1.

ELECTROSTATICS

1.1 Introduction

Electrostatics is the study of static charges. In this topic we discuss Gauss’ law, which is
normally used instead of Coulomb’s law to determination the electric field due to a
symmetric continuous charge distribution. We then apply Gauss’ law in the determination of
capacitance.

1.2 Electric Flux

Consider a plane rectangular surface of area A in a uniform electric vector field E having
constant magnitude E and the same direction at each point on the surface. The surface is
oriented such that the direction of the electric field is perpendicular to the surface as shown in
figure 1.1.

E
A

Figure 1.1

The electric flux  E through the surface is then defined as the product of the magnitude of
the electric field and the area of the surface

 E  EA (1)

 
The SI unit of electric flux is newton-metre-squared per coulomb Nm2 C . For a uniform
electric field which is not perpendicular to the rectangular surface, the electric flux is given
by

 E  EA cos (2)

where  is the angle between the electric field vector E and the unit vector eˆA
perpendicular/normal to the surface (also known as the unit normal to the surface). This is as
shown in fig. 1.2. According to equation (2), the electric flux has the values  E  EA,  E  0
and  E   EA , for   0 ,   90 and   180 , respectively. The direction of eˆA is given by the
right hand grip rule: That is, if the figures of the right hand are curved in the direction in
which the boundary of a surface is traversed (which is conventionally taken to be the anti-
clockwise direction), the thumb points in the direction of the unit normal to the surface eˆA .

1
 eˆ A


E

A
A

Figure 1.2

The surface of area A  A cos is the projection (effective area) of the rectangular surface on
to the plane perpendicular to the electric field. Equation (2) may also be written as a dot
(scalar) product

 E  E  eˆA A  E  A (3)

Equations (1) – (3) above apply for the electric flux of a uniform electric field through a
planar (flat) open surface. For an open surface S having an arbitrary shape in either a uniform
or non-uniform electric field E , the net (total) electric flux through the surface is defined as a
surface integral

 E   E  dA (4)
S

where E  dA is the electric flux through an infinitesimal surface element dA . For a closed
surface S , such as the surface of a rectangular box, sphere, or cylinder, the net electric flux
through the surface is written as

 E   E  dA (5)
S

1.3 Electric Flux due to a Point Charge

Consider a point charge Q placed at the centre of a spherical surface having radius r . To
determine the net electric flux through the spherical surface, we note, from Coulomb’s law,
that on the surface of sphere, the electric field E (electric force per unit charge) due to the
point charge is

Fe 1  Qqo  Q
E   eˆr   eˆr (6)

qo qo  4 o r 
2
4 o r 2

where qo is a small positive test charge, eˆr is a unit vector in the direction of E which points
radially outwards, and  o is the permittivity of free space given by

 o  8.85 1012 C 2 Nm2 (7)

2
For an infinitesimal surface element dA of the spherical surface, the unit normal to the surface
is eˆr , as shown in figure 1.3.

z
E
r si
n d
eˆr
r rd r sin  d
d

Q y

x

Figure 1.3

From the diagram, we see that the magnitude of the surface element is dA  r 2 sin  d d , and
consequently,

dA  eˆr dA  eˆr r 2 sin  d d (8)

Using equations (6) and (8), the integrand in equation (5) becomes

E  dA  eˆr
4 o r
Q
2 
 eˆr r 2 sin  d d   Q
4 o
sin  d d (9)

which is the electric flux through the surface element. The net electric flux through the closed
spherical surface is then given by
 2
Q
E 
4 o  sin  d  d
0 0

 Q   2
E     cos  0  0
 4 o 

Q
E  (10)
o

The electric flux through the spherical surface due to a point charge may also be obtained by
noting that for a point charge, the electric field points radially outwards as does the unit
normal to the surface. Consequently, the integrand in equation (5) becomes

E  dA   eˆr E    eˆr dA  EdA (11)

On the closed spherical surface of radius r , the electric field E due to the point charge Q has a
constant magnitude E give according to Coulomb’s law by

3
 Q
E (12)
4 o r 2

Applying equation (11) in (5) gives

 E   E  dA   EdA  E  dA (13)
S S S

Further for a spherical surface,

 2
 dA  A  r  sin  d  d  4 r
2 2
(14)
S 0 0

where A is the area of the spherical surface. Using equations (12) and (14) in (13) gives the
net electric flux through the spherical surface as

 Q 
E  
 4 r 2 
4 r 2  
 o 

Q
E  (15)
o

which is the same as the result obtained in equation (10) through integration of the electric
field over the closed spherical surface.

1.4 Gauss’ Law

Gauss’ law states that the total (net) electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the ratio
Qencl  o where Qencl is the net charge enclosed by the surface and  o is the permittivity of free
space. Mathematically Gauss’ law is given by

Qencl
 E   E  dA  (16)
S
o

where E is the net electric field due to all charges inside and outside the closed surface.
Gauss’ law is a consequence of Coulomb’s law. It is however easier to apply in the
determination of electric fields due to symmetrical charge distributions. To apply Gauss’ law,
the closed surface (also known as the gaussian surface) is chosen such that the following
conditions are satisfied:

1. The magnitude E of the electric field E over the gaussian surface is either constant
or zero.
2. The direction of the electric field E is either parallel or perpendicular to that of the
unit normal n̂ of an infinitesimal surface element dA of the gaussian surface such

4
 that the flux through the surface element is E  dA  EdA cos0  EdA or
E  dA  EdA cos90  0 respectively, as illustrated in figure 1.4.

E
dA dA

E  dA  EdA E  dA  0

Figure 1.4

1.4.1 Electric Field due to a Charged Non-conduction Sphere

Consider a non-conducting sphere having radius a , which is charged by rubbing to attain a

total charge Q which is uniformly distributed throughout the sphere. Gauss’ law can be used
to determine the electric field inside the sphere. Since the problem has spherical symmetry, a
spherical gaussian surface of radius r  a is used inside the charged sphere as shown in figure
1.5.





 r

 
a



Figure 1.5

On the spherical gaussian surface the electric field E has a constant magnitude E , it is directed
radially outwards and is therefore perpendicular to the gaussian surface. Therefore the
electric flux through a surface element of the gaussian surface is E  dA  EdA . The net electric
flux through the entire gaussian surface is

 E   E  dA   EdA  E  dA  E 4 r 2   ra (17)

S S S

The total charge enclosed by the gaussian surface Qencl is a fraction of the total charge Q
of the sphere and is given by
 Vgs 
Qencl  Q  
 Vsphere 
 

5
where Vgs and Vsphere is the volume of the gaussian surface and of the charged sphere
respectively. Consequently
 4 r 3   4 a3 
Qencl  Q 
 3   
   3 

Qr 3
Qencl  (18)
a3

Using equations (17) and (18) in (16) yields


E 4 r 2  Qr 3
 o a3
Subsequently
 Q 
E  ra
 4 a3 
r (19)
 o 

Thus the magnitude of the electric field inside a charged non-conducting sphere varies
linearly with radial distance r . Note also that at the centre of the sphere E  0 . To determine
the electric field outside the charged sphere, again from symmetry considerations, a spherical
gaussian surface having radius r  a is used as illustrated in figure 1.6.





 r

a  



Figure 1.6

Since on the spherical gaussian surface the electric field E has a constant magnitude E and is
perpendicular to the surface, the net electric flux through the entire gaussian surface is

 E   E  dA  E 4 r 2   r a (20)
S

However, in this case, the total charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is the same as the
total charge of the sphere. That is

Qencl  Q (21)

6
Using equations (20) and (21) in (16) then gives


E 4 r 2   Q
o

and the magnitude of the electric field outside the charged sphere is therefore given by

Q
E r a (22)
4 o r 2

Thus the magnitude of the electric field outside a uniformly charged non-conducting sphere
varies as that due to a point charge located at the centre of the sphere. Graphically, the
electric field, inside and outside the charged sphere, varies in magnitude as shown in figure
1.7.
E

Q
Emax 
4 o a 2
Er E  r 2

r
O a
Figure 1.7

1.4.2 Electric Field due to an Infinite Line of Charge

Consider a line of positive charge having infinite length and constant linear charge density
(i.e. charge per unit length)  . Due to the infinite length of the wire, the electric field E is
directed radially outwards and is perpendicular to the line of charge. Since this problem has
cylindrical symmetry, a cylindrical gaussian surface having radius r and finite length l , and
which is coaxial with the line of charge, is used to determine the magnitude E electric field.
This is shown in figure 1.8.

r

 E
l  dA




Figure 1.8

7
On the curved part of the cylindrical gaussian surface, the electric field E has a constant
magnitude E and is parallel to the surface element dA and therefore E  dA  EdA . On the flat
top and bottom parts of the gaussian surface however, the electric field is perpendicular to the
unit normal to the surface and E  dA  0 . Therefore only the curved part of the gaussian
surface contributes to the electric flux. The net electric flux through the gaussian surface is

 E   E  dA   EdA  E  dA  E  2 rl  (23)
S S S

where A  2 rl is the area of the curved surface. The net charge enclosed by the gaussian
surface is

Qencl  l (24)

Using equations (23) and (24) in (16) gives

l
E  2 rl  
o

Rearranging this equation, we get the magnitude of electric field due to an infinite line of
charge as

E (25)
2 o r

Equation (25) also gives the magnitude of the electric field at a distance r close to a finite (i.e.
short) line of charge.

