memory Function Knapsack
Example: Knapsack of capacity M = 5
item weight value
1 2 $8
2 1 $6
3 3 $16
4 2 $11 capacity j
0 1 2 3 4 5
00 0 0 0 0 0
0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 w1 = 2, p1= 8
1 w2 = 1, p2= 6 2 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -
1
0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

311
w3 = 3, p3= 16 3 w4 = 2, p4= 11 4 Department of ISEDepartment of
ISE0 - 1 -1 VIDHYA VIKAS Institute of Technology and Mgmt-VIDHYA VIKAS
Institute of Technology and Mgmt1 -1 -1 ?

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Department of ISE
 Memory Function Knapsack

i=4, j=5, p[i]=11, wi =2

J-wi = 5-2 = 3 ( able to fit into knapsack)
Find V[4,5] = max{ mfk[i-1,j], p[i] + mfk[i-1, j-wi]}
= max{ mkf(3,5), 11+mfk(3,3)}
= max{ ---------, 11+ -------)}
Find V[3,5] = max{ mkf(2,5), 16+mfk(2,2)}
= max{ --------, 16+ -----------}
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Department of ISE
 Memory Function Knapsack
Find V[3,3] = max{ mfk[i-1,j], p[i] + mfk[i-1, j-wi]}
= max{ mkf(2,3), 16+mfk(2,0)} =
max{ ----, 16+ -----)} Find V[2,5] = max{
mkf(1,5), 6+mfk(1,4)} = max{ --------,
6+ -----------} Find V[2,2] = max{ mkf(1,2),
6+mfk(1,1)} = max{ --------, 6 + -------
----}

Find V[2,3] = max{ mkf(1,3), 6+mfk(1,2)}

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Department of ISE
 = max{ --------, 6 + -----------}
Find V[1,5] = max{ mkf(0,5), 8+mfk(0,3)}
= max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8
Find V[1,4] = max{ mkf(0,4), 8+mfk(0,2)} =
max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8 Back
Substitute
Find V[1,2] = max{ mkf(0,2), 8+mfk(0,0)} these
values
= max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8
Find V[1,3] = max{ mkf(0,3), 8+mfk(0,0)}
= max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8
Find V[1,1] = max{ mkf(0,1)} = 0

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Department of ISE
Find V[2,3] = max{ mkf(1,3), 6+mfk(1,2)}
= max{ 8, 6 + 8} = 14
Find V[1,5] = max{ mkf(0,5), 8+mfk(0,3)}
= max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8
Find V[1,4] = max{ mkf(0,4), 8+mfk(0,2)} =
max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8 Back
Substitute
Find V[1,2] = max{ mkf(0,2), 8+mfk(0,0)} these
values
= max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8
Find V[1,3] = max{ mkf(0,3), 8+mfk(0,0)}
= max{ 0 , 8 + 0} = 8
Find V[1,1] = max{ mkf(0,1)} = 0
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Department of ISE
 Memory Function Knapsack
Find V[3,3] = max{ mfk[i-1,j], p[i] + mfk[i-1, j-wi]}
= max{ mkf(2,3), 11+mfk(2,0)} =
max{ 14 , 16+ 0)} = 16 Find V[2,5] = max{
mkf(1,5), 6+mfk(1,4)} = max{ 8, 6+ 8}
= 14 Find V[2,2] = max{ mkf(1,2), 6+mfk(1,1)}
= max{ 8, 6 + 0} = 8

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Department of ISE
 Memory Function Knapsack
V[i,j] = max{ mfk[i-1,j], p[i] + mfk[i-1, j-wi]} i=4,
j=5, p[i]=11, wi =2 J-wi = 5-2 = 3 ( able to fit
into knapsack) Find V[4,5] = max{ mfk[i-1,j],
p[i] + mfk[i-1, j-wi]} = max{
mkf(3,5), 11+mfk(3,3)} = max{ 24 ,
11+ 16)} = 27 Find V[3,5] = max{ mkf(2,5),
16+mfk(2,2)} = max{ 14, 16+ 8} =
24

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Department of ISE
 Memory Function Knapsack
Example: Knapsack of capacity M = 5
item weight value
1 2 $8
2 1 $6
3 3 $16
4 2 $11 capacity j
0 1 2 3 4 5
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 0 8 8 8 8 w1 = 2, p1= 8 1
w2 = 1, p2= 6 2 0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 -1 8 14 -1 14
0 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 -1 -1 16 -1 24
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w3 = 3, p3= 16 3
w4 = 2, p4= 11 4 0 - 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 ? 0 -1 -1 -1
-1 27

Memory Function Knapsack Algo.

