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pn Junction Diode: I-V Characteristics

- Steady state response under applied DC voltage

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Carrier flow in equilibrium

- Electron diffusion current is balanced by electron drift current. Also, hole diffusion
current is balanced by hole drift current.

- In equilibrium, total current balances due to the sum of the individual components.
Electron Drift Electron Diffusion
Flow Flow

Hole Hole Drift

Diffusion Flow Flow
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Carrier flow under forward bias

- As the potential hill linearly decreases with the forward bias, the number of majority
carriers which have sufficient energy to surmount the potential barrier exponentially
goes up with VA.
𝑉
Proportional to exp( )
𝑉

It’s expected that forward current (i.e. majority carrier

diffusion current) exponentially increases with VA.
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Carrier flow under reverse bias

- The majority carrier diffusion across the junction is negligible.

- The minority carrier drift is still allowed to flow the reverse current (i.e. minority
carrier drift current) across the junction.

As VA negatively increases, the reverse current is also

expected to saturate, once the majority carrier diffusion
currents are reduced to a negligible level at a small bias.

Dominant current components ( , , , )

 small reverse current (saturation current, IO)
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Ideal diode equation: I-V characteristics

Current flowing is proportional to

exp(VA/Vref) due to the exponential
decay of carriers into the majority
carrier bands

Current flowing is constant due to

thermally generated carriers swept
out by electric field in the depletion 𝐼 : Saturation current
region V : Applied voltage
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Ideal diode equation: quantitative solution

- Assumptions for quantitative analysis

1. The diode is being operated under steady state conditions.
2. A non-degenerately doped step junction models for the doping profile
3. The diode is 1-dimensional.
4. Low-level injection prevails in the quasi-neutral regions.
5. There’s are no processes other than drift, diffusion, and thermal recombination-
generation taking place inside the diode, specifically, GL = 0.

(A: cross-sectional area)

 Total current density is constant, but Jn and Jp depend on the position.

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Quantitative solution for quasi-neutral regions

- Let’s consider Jn(x) and Jp(x) in the quasi-neutral regions. Because the continuity
equation can be simplified to the minority carrier diffusion equation in this region.
(Note that E ~ 0 and the low-level injection assumption.)

Minority carrier diffusion equation

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Quantitative solution for quasi-neutral regions

- Under the assumption of the steady state with GL = 0,

x ≤ -xp

x ≥ xn

∆n (x) = A𝑒 + B𝑒 ∆𝑝 (x) = A𝑒 + B𝑒

- Since E ~ 0 and dn0/dx = dp0/dx = 0 in the quasi-neutral region,

(Note that n=n0+Δn and p=p0+Δp)

x ≤ -xp

x ≥ xn
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Quantitative solution for depletion region

- In the depletion region (E ≠ 0), the continuity equation can be simplified under
assumption (steady state with GL = 0).
𝜕𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽 𝜕𝑛 𝜕𝑛 1 𝜕𝐽 𝜕𝑛
= + | + | 0= + |
𝜕t 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 ( ,..) 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝐽 𝜕𝑝
=− + | + | 0=− + |
𝜕t 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 ( ,..) 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡

- Also, thermal R-G process is negligible in the depletion region

and -xp ≤ x ≤ xn
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Quantitative solution for depletion region

- Thus, Jn and Jp are constant in the depletion region, which means to be the
constancy of the carrier currents including depletion edges.