1.4.3 Electric Field due to an Infinite Charged Plane

For an infinite plane of positive charge having a uniform surface charge density (i.e. charge
per unit area)  , the electric field E is perpendicular to the plane. The magnitude of the
electric field can be determined using either a cylindrical or rectangular gaussian surface as
shown in figure 1.9.

  
E
 
dA  E
dA
 


Figure 1.9

8
Since the electric field is perpendicular to the plane of charge, only the flat top and bottom
parts of the cylindrical gaussian surface contribute to the total electric flux. The net flux
through the gaussian surface is therefore

 E   E  dA  2  EdA  2 E  dA  2 EA (26)
S S S

where  dA  A is the area of each of the flat ends of the gaussian cylindrical surface. The net
S
charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is

Qencl   A (27)

Applying Gauss’ law [equation (16)] gives

A
2 EA 
o

The magnitude of the electric field due to the infinite plane of charge is therefore


E (28)
2 o

This expression does not depend on the distance from the plane. Equation (28) also applies to
the magnitude of the electric field due to a finite plane of charge for distances close to the
charged plane.

1.5 Electrostatic Equilibrium

Consider an uncharged conductor placed in an external electric field E as shown in figure

1.10.

Figure 1.10

The conductor contains free electrons that are able to move in the direction opposite to that of
the electric field. Consequently, after a short while, regions of negative and positive charge
form on the surface of the conductor as shown in figure 1.11. These charges give rise to an
internal electric field Eint which opposes the external field E . When the magnitude of the
internal electric field becomes equal to that of the external field, the net electric field inside
the conductor is zero. The flow of charge inside the conductor ceases. The conductor is then
said to be in electrostatic equilibrium.

9
  
E

Eint
 

 

Figure 1.11

Consider an isolated positively charged conductor having arbitrary shape, which is in

electrostatic equilibrium. Which means that the net electric field inside the charged conductor
is zero and that there is no net flow of charge in the conductor. Suppose a gaussian surface is
drawn inside the charged conductor as shown in figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12

Since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, the net flux through the gaussian surface
is zero and we conclude from Gauss’ law that the net charge enclosed by the gaussian surface
is also zero. Since the gaussian surface can be taken to be arbitrarily close to the surface of
the conductor, we conclude that all the net charge must reside (i.e. be located) on the surface
of the conductor itself as shown in figure 1.13.
 
 
 
 
 

   
Figure 1.13

Because the excess charge on the surface of the conductor is stationary, the component of the
electric field along the surface of the conductor is zero which implies that the electric field is
perpendicular to the surface of the conductor. The charge distribution depends of the
curvature of the surface – the greater the curvature, the greater the concentration of the
charges.

10
In summary, a charged conductor in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties:

1. The electric field inside the conductor is zero, even in the presence of an external
electric field.
2. There is no net flow of charge inside the conductor, since the internal electric field is
zero.
3. All the excess charge resides on the surface of the conductor in accordance with
Gauss’ law.
4. There is no net flow of charge on the surface of the conductor, since the electric field
outside is perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
5. The surface charge density increases with increase in curvature of the surface of the
conductor.

1.5.1 Electric Field due to a Charged Conductor

Gauss’ law can be used to determine the magnitude of the electric field outside a positively
charged conductor, having arbitrary shape, in electrostatic equilibrium. A small cylindrical
gaussian surface is drawn perpendicular to the surface of the conductor. The top flat end of
the gaussian surface is close to the conductor surface while the bottom flat end is inside the
conductor as shown in figure 1.14.

 
 
 
 
 

   

Figure 1.14

The total charge Qencl enclosed by the gaussian surface is

Qencl   A (29)

where  is the surface charge density and A is the area of the flat ends of the gaussian
cylinder. At electrostatic equilibrium, the electric field inside the conductor is zero. Outside
the conductor, the electric field is perpendicular to both the surface of the conductor and the
top flat end of the gaussian surface, but it is parallel to the curved part of the gaussian surface.
Therefore only the top flat end of the gaussian surface contributes to the total electric flux
thus

 E   E  dA   EdA  E  dA  EA (30)
S S S

11
Consequently from Gauss’ law [equation (16)]

A
EA 
o

Therefore the electric field close to an arbitrarily shaped charged conductor has a magnitude


E (31)
o

1.5.2 Electric Field due to a Charged Spherical Conductor

For a positively charged sphere having radius a , the surface charge density is given by

Q
 (32)
4 a 2

where Q is the total charge of the sphere. At electrostatic equilibrium, all the excess charge
resides on the surface of the sphere and the electric field inside the sphere is zero. Outside the
sphere, the electric field is perpendicular to the surface of the sphere and is pointed radially
outwards. Close to the surface of the sphere, the electric field has a magnitude given from
equations (31) and (32) as

Q
E (33)
4 o a 2

which is the same as that of a point charge Q located at the centre of the sphere. At a distance
r from the centre of the sphere, where r  a , applying Gauss’s law, the electric field due to
the charged conductor is given by

Q
E r a (34)
4 0 r 2

which is similar to equation (22) for the electric field outside a non-conduction sphere. Thus
the electric field due to a charged spherical conductor varies with radial distance as shown in
1.15.

Q
Emax 
4 o a 2

E  r 2

E 0 r
O a
Figure 1.15

12
1.6 Capacitance

The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude Q of the charge
stored on each plate of the capacitor to the magnitude V of the potential difference between
the two plates

Q
C (35)
V

The SI unit for capacitance is the coulomb per volt  C V  or the farad ( F ) where 1F  1C V .
However, most practical capacitors have capacitance in the range of microfarads (  F ) ,
nanofarads (nF ) , and picofarads ( pF ) where 1 F  1106 F , 1nF  1109 F and
1 pF  11012 F .

1.6.1 Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor having two plates of area A , separated by distance d .The
capacitor is connected to a battery having emf  .

Q Q

e A
a
b


 

Figure 1.16

In the circuit, electrons flow from the negative terminal of the battery to one plate, which
acquires a negative charge  Q , while electrons move to the positive terminal of the battery
from the other plate, which acquires a positive charge  Q . The work done by the battery in
moving the charge is stored in the form of the electric field E which is set up between the
plates. A potential difference V then exists between the plates. The capacitor is fully
charged when the potential difference between the plates has a magnitude equal to that of the
emf of the battery. For a parallel-plate capacitor in which the distance of separation is small
compared to the length and width of the plates, the electric field is uniform and is
perpendicular to the plates. The electric field E due to the first plate points away from the
plate, while the electric field E due to the second plate points towards the plate. Close to the

13
plates, the electric fields due to the plates have the same magnitude, which is given from
equation (28) as


E  E  (36)
2 o

where   Q A is the magnitude of the surface charge density of the charged planes. No
electric field exists behind either of the plates because the electric field due to one plate
cancels the electric field due to the other plate as shown in figure 1.17.


E
 
E

a E b a b
  
E


   
   

Figure 1.17

Between the plates, the electric fields due to the two plates point in the same direction.
Consequently, the magnitude E of the net electric field E between the plates is given by


E  E  E  (37)
o

The potential difference V between the plates, which is the work done by the electric field in
moving unit positive charge from point a to point b on the first and second plates
respectively, is given by
b
W
V  Vb  Va     E  dL (38)
q0 a

Since the electric field is uniform, equation (38) yields

b b b
V    EdL cos    Edx   E  dx (39)
a a a

where dx  dL cos is the infinitesimal displacement in the direction of the electric field.
Consequently

V  Ed (40)

where the minus    sign in equation (40) indicates a decrease in electric potential in moving
from the positively charged plate to the negatively charged plate, and where d  b  a . Using
equations (37) and (40) gives the magnitude V of the potential difference V as

14
    Q 
V  Ed    d    d (41)
 o   o A 

Using equation (35) and (41), the capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor is given by

Q
C
Q d  o A

o A
C (42)
d

Thus the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the
plates and inversely proportional to the distance of separation between the plates.