ALGORITHM MFKnapsack(i, j) //Implements the memory function method for
the knapsack problem //Input: A nonnegative integer i indicating the number
of the first // items being considered and a nonnegative integer j indicating //
the knapsack capacity //Output: The value of an optimal feasible subset of the
first i items //Note: Uses as global variables input arrays Weights[1..n],
Values[1..n], //and table V[0..n, 0..W]whose entries are initialized with −1’s
except for //row 0 and column 0 initialized with 0’s if V[i, j]< 0

320
 if j<Weights[i] = value←MFKnapsack(i −1,j)
else value←max,MFKnapsack(i −1, j),
values[i]+MFKnapsack(i −1,
j−Weights*i+)- V[i, j+←value
return V[i, j]
MODULE – 5

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VIKAS Institute of Technology and Mgmt 321
 BACKTRACKING

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322
 Backtracking
Backtrack’ the Word was first introduced by Dr. D.H. Lehmer in
1950s.
• R.J Walker Was the First man who gave algorithmic description in
1960.
• Later developed by S. Golamb and L. Baumert.

Backtracking technique resembles a depth-first – search in

a directed graph. The graph concerned here is usually a
tree, the aim of backtracking is to search the state space
tree systematically. The aim of the search is to find
solutions to some problems.

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 What is Backtracking?

When the search begins, solution to the problem is unknown.

Each move along an edge of the tree corresponds to adding a new
element to a partial solution, that is to narrowing down the
remaining possibilities for a complex solution.

The search is successful if, a solution can be completely defined.

At this stage an algorithm may terminate or it may continue for
an alternative solution.
The search is unsuccessful if at some stage the partial solution
constructed so far cannot be completed. In this case the search
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backtracks like a depth first search, removing elements that
were added at each stage.
State Space Tree

In state space tree, root represents an initial state before the search
for a solution begins. The nodes of the first level in the tree
represent the choice made for the first component of a solution, the
nodes of the second level represent the choices for the second
components, and so on. A node in a state space tree is said to be
promising if it corresponds to a partially constructed solution that
may lead to a complete solution; otherwise a node is said to be non
promising.

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 326
N-Queen Problem

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N Queen Problem

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 329
 Constraints
Explicit Constraints: All ‘n’ queens must be placed on the
chessboard in the columns 1,2,3, …. N. Xi belongs to S where S =
{1,2,3, …. N }

Implicit Constraints: In this all Xi Values must be distinct

No two queens can be on the same row
No two queens can be on the same column
No two queens can be on the same diagonal

Horizontal Attack:
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Row wise attacking is avoided by placing 1st queen in
1st row, 2nd queen in 2nd row and so on.
By placing ith queen in ith row, horizontal attacking can
be avoided

Vertical Attack:
(i, x[i]) means the position of ith queen in row i and
column x[i]

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(k, x[k]) means the position of kth queen in row k and
column x[k]
If ith & kth queen are in same column then
X[i] == x[k] --------------- (1)
Hence indicate that queens attack vertically
Q1 (1,1) & (4,1) x[i] == x[k] to be avoided

Q4
Diagonal Attack:

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Top left corner to bottom right corner: The
difference between row value and column value is
same.
1,1 1,3 1,4
(1,3) & (2,4) |i - x[i]| = |k - x[k]|-------(2) to be
1,2
avoided
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4

3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 Diagonal Attack:

4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4
Top right corner to bottom left corner:
The difference between row value and column value is
same.
1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4

2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4

3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4

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 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4

(1,3) & (3,1) i + x[i] = k + x[k] ------(3) to be

avoided
Using eqn. (2) and (3)
i – k = x[i] - x[k] -----------------(4)
i – k = - x[i] + x[k] ----------------(5)

|i – k| = |x[i] - x[k]| indicates queens attack diagonally.