Jn (-xp ≤ x ≤ xn) = Jn(-xp) = Jn (xn)

Jp (-xp ≤ x ≤ xn) = Jp(-xp) = Jp (xn)

- Summing two equations,

J = Jn(-xp) + Jp(xn)
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Quantitative solution for boundary conditions

- For and in the quasi-neutral region, two boundary conditions are required.
At the ohmic contact,

If the ohmic contacts are far enough from the edges

of the depletion region, the boundary conditions at
the ohmic contacts will be

Band diagram for a forward-biased diode

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Quantitative solution for boundary conditions

- For and in the quasi-neutral region, two boundary conditions are required.
At the edge of depletion region,
( )

Assuming

&

( )
−𝑥 ≤ x ≤ 𝑥

FP and FN variation for a forward-biased diode

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Quantitative solution for boundary conditions

- For and in the quasi-neutral region, two boundary conditions are required.
At the edge of depletion region, At the p-edge of the depletion region,
( )

( )
or

( )
-

( )
-1)

Similarly at the n-edge,

( )
-1)
FP and FN variation for a forward-biased diode
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Solving process for pn diode currents

1. Solve the minority carrier diffusion equations with boundary conditions

①
① ② ③ ④
② ( )
-1)
ⓐ ⓑ
③ ( )
-1)

ⓐ x ≤ -xp A +B

ⓑ x ≥ xn A +B
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Solving process for pn diode currents

2. Evaluate the minority carrier current density in quasi-neutral regions

x ≤ -xp x ≥ xn

3. Compute solutions for Jn(x) and Jp(x) at the edge of the depletion region and then
add two electron/hole current densities.
J = Jn(-xp) + Jp(xn)

4. Multiply the cross-sectional area to get final diode current.

I = AJ
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Solving process for pn diode currents

- It’s useful to move the origin of coordinates to the edge of the depletion region.
n-type quasi-neutral region p-type quasi-neutral region

x’ = x - xn x’’ = -x - xp
- Then, the minority carrier diffusion equations can be expressed as below.

x ≥ xn x' ≥ 0
’

x ≤ -xp x'' ≥ 0
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Solving process for pn diode currents

- Also, the boundary conditions can be changes as below.

① ③ ( )
-1)

② ( )
-1) ④

- The general solutions are as follows.

’ ’
A +B A +B x' ≥ 0

’’ ’’
A +B A +B x'' ≥ 0

A, B: constant
L = D 𝜏 L = D 𝜏
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Solving process for pn diode currents

- First, let’s consider with boundary condition

’ ’ ’
A +B B B=0 ’

’ ’
( )
−1) x' ≥ 0

A +B A ( )
−1)

- The hole current density with x’ coordinates is

x’ = x - xn

dx’ = dx
’
∆ ( )
−1) x’’ ≥ 0

- At the n-side edge (x’=0) of the depletion region,

( )
−1)
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Solving process for pn diode currents

- Next, let’s consider with boundary condition

’’ ’’ ’’
A +B B B=0 ’’
−1)
( ) x’’ ≥ 0
’’ ’’
A +B A ( )
−1)

- The electron current density with x’ coordinates is

x’’ = -x - xp

dx’ = -dx
’’
∆ ( )
−1) x’’ ≥ 0

- At the p-side edge (x’’=0) of the depletion region,

( )
−1)
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Solving process for pn diode currents

- The total current density is obtained from J = Jn(-xp)+Jp(xn)

( )
−1)

( )
−1)

( )
−1) ( )
−1)

𝐷 n 𝐷 n
= 𝑞( + )(e( )
−1)
𝐿 N 𝐿 N

- The total current is given by I = AJ

𝐷 n 𝐷 n
I = 𝑞A( + )(e( )
−1)
𝐿 N 𝐿 N
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Ideal diode equation

𝐼 : Saturation current
V : Applied voltage

𝐷 n 𝐷 n
I = 𝑞A( + )
𝐿 N 𝐿 N

V = kT/q
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Ideal diode I-V characteristics

* Reverse bias (VA < 0)

( )

* Forward bias (VA > 0)

( )
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Ideal diode I-V saturation current

- Saturation current can be changed by semiconductor material & doping concentration.