Example I

A parallel-plate capacitor has an area A  2.00 104 m2 and a plate separation d  1.00mm .
Determine its capacitance.

Solution

From equation (42) we have

 4
o A m2 
C
d

 8.85  1012 C 2 Nm2   211010 3 
m 


 1.77 1012 F  1.77 pF

1.6.2 Cylindrical Capacitor

A cylindrical capacitor consists of a conducting wire of radius a carrying a positive charge

 Q and which is coaxial with a cylindrical conducting shell, of negligible thickness, having
radius b , where b  a , and carrying negative charge  Q . The length of the capacitor is L .

b a

E
L
Q Q

Figure 1.18

15
According to Gauss’ law and the superposition principle, only the conducting wire
contributes to the electric field E in the region between the conducting wire and the
conducting shell. Since the net charge on the capacitor is zero, the electric field outside the
capacitor is also zero. Assuming that the distance between the wire and the shell is small, the
electric field is the same as that due to an infinite line of charge. It is perpendicular to the
wire and its magnitude is given by [see equation (25)]


E (43)
2 o r

where   Q L is the magnitude of the linear charge density of the wire. The potential
difference V between the wire and the shell, which is the work done by the electric field in
moving unit positive charge from point a on the wire, to point b on the shell, is given from
equation (38) by
b b
V  Vb  Va    E  dL    Edr (44)
a a

where dr  dL cos is the infinitesimal displacement in the direction of the electric field, which
points radially outwards. Equations (43) and (44) then give

 b1
2 o a r
V   dr


V    ln b  ln a 
2 o

 b
V   ln   (45)
2 o  a 

where the minus    sign in equation (45) indicates a drop in electric potential in moving
from the positively charged conducting wire to the negatively charged conducting shell. From
equations (35) and (45), the capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor is given by

Q 2 o  L
C 
V  ln  b a 

2 o L
C (46)
ln  b a 

The capacitance per unit length CL  C L is therefore

2 o
CL  (47)
ln  b a 

The value of CL for coaxial cables is important in telecommunications.

16
1.6.3 Spherical Capacitor

A spherical capacitor consists of a sphere of radius a carrying positive charge  Q concentric

with a spherical shell of negligible thickness having radius b carrying negative charge  Q
where a  b .


  b 
Q  
  Q  
a

 
 

E


Figure 1.19

According to Gauss’ law and the superposition principle, only the inner sphere contributes to
the electric field between the spheres. The electric field E due to the inner sphere is directed
radially outwards and has the magnitude [see equation (34)]

Q
E ar b (48)
4 o r 2

From equation (38), the potential difference between the spheres is

b b
V  Vb  Va    E  dL    Edr (49)
a a

where dr  dL cos is the infinitesimal displacement in the direction of the electric field.
Substituting equation (48) in (49) gives

Q b
Q  1 b
2
V    r dr  4  r 
4 o r 2 a o a

Q 1 1 Q  a b
   (50)
4 o  b a  4 o  ab 


Note that since a  b , the potential difference V is negative indicating that the electric
potential decreases when unit positive charge is moved from the inner to the outer sphere.
Writing

Q ba
V    (51)
4 o  ab 

17
and using this expression in equation (35) gives the capacitance of a spherical capacitor as

 ab 
C  4 o   (52)
ba

which depends on the radii of the two spheres.

18
2 MAGNETOSTATICS

2.1 Introduction

Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields due to steady electric currents, which includes
dc currents and low-frequency ac currents. In this chapter, the Biot-Savart law and Ampere’s
law are stated and applied.

2.2 Biot-Savart Law

Consider a conductor carrying a steady current I . The moving charges inside the conductor
cause a magnetic field B to be set up in the region around the conductor. The magnetic field
is measured in tesla (T) or gauss (G) units, where 1T  104 G . The direction of the magnetic
field is determined by the right-hand-grip rule: If the figures of the right hand are curled
around the current carrying conductor with the thumb pointing in the direction of the
conventional current I , then the fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field.
Consequently for a current moving in a conductor from left to right as shown in figure 2.1,
the magnetic field is out of the board/page at point P , and into the board/page at point P .

dB P

r̂ I

dL
 P
Figure 2.1

Consider the point P having position vector r , measured with respect to the location of an
infinitesimal conductor element dL carrying a current I . According to the Biot-Savart law, the
magnetic field dB at point P due to the current element IdL is given by

  I  dL  rˆ
dB   0  2 (1)
 4  r

where rˆ  r r is a unit vector in the direction of r , and 0 is the permeability of free space
given by
0  4 107 T  m A (2)

In equation (1), the vector dL points in the direction of the conventional current I which
passes through the conductor element of length dL . Since

dL  rˆ  dL rˆ sin   sin  dL

1
where  is the angle between vectors dL and r̂ , the magnitude of dB is given from equation
(1) by
  I  sin 
dB   0  2 dL (3)
 4  r

The total magnetic field B at point P due to the conductor is obtained from equation (1) by
integrating over the entire length of the conductor thus

 I dL  rˆ
B 0 
 4 
 r2
(4)

Consequently, the magnitude of B is

 I sin 
B 0 
 4 
 r2
dL (5)

2.3 Magnetic Field due to a Straight Current-Carrying Conductor

Consider a straight current-carrying conductor of length L in which a steady current I flows.

The conductor is placed along the x-axis. The direction of the magnetic field B at a point P ,
located at a perpendicular distance h above the conductor, is out of the board/page (i.e. along
the z-axis) as shown in figure 2.2.

B
P

r
h
r̂  2
1 I
a O b
dx
x
L

Figure 2.2

To determine the magnitude B of the magnetic field at point P due to the entire length of the
conductor, the magnitude dB of the magnetic field due to the current element Idx located at a
distance x from O is first obtained. Then from equation (5), the magnetic field due conductor
is given by

  I  sin 
b
B   0   2 dx (6)
 4   a r

From the diagram sin   h r , and consequently

1 sin 
 (7)
r h

2
Also tan    h x , where the minus    sign is needed since the current-carrying element is
located at a negative value of x. Therefore
h cos
x  h (8)
tan  sin 

Using the quotient rule, we have from equation (8)

dx d  cos 
 h  
d d  sin  


h d cos d sin  
 sin  d  cos d 
sin  
2


h
 sin    sin    cos  cos 
sin 2 


h
sin 
2  sin   cos    h
2 2 1
sin  2

This implies that

h
dx  d (9)
sin 2 

Applying equations (7) and (9) in equation (6) gives

2
 I
B 0 
 4 h 
 sin  d (10)
1
Therefore

  I 
B   0   cos1  cos 2  (11)
 4 h 

For either L   (infinitely long conductor) or h  0 (distances close to a finite/short

conductor), 1  0 and 2   . Equation (11) then becomes

  I 
B   0   cos0  cos  
 4 h 

  I 
  0  1   1 
 4 h 

0 I
 (12)
2 h

3
2.4 Ampere’s Law

Ampere’s law states that the line integral of magnetic field B along a closed path C is equal to
the product 0 I encl where I encl is the steady current enclosed by the closed path,
0  4 107 T  m A is the permeability of free space. That is

 B  dL  0 Iencl (13)
C

where dL is an infinitesimal element of the closed path (which is different from the conductor
element in the Biot-Savart law). Ampere’s law is applicable to current-carrying
configurations having a high degree of symmetry. In applying Ampere’s law, the amperian
loop (closed path) is chosen such that:

1. The magnetic field B has either constant magnitude or is zero along the amperian loop.
2. The magnetic field B is either parallel or perpendicular to the element dL of the
amperian loop, which ensures that either, B  dL  BdL cos0  BdL or
B  dL  BdL cos90  0 respectively.

2.4.1 Magnetic Field due to a Long Straight Current-Carrying Conductor

Suppose a steady current having magnitude I flows upwards along a straight conductor whose
length is infinite. To determine the magnitude of the magnetic field, a circular amperian loop
of radius r is drawn with the conductor passing through the centre of the loop as shown in
figure 2.3 (a) and (b).