X[i] == x[k] || abs(i –k) = abs(x[i] – x[k])  two queens
attack each other and cannot be placed.

Algorithm

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 335
State Space Tree for 4 Queens

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Two Solutions of 4 Queen Problem

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 Hamiltonian Cycle
Hamiltonian Path in an undirected graph is a path that visits each vertex exactly
once. A Hamiltonian cycle (or Hamiltonian circuit) is a Hamiltonian Path such that
there is an edge (in graph) from the last vertex to the first vertex of the Hamiltonian
Path. Determine whether a given graph contains Hamiltonian Cycle or not. If it
contains, then print the path. Following are the input and output of the required
function.
Input:
A 2D array graph[V][V] where V is the number of vertices in graph and graph[V][V]
is adjacency matrix representation of the graph. A value graph[i][j] is 1 if there is a
direct edge from i to j, otherwise graph[i][j] is 0.
Output:
An array path[V] that should contain the Hamiltonian Path. path[i] should
represent the ith vertex in the Hamiltonian Path. The code should also return false
if there is no Hamiltonian Cycle in the graph.

Example 2
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Example

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 343
Hamiltonian Cycle
X[1] =1 X[2] = 0 X[3]=0 X[4]=0

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1 2
1

2 3 4
4 3
3 2 4 3

Dead end
4 2

1 1

Solution Solution

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 346
for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) x[i] = 0; x[1] = 1;
void HamiltonianMethod(int k) { while (true) { 1
NextValue(k, G, x, n); if (x[k] == 0) return; if (k ==
n) { for (int i = 1; i <= k; i++) 2 3 4
System.out.print(x[i] + " ");
System.out.println(x[1]);
3 2 4 3
System.out.println(); found = true;
return; Dead end
} else 4 2
HamiltonianMethod(k + 1);
}
} 1
1

Solution
Hamiltonian Cycle void
NextValue(int k, int G[][], int x[], int n) {
while
(true) {

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 Enter the number of the vertices: 4 x[k]
= (x[k] + 1) % (n + 1);
if
(x[k] == 0)
If edge between the following vertices
return; enter 1 else 0: if (G[x[k - 1]][x[k]] != 0) {
1 and 2: 1 int
j;
1 and 3: 1
for (j = 1; j < k; j++)
1 and 4: 1 if
(x[k] == x[j])
2 and 3:
break;
1 if (j == k)
2 and 4: 0
if ((k < n) || ((k == n) && G[x[n]][x[1]] != 0))
3 and 4: 1
return;
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}
Solution:
}
12341
}

14321

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 1

2 3 4

3 2 4 3

Dead end
4 2

1 1

Solution Solution

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Sum of subsets
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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 352
Sum of subsets

Sum of Subsets
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Find a subset of a given set S= {S1, S2, S3, S4, ------ Sn}
Of n +ve integers whose sum is equal to given +ve integer d subject
to the constrains
1. Implicit: All Xi values should be distinct and should belong to
the set S
2. Explicit: optimal solution be = d
Xi of the solution vector is either 1 or 0 depending on weather the
weight Wi is included or not.

For a node at level i, the left child corresponds to Xi = 1

and the right child to Xi = 0
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The bounding function X[X1, X2, X3, -----Xn] = true iff

X1, X2, -----Xk cannot lead to an promising node if this

condition is not satisfied.

The bounding function can be strengthened if we assume

that Wi’s are initially in increasing order.
In this case X1 – Xk can not lead to promising node if
X[X1, X2, X3, -----Xn] = true iff

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X1, X2, -----Xk cannot lead to an promising node if this
condition is not satisfied.
Therefore the bounding function will be

State space tree

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 0, 1, 21

X1=1 X1=0

3, 2, 18 0, 2, 18

X2=1 X2=0

8, 3, 13 3, 3, 13

X3=1 X3=0 X3=1 X3=0

14, 4, 7 8, 4, 7 9, 4, 7 3, 4, 7

X4=1
15, 5, 0
Solution

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Sum of subsets

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Sum of subsets

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Sum of subsets

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 Coding
for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++)
sum = sum + S[i]; if
(sum < d || S[1] > d)
System.out.println("No Subset possible");
else
SumofSub(0, 0, sum);
static void SumofSub(int i, int weight, int total) {
if (promising(i, weight, total) == true) if (weight
== d) { for (int j = 1; j <= i; j++) { if (soln[j] == 1)
Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 361
System.out.print(S[j] + " ");
}
System.out.println();
} else { soln[i
+ 1] = 1;
SumofSub(i + 1, weight + S[i + 1], total - S[i + 1]); soln[i
+ 1] = 0;
SumofSub(i + 1, weight, total - S[i + 1]);
}
}

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static boolean promising(int i, int weight, int
total) { return ((weight + total >= d) && (weight
== d || weight + S[i + 1] <= d));
Graph Coloring

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Graph Coloring

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Graph Coloring

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 Branch and Bound
The term Branch means the way in which we search the
state space tree and Bound means assigning bounding
function at each node. This bounding function is used to
prevent the expansion of nodes that cannot possibly lead
to an answer node.

Basically there are two methods used in branch and

bound technique.
1. FIFO based Branch & Bound

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2. In this method, the live node form a queue (FIFO
Structure) & each live node will be taken from the
queue and next live node is selected.
Branch and Bound

Least Cost Branch and Bound

At each node, an intelligent ranking function is used to
assign a value to that node. The next live node is
selected on the basis of the least cost.

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Travelling sales man problem, a sales man must visit n
cities. The sales man visits each city exactly once and
comes back to the starting city.

The travelling sales man problem is minimization problem

and hence we require to find the lower bound.

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Example 1
Assignment Problem : given n jobs <j1,j2,--- jn> and n persons
<p1,p2,p3 ---pn>, it is required to assign all n jobs to all n persons
with the constraint that one job has to be assigned to one person
and the cost involved in completing all the jobs should be minimum.
J1 J2 j3 j4
A 9 2 7 8
B 6 4 3 7
C 5 8 1 8
D 7 6 9 4

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Example 1
J1 J2 j3 j4 minimum in each row
Take
A 9 2 7 28
B 6 4 3 37
C 5 8 1 18
D 7 6 9 44

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Example 1
10
a  J1 a  J2 a  J3 a  J4
a 9 2 7 8
b 3 3 4 3
c 8 5 5 5
d 4 4 4 6
24 14 20 22

J1 J2 J3 J4 minimum in each row

Take

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Example 1
A 9 2 7 28
B 6 4 3 37

C 5 8 1 18
4
D 7 6 9 4
10
b  J1 b  J3 b  J4
a 2 2 2
b 6 3 7
c 1 5 1
d 4 4 7
13 14 17

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Example 1
J1 J2 J3 J4 minimum in each row
Take
A 9 2 7 28
B 6 4 3 37
C 5 8 1 18
D 7 6 9 44

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Example 1

C  J3 C  J4 C  J4

a 2 2 a 2

b 6 6 b 6

c 1 8 c 1

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Example 1
d d 10
4 9 4
13 25 13

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Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 380
 Example 2
J1 J2 j3 j4
A 10 3 8 9
B 7 5 4 8
C 6 9 2 9
D 8 7 10 5

Knapsack Problem
Knapsack Problem: Given n items of known weights wi and values vi, i=1, 2, . . . ,
n,and a knapsack of capacity W, find the most valuable subset of the items that
fit in the knapsack. It is convenient to order the items of a given instance in
descending order by their value-to-weight ratios. Then the first item gives the

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best payoff per weight unit and the last one gives the worst payoff per weight
unit

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First arrange in V/W in decreasing order
Since it is a
maximization problem.
The upper bound is calculated
using the function

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i =0 , v=0, w=0 v i+1/wi+1 = 10 Ub
= 0 + (10) 10 = 100