(a)

I (b)
B
B
I
r P d dL
r P
B

Figure 2.3

The magnetic field B has the same magnitude on the amperian loop. Also at any given point
P on the loop, the direction of B is the same as that of the element dL of the circular path.
Consequently

B  dL  B dL cos0  BdL (14)

Since for a circular path, dL  rd , the line integral of the magnetic field along the closed path
becomes

4
 2
 B  dL   BdL B  dL Br  d  B  2 r  (15)
0

2
where  dL   rd  2 r is the circumference of the circular amperian loop. The current
0
enclosed by the amperian loop is the same as the current passing through the wire. That is

I encl  I (16)

Ampere’s law [equation (13)] then gives

B  2 r   0 I
Consequently
0 I
B (17)
2 r

which is the same result obtained in equation (12) above using the Biot-Savart law for an
infinite (very long) current-carrying conductor.

2.4.2 Magnetic Field due to a Long Solenoid

Ampere’s law may also be applied to determine the magnetic field inside a long solenoid.
That is a coil having a large number of turns, in which a steady current I flows in each turn.
A rectangular amperian loop of length L and width W is used as shown in figure 2.4.

d L c

B
a b

Figure 2.4

Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is constant and is directed along the central axis of the
solenoid. Its direction is determined by the right-hand-grip rule: If the solenoid is held with
the fingers of the right hand pointing in the direction of the conventional current in the turns
of the solenoid, the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field
outside and close to the solenoid is in the opposite direction and it is zero far from the
solenoid. Thus along sides bc and da of the amperian loop, B  dL  BdL cos90  0 , while along
side dc , B  dL  0dL cos0  0 . Consequently, it is only the length L of the amperian loop
inside the solenoid (i.e. the length ab ) that contributes to the line integral. Then
b b
 B  dL   BdL  B  dL  BL (18)
a a

5
The electric current enclosed by the amperian loop is

I encl  IN (19)

where N is the number of turns of the solenoid enclosed by the amperian loop. Ampere’s law
then gives

BL  o IN

Consequently,
B  o In (20)

where n  N L is the number of turns per unit length.

2.4.3 Magnetic Field due to a Toroid

A toroid is a coil consisting of a wire having N turns wound to form a torus (doughnut) shape
with inner and outer radius a and b respectively as shown in figure 2.5. A current I passes
through the windings of the toroid. The toroid core is normally made of iron material but may
also contain air in which case the permeability of the core is taken to be that of free space 0 .

B
b

r
a

Figure 2.5

The direction of the magnetic field B inside the toroid is determined by applying the right-
hand-grip rule to each turn. It is then clear that the inside the toroid, the field is circular. To
determine the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point inside the toroid, a circular amperian
loop of radius r is drawn inside the toroid. At any given point P on the amperian loop, the
direction of B is the same as that of the an element dL of the loop and therefore
B  dL  BdL cos0  BdL . Also the magnetic field B is constant along the loop and the line
integral of the magnetic field is then

 B  dL   BdL  B  dL  B  2 r  ar b (21)

where  dL  2 r is the circumference of the amperian loop. The current enclosed by the loop
is
I encl  IN (22)

6
where N is the total number of turns of the toroid. Applying equations (21) and (22) in
Ampere’s law gives

B  2 r   0 IN ar b

Therefore
0 IN
B ar b (23)
2 r

Mid-way between the inner and outer radius of the core, r   a  b  2 , and consequently

0 IN
B r   a  b 2 (24)
 a  b

Note that the magnetic field outside the toroid is zero since and amperian loop drawn outside
the toroid encloses zero net current.

2.5 Magnetic Force

A positive charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B experiences a magnetic force
Fm whose magnitude and direction is given by

Fm  qv  B (25)

A negatively charge particle q experiences a force whose direction is the same as that
experienced by a positive charge moving in the opposite direction. Thus for an electron
(having charge qe ) moving along the positive x-direction in a magnetic field whose direction
ˆ , since the electron is
is into the page/board, we have in Cartesian coordinates, v  iv
negatively charged, and B  k̂B . The force experienced is then

Fm  qe v  B  qe  iv
   
ˆ 
ˆ  kB
 
 
Fm  qe vB iˆ  kˆ   ˆj qe vB (26)

where we have used iˆ  kˆ   ˆj . The electron is therefore deflected downwards and its path as
shown in figure 2.6.

  
y
qe
 x

  
z

Figure 2.6

7
2.5.1 Magnetic Force on a Straight Current-Carrying Conductor

When a straight conductor of length L carrying a steady current I is placed in a uniform

magnetic field B , the moving charges inside the conductor experience a magnetic force Fm
according to equation (26). Consequently, the conductor as a whole is acted upon by a
magnetic force given by

Fm  IL  B (27)

where the direction of the vector quantity L is the same as that of the conventional current I in
the conductor and whose magnitude L is the length of the conductor. The magnitude of the
magnetic force experienced by the conductor is then

Fm  ILB sin  (28)

where  is the smaller angle between vectors L and B . The direction of the magnetic force is
determined from equation (27). Alternatively, the right-hand-grip rule may be used: If the
fingers of the right hand are curled from the direction of L towards that of B , the thumb
points in the direction of Fm . Thus for a current I which flows down a straight wire of length
L , in a magnetic field B whose direction is out of the page, L   ĵL and B  k̂B . From
equation (27) we have

  
ˆ   ILB ˆj  kˆ
Fm  I  ˆjL  kB 
And since ˆj  kˆ  iˆ

ˆ
Fm  iILB (29)

The conductor therefore experiences a force in the negative x-direction as shown in figure
2.7.

I
B
y

x
Fm z

Figure 2.7

8
2.5.2 Magnetic Force between two Parallel Conductors

Consider two parallel straight conductors each of length L in which currents I1 and I 2 flow in
the same direction. The conductors are separated by distance r .

I1
I2
x

B2
 B1 z

F12 F21

Figure 2.8

The current I1 in the first conductor produces a magnetic field B1 , which is given from
equation (17), in the region of the second conductor, as

o I1
B1  kˆ (30)
2 r

The second conductor experiences a force F21 due to the interaction between the magnetic
field B1 and the current I 2 flowing through the second conductor. From equations (27) and (30)

  I 
 
F21  I 2L  B1  I 2 ˆjL   kˆ o 1 
 2 r 

F2  

o I1I 2 L ˆj  kˆ 
2 r

 II L
F2  iˆ o 1 2 (31)
2 r

The force F21 is directed towards the first conductor. Similarly, the second conductor produces
a magnetic field B 2 due to the current I 2 flowing through it, which is given, from equation (17)
in the region of the first conductor as

 I
B2  kˆ o 2 (32)
2 r

Subsequently, the first conductor experiences a force F12 due to interaction between the
current flowing through it and the magnetic field B 2 due to the second conductor. Using
equations (27) and (32)

9
   I 
F12  I1L  B2  I1 ˆjL   kˆ o 2 
 2 r 

o I1I 2 L
F12  iˆ (33)
2 r

The force F12 is directed towards the second conductor. The force F12 has the same magnitude
as F21 but acts in the opposite direction. The magnitude of the mutual attractive force between
the two current carrying conductors is then

o I1I 2 L
F  F12  F21  (34)
2 r

And the force per unit length is

F o I1I 2
 (35)
L 2 r

Equation (35) is used to define the Ampere, which is the SI unit of electric current. Thus
when 1A current flows in the same direction in each of two straight conductors which are 1m
apart, an attractive force per unit length of magnitude 2 107 N m exists between the
conductors.

10
3 ELECTRIC FIELDS IN MATTER

3.1 Introduction

In topic I, the electric field in vacuum (empty space) was determined for various symmetric
charge distributions using Gauss’ law. In this topic the effect of an external electric field on
non-conduction materials is discussed. The behaviour of insulating materials in the presence
of an electric field has a significant effect on capacitance and it can be explained in terms of
electric dipoles and electric dipole moment.