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 w=0. v=0

Ub = 100

With item 1 Without item 1

i =1, w=4. v=40, v i+1/wi+1 =i =1,
6 w=0. v=0, v i+1/wi+1 = 6

Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 )Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 )

= 40 + 6. 6 = 0 + 10 . 6
= 76 = 60

With item 2 With out item 2

i =2, w=7. v=42, v i+1/wi+1 = 5 i =2, w=0+4. v=40+0, v i+1/wi+1 =
5
Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 )
= 42 + (10 – 11) . 5 Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 )
= Not Feasible = 40 + 6. 5
= 70

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 w=0. v=0

Ub = 100

With item 3 Without item 3 i =3, w=4+0.

i =3, w=5+4. v=40+25, v i+1/wi+1 = 4 v=40+0, v i+1/wi+1 = 4

Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 ) Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 )

= 65 + 1. 4 = 40 + 6 . 4
= 69 = 64

With item 4 i With out item 4 i =4, w=0+9.

=4, w=9+3 =12. v=65+0, v i+1/wi+1 = 1

Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 ) Ub = v + (W-w)(v i+1/wi+1 )

= Not Feasible = 65 + 1. 1
= 66

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 w=0. v=0

Ub = 100

With item 1 Without item 2

i =1, w=4. v=40, v i+1/wi+1 = 6 i =1, w=0. v=0, v i+1/wi+1 = 6
= 76 = 60

With item 2 With out item 2

i =2, w=7. v=42, v i+1/wi+1 = 5 i =2, w=0+4. v=40+0, v i+1/wi+1 = 5
= Not Feasible = 70

With item 3 Without item 3

i =3, w=5+4. v=40+25, v i+1/wi+1 = 4 i =3, w=4+0. v=40+0, v i+1/wi+1 = 4
= 69 = 64

With item 4 With out item 4

i =4, w=9+3 =12. i =4, w=0+9. v=65+0, v i+1/wi+1 = 0
Not Feasible = 65
Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 387
 Travelling Sales Person
Problem
4
a d
1 In the travelling sales man problem, a sales man must visit n
cities. The sales man visits each city exactly once and comes
3 2
back to the starting city.
1 The travelling sales man problem is minimization problem
b c
5 and hence we require to find the lower bound.
Lower bound = lb = S / 2;
Where S = [Va+ Vb+Vc+Vd]
Va = sum of distances from vertex a to the nearest
vertices 1 + 3 = 4
Vb = 1+3 = 4

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 Vc = 1+2= 3
Vd = 1+2 = 3
Lb = [4 +4 +3+3] / 2 = 14 / 2 = 7
Now find, a  b = (3+1)+(3+1)+(1+2)+(1+2)
= 14/ 2 = 7 a  c = (1+3)+(3+1)+(1+2)+(1+2)
= 14/ 2 = 7 a  d =
(4+1)+(1+3)+(1+2)+(4+1) = 17/2 = 8
Start
Lb=7

a –> b a–>c a –> d

Lb=7 Lb=7 Lb=8

Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technolog 389

Now find, b  c = (3+1)+(5+1)+(5+1)+(1+2)
= 19/ 2 = 9 b  d = (1+3)+(1+3)+(1+2)+(1+2)
= 14/ 2 = 7 c  b = (1+3)+(5+1)+(5+1)+(1+2)
= 19/2 = 9 c  d = (1+3)+(3+1)+(2+1)+(2+1)
= 14/ 2 = 7

Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 390

 Start
Lb=7

a –> b a–>c a –> d

Lb=7 Lb=7 Lb=8

b –> c c –> b c –> d

b–>d
Lb=9 Lb=9 Lb=7
Lb=7
Now find,
d  c = (1+3)+(1+3)+(2+1)+(1+2) = 14/2 = 7
d  b = (1+3)+(1+3)+(1+2)+(1+2) = 14/2 = 7

Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technolog 391

c  a = (1+3)+(1+3)+(1+2)+(1+2) = 14/2 = 7 b
 a = (3+1)+(3+1)+(1+2)+(1+2) = 14/2 = 7

Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technology 392

 Thank you

24-08-2020

Department of ISE Vidhya Vikas Institute of Technolog 393