3.2 Electric Dipole

A charge q placed in an external electric field E experiences an electric force given by

Fe  qE (1)

which acts in the direction of the electric field, for a positive charge, and in the opposite
direction for a negative charge. An electric dipole consists of two unlike but equal charges
 q and  q , separated by distance d as shown in figure 3.3.

q
 qE
y
d
z 
x
O
p
E
qE q

Figure 3.1

When the electric dipole is placed in a uniform external electric field E , the two charges
experience electric forces of magnitude Fe  q E according to equation (1). The forces create
a torque   r  F (tau) which acts about point O located midway between the charges. The
torque due to the force acting on positive charge is

1   d 2  q E  (2)

where d is the displacement vector of positive charge with respect to the negative charge. The
torque due to the force acting on the negative charge is

 2   d 2     q E 

 2  d 2  q E (3)

The total torque acting on the electric dipole is therefore

  1   2  d  q E (4)

1
3.3 Electric Dipole Moment

Equation (4) may also be written as

  q dE  pE (5)

where p is the electric dipole moment of the electric dipole defined as

p qd (6)

The SI unit of electric dipole moment is the coulomb-metre  C  m  . From equation (5) we see
that since   pE sin  , where  is the angle between vectors p and E ,   0 for   0 . Thus the
torque tends to align the electric dipole moment p with the external electric field E . Examples
of molecules having permanent dipole moments include hydrogen chloride  HCl  and water
 H 2O  molecules. Such molecules are called polar molecules. In these molecules, the
electrons in the covalent-bond are not equally shared since the atoms have different electron
affinities. Atoms having lower electron affinity then acquire a slight positive charge   while
atoms having greater electron affinity acquire a slight negative charge   as illustrated in
figure 3.2.

p 


O
 Cl H 
H H

 
p

Figure 3.2

Non-polar molecules which are made up of atoms having similar electron affinities such as
hydrogen  H 2  and chlorine molecule  Cl2  , do not have permanent electric dipole moments.
However in the presence of an external electric field, polarization (i.e. redistribution of
charge) occurs which leads to induced electric dipole moment as shown in figure 3.3.

p p

 H H 

 Cl Cl 

E
E

Figure 3.3

2
3.4 Energy of Electric Dipole Orientation

Consider an electric dipole in an external electric field E whose direction is along the x-axis.
The electric dipole moment p is at an angle  , measured with respect to the x-axis. The
external electric field causes the charges of the dipole to rotate along a circular path of radius
r.

q

F1
y d 
z 
x
p O

F2
q
E

Figure 3.4

The electric force F1 and F2 act on the positive and negative charges respectively. Since
F1  F2  Fe , the work done by the electric field in moving the two charges over
infinitesimal distance dL1 and dL2 along the circular path is

dW   F1  dL1  F2  dL2  (7)

where dL1  dL2  dL . In terms of the component F  F1 cos  F2 cos of the electric force
along the circular path, where   90   is the angle between F1 and dL1 (also equal the angle
between F2 and dL2 ), equation (7) becomes

dW  F1 dL1 cos  F2 dL2 cos

dW  FdL  FdL

dW  2FdL (8)

Since dL  rd , equation (8) becomes

dW  2Frd (9)

The product 2Fr  Fd is the magnitude of the torque  due to the forces F1 and F2 . That is

  2Fr (10)

But from equation (5)

  p  E  pE sin  (11)

Therefore

3
 dW  pE sin  d (12)

The total work done in moving from the initial angular displacement  i to final angular
displacement  f is then
f
W  pE  sin  d
i
which gives


W   pE cos f  cosi  (13)
Equation (13) may be written as

W  U f  Ui (14)

where U is the energy of dipole orientation defined by

U   pE cos (15)

The minus sign    indicates a decrease in potential energy of the dipole as it rotates in the
clockwise direction. Then

U  p  E (16)

Note that the electric dipole has minimum potential energy U   pE when p and E are aligned
with each other, and maximum potential energy U  pE when p is anti-parallel with E .

3.5 Dielectrics and Capacitance

A dielectric is a non-conducting material (insulator) placed between the plates of a capacitor

to increase its capacitance. The dielectric constant  (kappa) is the ratio of the capacitance C
with the dielectric present to the capacitance C without the dielectric.

C
 (17)
C

The dielectric constant is always greater than 1 . The dielectric strength of a dielectric,
measured in volts per metre V m  , is the maximum electric field that can exist between the
plates of a capacitor before the dielectric breaks down and begins to conduct electricity
between the plates. The dielectric constants and dielectric strengths of some common
insulators are listed in the table 3.1 below

4
Table 3.1: Dielectric constants and Dielectric Strengths

Material Dielectric Constant Dielectric

Strength(V/m)

Air (dry) 1.00 3  106

Paper 3.70 16 106

Polystyrene 2.46 24  106

Strontium titanate 233 8  106

For a parallel-plate capacitor, the capacitance without a dielectric is [see equation (42), topic
1]

o A
C (18)
d

where  o  8.85 1012 C 2 Nm2 is the permittivity of free space, A is the area of the plates, and
d is the distance between the plates. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor in the
presence of a dielectric is then given from equations (17) and (18) by

o A
C   (19)
d

Example I

A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of dimensions 2.0cm by 3.0cm separated by a 1mm thick
piece of paper having the same dimensions.

(a) Determine its capacitance.

(b) What is the maximum charge that can be placed on the capacitor?

Solution

(a) Since   3.7 for paper, equation (19) yields

 6  104 m2 
 
C  3.7  8.85  1012 C 2 Nm2  
 1 103 m 
 

 20 1012 F  20 pF

5
(b) The dielectric strength of paper is 16 106 V m . Because the thickness of the paper is 1mm ,
the maximum voltage that can be applied before breakdown is [see equation (40), topic I]

Vmax  Emax d

  
 16 106 V m  1103 m 
 16 103V

Hence, from the definition of capacitance [equation (35), topic I], the maximum charge is

  
Qmax  C Vmax  20 1012 F  16  103V 
 0.32C

3.6 Effect of a Metallic Slab on Capacitance

Suppose a charged parallel-plate capacitor has a plate separation d and plate area A. An
uncharged metallic slab of thickness a and area A is then inserted at a distance l from the
positively charged plate as shown in figure 3.5.

   
    l

d a

   
   

Figure 3.5

When the metallic slab is inserted, equal but opposite charges are induced on the surface of
the slab. The surface charge density of the metallic slab is equal in magnitude to that of the
plates of the capacitor while the electric field inside the slab is zero. Therefore the set-up is
equivalent to two capacitors in series (Figure 3.6). The first of these capacitors has a distance
of separation l , while the second capacitor has a distance of separation d   l  a  .

6
    
l

d





  a

   
Figure 3.6

Since the capacitors are in series, the equivalent capacitance Ceq is such that

1 1 1
  (20)
Ceq C1 C2

Using equation (18) gives, for the first capacitor

o A
C1  (21)
l

While the second capacitor

o A
C2  (22)
d  l  a 
Therefore
1 l d  l  a 
 
Ceq  o A o A

l  d  l  a 

o A

d a

o A
Then
o A
Ceq  (23)
d a

The effect of inserting the metallic slab is therefore to increase the capacitance. Also note that
the effective capacitance is independent of l (i.e. the exact location of the metallic slab
between the plates of the capacitor). However for a very thin slab  a d  , the capacitance
becomes
 A
Ceq  o (24)
d

Which shows that a very thin metallic slab inserted anywhere between the plates of a
capacitor has no effect on its capacitance.

7
3.7 Partially Filled Capacitor

Consider a parallel-plate capacitor with a plate separation distance d , area A , and

capacitance C in the absence of a dielectric. Suppose two dielectric slabs having dielectric
constant 1 and  2 , and thickness l1   d and l2   d respectively, where     1 , are then
placed between the plates as shown in figure 3.7.

1 l1
d
2 l2

Figure 3.7

The equivalent capacitance C of the capacitor can be determined by supposing that an

infinitesimally thin metallic slab is inserted at the bottom of the first dielectric. This metallic
slab will have no effect on the capacitance of the system. However, the system will now be
equivalent to two capacitors connected in series. The first capacitor has capacitance

o A
C1  1 (25)
l1

While the second capacitance has capacitance

o A
C2   2 (26)
l2

The equivalent capacitance is then such that

1 1 1
  (27)
C C1 C2
Therefore

1 l l
 1  2
C 1 o A  2 o A

1  l1 l2 
   
 o A  1  2 

1   2l1  1l2 
  
 o A  1 2 

Subsequently

8
  1 2 
C   o A   (28)
  2l1  1l2 

Which may be written as

o A  1 2   1 2 
C     C  (29)
d   2  1    2  1 

Thus the effective dielectric constant is   1 2  2  1  .

3.8 Electric Dipoles and Dielectrics

The effect of a dielectric on capacitance can be explained in terms of electric dipoles. When a
dielectric is placed between the plates of a charged capacitor, the molecules of the material,
which either have a permanent dipole moment, or which acquire a temporary (induced)
dipole moment, become partially or completely aligned to the external electric field E
between the plates. This is illustrated in figure 3.8(a) and (b).

     
     
     

Figure 3.8

Electric charge is then induced at the edges of the dielectric material which gives rise to an
induced electric field Ein which opposes the external field as shown in figure 3.9.

   
   
   

Ein

Figure 3.9

9
The electric field between the plates then decreases to

E   E  Ein  (30)

which in turn reduces the potential difference between the plates (in accordance with
equation (40), in topic I) to

V    E  Ein  d (31)

where d is the distance of separation between the plates of the capacitor. Consequently, the
capacitance increases to

Q
C  (32)
V

where Q is the magnitude of charge on the plates of the capacitor.

Note that since

Q
C (33)
V

Dividing equations (32) and (33) and using equation (17) gives

Ck V
 
C Vk
Subsequently
V
Vk  (34)


which indicates that the magnitude of the potential difference in the presence of the dielectric
is less than that of the potential difference when there is no dielectric. Also since

V  Ed (35)

Applying equations (31) and (35) in (34) yields

E
 E  Ein  


From which we get

 1
Ein  E 1   (36)
 

10
which shows that the induced electric field Ein has a magnitude less than that of the applied
electric field E . The initial electric field is given in terms of the initial surface charge density
of the plates by [see equation (37) , topic I]


E (37)
o

The induced electric field may be written similarly in terms of the induced surface charge
density on the dielectric material

 in
Ein  (38)
o

Substituting equations (37) and (38) in (36) gives

 in   1
 1  
o o  
which simplifies to
 1
 in   1   (39)
 

Thus the induced surface charge density is less than that of the capacitor plates since   1 .

11
4 MAGNETIC FIELDS IN MATTER

4.1 Introduction

In topic II, the magnetic field in vacuum was determined using the Biot-Savart and Ampere’s
laws. In this topic the effect of an external magnetic field on magnetic materials is discussed.
The behaviour of diamagnetic, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials in the presence of
an external magnetic field is explained in terms of magnetic dipoles and magnetic dipole
moments.

4.2 Magnetic Dipole

A magnetic dipole consists of a loop having area A in which a current flows. Consider a
rectangular loop (coil) of length b and width a , carrying a steady current I in the anti-
clockwise direction. The loop is placed in a external uniform magnetic field B whose direction
is along the x  axis. The unit normal n̂ to the surface area A of the loop is at angle  with
respect to the magnetic field. The vector A is then defined as A  n̂A . That is its magnitude is
equal to the area of the loop. Its direction n̂ is given by the right hand grip rule: i.e. if the
fingers of the right hand are curled in the direction of the conventional current flowing in the
loop, the thumb points in the direction of n̂ .

F2
A
1 F1
2  B

I
b 4
F3 a
3
F4

Figure 4.1

The sides 1 and 3 experience equal and opposite magnetic forces that are parallel to the plane
of the loop, while sides 2 and 4 experience an upward and downward magnetic force
respectively. The directions of the forces acting on the loop are determined using Fleming’s
left hand rule: If the first finger of the left hand points in the direction of the magnetic field,
while the second finger in the direction of the conventional current, then the thumb points in
the direction of the magnetic force. This is shown in figure 4.1.

The forces acting on sides 2 and 4 give rise to a torque about the axis passing through the
middle of the loop from side 1 to 3 as shown in figure 4.2. The torque acting on side 2 is

 2  r2  F2 (1)
But
a a
r2  iˆ sin   ˆj cos (2)
2 2
where r2  a 2 .

1
 F2

2
A
a
cos  r2
2 
B
a
sin 
y 2
r4
4
x
z
F4

Figure 4.2

While [see equation (27), topic II] the magnetic force action of side 2 is

ˆ  iB
F2  IL  B  I kL 
ˆ  ˆjIbB  (3)

since kˆ  iˆ  ˆj . Substituting equations (2) and (3) in (1) gives

 a 
 2
a
 2   iˆ sin   ˆj cos   ˆjIbB
2 
  (4)
From which we get
1
 2  kˆ abIB sin  (5)
2

since iˆ  ˆj  kˆ and ˆj  ˆj  0 . Similarly the torque action on side 4 is

 4  r4  F4 (6)
Since r4  r2  a 2
a a
r4  iˆ sin   ˆj cos (7)
2 2
and
ˆ  iB
F4  IL  B  I kL 
ˆ   ˆjIbB  (8)
Equations (6) – (8) give
 a 
 2
a
 4   iˆ sin   ˆj cos    ˆjIbB
2 
  (9)
Then
1
 4  kˆ abIB sin  (10)
2

The sides 2 and 4 therefore experience a torque having the same magnitude and direction.
From equations (5) and (10), the total torque acting on the loop is

ˆ
   2   4  kabIB sin  (11)

Since ab  A , the area of the loop, equation (11) may be written as

2
 ˆ
  kIAB sin  (12)

or a cross product thus

  IA  B (13)

where the direction of the torque is again determined by the right-hand-grip rule: If the
fingers of the right hand are curled from vector A towards vector B , the thumb points in the
direction of  .

4.3 Magnetic Dipole Moment

Defining the magnetic dipole moment  thus

  IA (14)

where  is in the same direction as A , we have finally

   B (15)

From equation (15) we see that since    B sin  . Therefore for hen   0 ,   0 . The torque
therefore tends to align the magnetic dipole moment  with the external magnetic field B . For
a coil having N turns (for example in a motor) the total magnetic dipole moment is

  NIA (16)


The SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is the ampere-square metre A  m2 . 
Example I

A rectangular coil of dimensions 5.40cm  8.50cm consists of 25 turns of wire and carries a
current of 15.0mA . A 0.35T magnetic field is applied parallel to the plane of the loop.
Calculate the magnitude of the:
(a) Magnetic dipole moment.
(b) Torque acting on the loop.

Solution

(a) From equation (16) we have

  NIA

 
  25  1.5 103 A   0.054m  0.085m 

  1.72 103 A  m2

3
(b) From equation (15) we have

    B   B sin 

Because B is perpendicular to  ,   90 . Then

 
   B  1.72 103 A  m2  0.35T 
and
 N 
  6.02  104 A  m2  
 A m 

  6.02 104 Nm

where we have used equation for the magnetic force acting on a straight conductor (i.e.
F  IL  B ) to obtain the relation 1T  N  A  m  .

4.4 Energy of Magnetic Dipole Orientation

Consider a magnetic dipole in the form of a rectangular current-carrying loop, placed in an

external magnetic field B whose direction is along the x-axis. The magnetic dipole moment 
is at an angle  , measured with respect to the x-axis. The external electric field causes the
charges of the dipole to rotate along a circular path of radius r .

F2


y

x B
O



F4

Figure 3.3

The magnetic force F2 and F4 act on the side 2 and 4 of the loop respectively. Since
F2  F4  Fm , the work done by the magnetic field in moving the loop over infinitesimal
distance dL1 and dL2 along the circular path is

dW   F1  dL1  F2  dL2  (17)

where dL1  dL2  dL . In terms of the component F  F2 cos  F4 cos of the magnetic
force along the circular path, where   90   is the angle between F2 and dL1 (also equal the
angle between F4 and dL2 ), equation (17) becomes

4
 dW  F1 dL1 cos  F2 dL2 cos

dW  FdL  FdL

dW  2FdL (18)

Since dL  rd , equation (18) becomes

dW  2Frd (19)

The product 2Fr  Fd is the magnitude of the torque  due to the forces F2 and F4 . That is

  2Fr (20)

But from equation (15) above

    B   B sin  (21)

Therefore
dW   B sin  d (22)

and the total work done in moving from the initial angular displacement  i to final angular
displacement  f is then
f
W   B  sin  d
i
which gives


W   B cos f  cosi  (23)
Equation (23) may be written as

W  U f  Ui (24)

where U is the energy of dipole orientation define by

U   B cos (25)

The minus sign    indicates a decrease in potential energy of the dipole as it rotates in the
clockwise direction. Then

U    B (26)

Note that the magnetic dipole has minimum potential energy U   B when  and B are
aligned with each other, and maximum potential energy U   B when  is anti-parallel with B .

5
4.5 Paramagnetic, Diamagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials

The atoms that constitute matter may possess a magnetic dipole moment due to the orbital
motion of the electrons around the nucleus and due to the ‘spin’ of the electrons. The atoms
of a paramagnetic material, such as aluminium, possess permanent magnetic dipole moments.
The magnetic dipole moments point in different directions due to thermal agitation and the
material. When a paramagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetic
dipole moments of the atoms tend to align in parallel to the external field which causes the
material to be magnetised. The material losses its magnetization when the external magnetic
field is removed due to thermal agitation.

The atoms of a diamagnetic material, such as copper, only possess a magnetic dipole moment
in the presence of an external magnetic field. When an external magnetic field is applied to a
diamagnetic material, temporary magnetic dipole moments are induced in the atoms. The
induced magnetic dipole moments are aligned in the direction opposite that of the external
field causing magnetization of the material. The field of the magnetised diamagnetic material
is directed opposite that of the external field. The atoms of a paramagnetic material do not
possess permanent magnetic dipole moments and such a material losses its magnetization
when the external magnetic field is removed.

The atoms of ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, possess a permanent magnetic dipole
moment just like those of a paramagnetic material. However the magnetic dipoles in a
ferromagnetic material possess short-range-order in that the magnetic dipole moments in a
given small region, known as a domain, point in the same direction. The magnetic dipole
moments of neighbouring domains however point in different directions and the material is
therefore not magnetised. In the presence of an external magnetic field, the magnetic dipole
moments in all the domains tend to point in the direction of the external field. A
ferromagnetic material is more easily magnetized than a paramagnetic material. Also when
the external field is removed, a ferromagnetic material partially retains its magnetization.

6
5 AC CIRCUITS

5.1 Introduction

Alternating current (ac) is different from direct current (dc) in that ac changes direction at
regular time intervals. Batteries are a common source of dc while ac is usually obtained from
a mains socket or from a signal generator. The circuit symbols for dc and ac voltage sources
are as shown in figure 5.1.


V t 


Figure 5.1

5.2 Sinusoids

A sinusoid is and ac voltage which can be written is the form of a sine or cosine function. In
particular, the sinusoid may have the form

2
V  t   V0 sin t (5.1)
T

where V0 is the voltage amplitude, defined as the maximum voltage obtained from the source,
while T is the period, defined as the time taken for the ac voltage to complete one cycle, and
is related to the frequency f by

1
T (5.2)
f

The SI units of voltage, period, and frequency are volt V  , second  s  , and hertz  Hz 
respectively. The sinusoidal voltage (sinusoid) given by equation (5.1) varies with time as
shown in table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Variation of sinusoidal voltage with time.

t 0 T T 3T T
4 2 4
V t  0 V0 0 V0 0

Graphically this is shown in figure 5.2.

1
 V

V0

t
T T 3T
T
 V0 4 2 4

Figure 5.2

The angular frequency  is defined as

2
  2 f (5.3)
T

Equation (5.1) may therefore be written as

V  t   V0 sin t (5.4)

The SI unit of  is radian per second  rad s  . Note that the voltage supplied by an ac source is
usually quoted in terms of the root mean square Vrms value where

V0
Vrms  (5.5)
2

Example I

A mains socket supplies ac voltage at 240 Vrms and at frequency 50Hz . Determine the:
(a) Peak value
(b) Angular frequency of the ac voltage.

Solution

(a) From equation (5.5)

V0  Vrms 2

 240 2 V

 339.4V

(b) Using equation (5.3)

  2 f

  2 rad  50s 1  314.2 rad s

2
5.3 Phasors

The analysis of ac circuits is most easily done with the help of phasor diagrams. A voltage
phasor diagram for the sinusoidal voltage given by equation (5.1) is constructed by drawing
an arrow whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the peak voltage V0 making an
angle t (measured in radians) with the horizontal axis as shown in figure 5.3.

V  t   V0 sin t V0

t

Figure 5.3

The projection of V0 on the vertical axis is the instantaneous voltage V  t   V0 sin t supplied
by the source. The vector-like quantity V0 rotates in the anti-clockwise direction with angular
frequency  . A phasor diagram may also involve current or resistance.

5.4 Circuit Elements

An ac voltage source is normally connected to a circuit element in the form of a resistor,

capacitor, or inductor. Such circuit elements which do not generate electrical energy are
known as passive elements. We may then seek to determine the instantaneous current I  t 
flowing in the ac circuit.

5.4.1 Resistor Circuit

Consider a sinusoidal ac voltage which is connected to a resistor having resistance R ,

measured in Ohms    .



V t  I t  R VR



Figure 5.4

In order to determine the instantaneous current I  t  flowing in the circuit Kirchhoff’s voltage
law (KVL) is applied to yield

3
 V  t   VR  0 (5.6)

where VR is the voltage drop across the resistor. Therefore

VR  Vo sin t (5.7)

From Ohm’s law

VR  I  t  R (5.8)

Using equations (5.4) and (5.8) in (5.7) yields

V0 sin t  I  t  R  0

which can be rearranged to give

V0
I t   sin t (5.9)
R

Defining the current amplitude in and resistor circuit as

V0
I0  (5.10)
R
equation (5.9) may be written as
I  t   I 0 sin t (5.11)

Thus for a purely resistive circuit, the current is in phase with the voltage. This is as shown in
figure 5.5.
V t 
 I0
I t 
V0

t
T 3T
T T
4
 V0 4 2
 I0

Figure 5.5

The voltage and current phasor diagrams for a purely resistive circuit are as shown in figure
5.6.
I0  V0 R
I t 

V t  V0

t

Figure 5.6

4
Example II

An ac voltage V  t   20sin 0.75t V is connected to a 10k resistor. Determine the instantaneous

current in the circuit at time t  0.25s .

Solution

From equation (5.10)

V0 20
I0   A  2  103 A  2mA
R 10 103

Since   0.75rad s , at time t  0.25s equation (5.11) gives

I  t   2sin  0.75  0.25 mA  0.3728 mA

5.4.2 Capacitor Circuit

Next, consider a sinusoidal ac voltage connected to a capacitor having capacitance C

(measured in Farads, F ).

 
V t  I t  C VC
 

Figure 5.7

Using KVL
V  t   VC  0 (5.12)

here VC is the voltage drop across the capacitor. Therefore

VC  Vo sin t (5.13)

But from definition of capacitance, that is C  Q VC where is the quantity of charge on each
plate of the capacitor, we have

Q
VC  (5.14)
C

Comparing equations (5.13) and (5.14) gives

Q  CVo sin t (5.15)

5
From the definition of current, I  t   dQ dt , and from equation (5.15), we have

d d sin  dt
I t    CVo sin t   CVo
dt d dt

where   t . Consequently using  d sin  d   cos and  dt dt    gives

I  t   CVo cos t (5.16)

Applying the trigonometric identity

cos  sin    2

equation (5.16) can be written as

I  t   CVo sin t   2 (5.17)

Defining the current amplitude in a purely capacitive circuit as

I o  CVo (5.18)

equation (5.17) takes the form

I  t   I o sin t   2 (5.19)

Which shows that the current in a purely capacitive circuit leads the voltage by the phase
angle  2 rad  90 . This relationship is illustrated in figure 5.8.

 I0
V t 
V0
I t 

t
T T 3T
T
4 2 4
 V0
 I0

Figure 5.8

The voltage and current phasor diagrams for a capacitor are as shown in figure 5.9.

Io  CVo I t 

V t  V0

t

Figure 5.9

6
The capacitive reactance X C is defined as the ratio of the voltage amplitude to current
amplitude. Thus from equation (5.18)

Vo 1
XC   (5.20)
I o C

Since the capacitive reactance is a ratio of voltage amplitude to current amplitude, it is

measured in ohms    . The capacitive reactance is a measure of the resistance of a capacitor
to ac current. It is inversely proportional to the angular frequency  of ac voltage. As   0 ,
the ac voltage becomes almost like a dc voltage and X C   , and the capacitor circuit
behaves like an open circuit. As    , that is for a high-frequency ac voltage, X C  0 , and
the capacitor circuit behaves like a short circuit.

Example III

An ac voltage V  t   20sin 0.75t V is connected to a 10 F capacitor. Determine the

instantaneous current in the circuit at time t  0.25s .

Solution

From equation (5.18)

 
I o  CVo  0.75  10 106  20 A  1.5 104 A  0.15mA

Since   0.75rad s , at time t  0.25s equation (5.19) gives

I  t   I  t   0.15sin  0.75  0.25   2 mA  0.147 mA

5.4.3 Inductor Circuit

Finally, consider a sinusoidal ac voltage connected to an inductor having inductance L

(measured in henry units, H )



V t  I t  L VL



Figure 5.10

7
Again using KVL

V  t   VL  0 (5.21)

where VL is the voltage drop across the inductor. Therefore

VL  V0 sin t (5.22)

But from definition of inductance, we have

dI
VL  L (5.23)
dt

Comparing equations (5.22) and (5.23) gives

dI V0
 sin t (5.24)
dt L

The instantaneous current is then given by

V0 V  dt 
I t  
L
sin tdt  0  sin    d
L  d 

1
where   t . Then using dt d   d dt   1  and  sin  d   cos yields

V0
I t    cos t (5.25)
L

Applying the trigonometric identity

 cos  sin    2 

equation (5.25) takes the form

V0  
I t   sin  t   (5.26)
L  2

Defining the current amplitude in a purely inductive circuit as

V0
I0  (5.27)
L

equation (5.26) becomes

I  t   I 0 sin t   2 (5.28)

Equations (5.22) and (5.28) show that the current in a purely inductive circuit lags behind the
voltage by the phase angle  2 rad  90 . This is shown in figure 5.11.

8
  I0
V t 
V0
I t 

t
T T 3T
T
4 2 4
 V0
 I0

Figure 5.11

The voltage and current phasor diagrams for an inductor are as shown in figure 5.12.

V t  V0

t

I t  I0  V0  L

Figure 5.12

The inductive reactance X L is defined as the ratio of the voltage amplitude to current
amplitude. Consequently, from equation (5.27)

V0
XL   L (5.29)
I0

Since the inductive reactance is a ratio of voltage amplitude to current amplitude, it is

measured in ohms    . It is a measure of the resistance of a inductor to ac current. It is
directly proportional to the angular frequency  of ac voltage. As   0 , X L  0 , and the
inductor circuit behaves like a short circuit. As    , X L   , and the inductor circuit
behaves like an open circuit.

A useful mnemonic (memory aid) to remember the phase relations between V  t  and I  t  in
an inductive and capacitive circuit is:

“ELI the ICEman”, that is

E – ‘emf’/voltage, L – in an inductor, I – leads current

I – current, C – in a capacitor, E – leads ‘emf’/voltage

9
Example IV

An ac voltage V  t   20sin 0.75t V is connected to a 2H capacitor. Determine the instantaneous

current in the circuit at time t  0.25s .

Solution

From equation (5.27)

V0 20
I0   A  13.3 A
 L 0.75  2

Since   0.75rad s , at time t  0.25s equation (5.19) gives

I  t   I  t   13.3sin  0.75  0.25   2 mA  13.07 A

5.5 Series RLC Circuit

Consider a sinusoidal ac voltage connected in series to a resistor R , capacitor C and inductor

L.

   

 R C

V t  I t  L
 

Figure 5.13

The instantaneous current I  t  is the same in all the circuit elements because of the series
connection. From equations (5.10), (5.20), and (5.29), we see that the voltage amplitude
across the resistor, capacitor and inductor respectively is given by

V0R  I 0 R (30a)

V0C  I 0 X C (30b)

V0L  I 0 X L (30c)

Suppose  is the phase angle of the instantaneous current such that I  t   I 0 sin  . Then VoR is
in phase with I 0 , while VoL leads I 0 by  2 rad  90 and VoC lags behind I 0 by  2 rad  90
(remember ELI the ICEman!). This is illustrated in figure 5.14.

10
 V0L V0R
I t 
I0


V0C

Figure 5.14 

Combining phasors V0L and V0C gives

V 0
L
 V0C 
V0R
I0


Figure 5.15

 
And combining phasors V0R and V0L  V0C gives the total voltage amplitude V0

V 0
L
 V0C 
V0
R
 I 0 V0
t

Figure 5.16

which is equal to the voltage amplitude of the source. The relationship between the voltage
amplitude V0 of the source and the voltage amplitudes across the circuit elements is then
obtained using Pythagoras theorem


   V  
2 2
V0   V0R 0
L
 V0C (5.31)


And using equation (5.30a – c) in (5.31) yields

V0   I 0 R    I 0 X L  I 0 X C  
2 2
 

11
Factoring out current amplitude I 0 gives

V0  I 0  R 2   X L  X C  
2
(5.32)
 

Defining the impedance Z of the circuit thus

Z   R 2   X L  X C  
2
(5.33)
 

equation (5.32) takes the form of Ohm’s law thus

V0  I 0 Z (5.34)

From the phasor diagram, I 0 lags behind the voltage amplitude V0 of the source by the phase
angle  where

tan  
V
0
L
 V0C   I X 0 L  I0 X C 
V0R I0 R
Thus
tan  
 X L  XC 
R
and
  tan 1
 X L  XC  (5.35)
R

From figure 5.16, it is clear that for a sinusoidal ac source, the current I  t  in the series RLC
circuit is given by

I  t   I 0 sin t    (5.36)

where I 0 and  are obtained from equations (5.34) and (5.35) respectively.

The largest peak current I 0 in a series RLC circuit occurs when the impedance Z has its
minimum value. This occurs when X L  X C , in which case Z  R . The circuit is then said to
be in resonance. At the resonant angular frequency 0 , equations (5.20) and (5.29) yield

1
 0 L
0C
which gives
1
0  (5.37)
LC

Comparing with equation (5.3) we have

12
 1
2 f0 
LC

And the resonant frequency f 0 of the RLC series circuit is

1
f0  (5.38)
2 LC

Example V

A 1KHz signal generator is connected in series to a 100K resistor, 0.1H inductor, and 0.01 F
capacitor. Determine the:
(a) Inductive reactance
(b) Capacitive reactance
(c) Impedance
(d) Phase angle between the source voltage and current in the circuit
(e) Resonant frequency of the circuit.

Solution

(a) The inductive reactance is

 
X L   L   2 f  L  2  1 103 Hz   0.1H 

X L  628.3

(b) The capacitive reactance is

1 1
XC  
C  2 f  C

1
XC 
 2 110 Hz   0.0110
3 6
F

X C  1.59 104 

(c) Since the resistance R  1105  , the impedance is

Z   R 2   X L  X C  
2
 


    628.3  1.59 10   
2 2
Z   1 105 4


Z  101159.4

13
 (d) Using equation (5.35)

  tan 1
 X L  XC 
R

  tan 1  628.3  1.59 10 

4

1 105

  0.15155rad  8.7

NB: The negative value of indicates that I  t  leads the voltage by 8.7 .

(e) Using equation (5.38), the resonant frequency is

1
f0 
2 LC

1
f0 
2 0.1H  0.01106 F

f0  5032.9Hz 5.0KHz

5.6 AC Power

5.6.1 Instantaneous Power

The instantaneous power P  t  delivered to a circuit by an ac voltage V  t  is defined as

P t   V t  I t  (5.39)

where I  t  is the current in the circuit. Power is measured in watts (W). For a sinusoidal
voltage V  t   V0 sin t , the current can be written as I  t   I0 sin t    where  is the phase
lag of the current. Then

P  t   V0 I 0 sin t sin t    (5.40)

5.6.2 Average Power

The average power Pav is defined as

1T
P  t dt
T 0
Pav  (5.41)

where the integral in equation (5.41) gives the total energy delivered during one period T .
Substituting equation (5.40) in (5.41), it can be shown that

14
 V0 I 0
Pav  cos  (5.42)
2

For a purely resistive circuit, the current is in phase with the voltage and therefore   0 .
Consequently

V0 I 0
Pav  (5.43)
2

For a purely inductive circuit, the current lags behind the voltage by  2 rad and therefore
  2. For a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by  2 rad and
therefore    2 . In both cases, equation (5.42) gives

Pav  0 (5.44)

Thus in an ac circuit, average power is delivered to a resistor only and not to a capacitor or
inductor.

5.6.3 Root Mean Square Values

The root mean square voltage Vrms and root mean square current I rms of an ac source are
defined as the equivalent dc voltage and current of a dc source that would deliver the same
average power Pav to a resistor R as the ac source. That is

V0 I 0
Pav   Vrms I rms (5.44)
2
then since from Ohm’s law
V0
I0  (5.45)
R
and
Vrms
I rms  (5.46)
R
We have from equations (5.44) – (5.46)
V02 Vrms 2

2R R
and therefore
V0
Vrms  (5.47)
2
which is the same as equation (5.5). Similarly, from equations (5.44) – (5.46)

 I0 R  I0   I rms R  I rms
2R
Then
I0
I rms  (5.48)
2

15
Example VI

An electric kettle rated at Pav  1000W is connected to a 240Vrms socket. Determine the:
(a) rms current
(b) Current amplitude
(c) Resistance of the heating coil.

Solution

(a) Using equation (5.48)

Pav 1000W
I rms  
Vrms 240V

I rms  4.17 A

(b) From equation (5.49), the voltage amplitude of the alternating current is

I0  I rms 2  4.17  2 A

I 0  5.89 A

(c) Equation (5.46) gives

Vrms 240
R  
I rms 4.17

R  57.6 

16