- For Si (ni = 1010 /cm3) and Ge (ni = 1013 /cm3) at room temp.,

2
D n
- For p+n junction, I 0  qA P i
LP N D
2
D n
- For pn+ junction, I 0  qA N i
LN N A
- As a general rule, the heavily doped side of an asymmetrical junction can be ignored
in determining the electrical characteristics of the junction.
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Carrier currents

- Minority carrier current densities in QNR decay exponentially away from the
depletion region edges.
- Within the depletion region, Jn and Jp are drawn constant at their respective
depletion-edge values.
- The total current density in the depletion region is the sum of Jn and Jp and it is
constant everywhere inside the diode.
ⓒ ⓒ
ⓓ
ⓓ
ⓔ
ⓐ ⓑ
ⓔ

’’ ’
∆ ∆
ⓐ
( )
−1) ⓑ
( )
−1)
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Carrier concentration: Forward bias

- Forward bias increases the minority carrier concentration.

Low-level injection  approximately

constant majority carrier concentration

’’ ’
( )
−1)
( )
−1)

Decay due to
Decay due to recombination
recombination
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Carrier concentration: Reverse bias

- A reverse bias of only a few kT/q effectively reduces to zero the minority carrier
concentrations at the edges of the depletion region.

’
−1)
( )

’’
( )
−1)
“sink” for
minority carrier

“sink” for
minority carrier
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Ideal theory vs. Experiment: Forward bias

- 0.35V < VA < 0.7V

 Expected q/kT slope

- VA > 0.7V
 Decreased slope due to high
current

- 0.1V < VA < 0.35V

 q/2kT slope and higher
current than the expected
value
이상적인 다이오드에서는 q/kT의 기울기이지만, 가해주
는 전압마다 비선형적인 diode curve네?
Semilog plot of the forward-bias current vs. voltage
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Ideal theory vs. Experiment: Reverse bias

- Reverse-bias current does not

saturate.

- Very large reverse-bias current

flows when the reverse voltage
exceeds a certain value
⇒ breakdown
피코 = 10(-12)승
breakdown
- Estimated Io~10-14A,
but reverse current at VA=-5V is
about 20pA.
역전압에서도 계산은 I는 10(-14)인데, 실제로도
Expanded scale plot of the reverse-bias current vs. voltage 다르네?
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Reverse-bias Breakdown

- Very large reverse current flows

when the reverse voltage exceeds
VBR.
Avalanche - Practical measurements:
dominates.
the voltage where the current
exceeds a preselected value such
as 1uA or 1mA.
Zener
process - EG↑ ⇒ VBR↑
dominates.

- VBR depends on the doping

1 concentration of the lightly doped
VBR as a function of 𝑉 ∝
𝑁 . side.
the nondegenerate-side doping
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Small Reverse Bias

lattice의 진동에 의한!

- Reverse-biased and |VA|≪VBR ; small reverse bias
Reverse current is due to minority carriers randomly
entering the depletion region.
• Carriers are accelerated by E-field.
• Carrier acceleration is interrupted by collisions
with the semiconductor lattice.
• Mean free path between collisions is ~10-6cm.
• Median depletion width is ~10-4cm.
⇒ tens to thousands of collisions crossing
the depletion region
 에너지 밴드 갭이 커지면, 눈사태효과는
더 많은 에너지를 전달해야하므로, VBR
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이 더 커짐을 요구하게 된다.

Avalanching

- Reverse bias↑ ⇒ energy transferred to the semiconductor

lattice per collision↑
- |VA| → VBR ⇒ energy transferred per collision → EG
- Impact ionization creates e-h pair.
- The added carriers are accelerated by E-field and create
even more carriers; multiplication
- Avalanche breakdown does not occur sharply
at VA = －VBR.
• Carriers can occasionally gain sufficient energy
to have an ionizing collision at voltages far below
breakdown. ⇒ some carrier multiplication at voltages
far below breakdown
• Considerable carrier multiplication a few volts before
더 큰 전계(전압)에서 눈사태 효과 reaching breakdown
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Multiplication Factor

- The increase in current associated with the carrier multiplication is modeled by

introducing a multiplication factor, M.

I
실험으로 측정된 값 M ( I0 is taken to be the current without any carrier multiplication.)
I0 눈사태 일어나기 전 전류

- Empirical fit to experimental data gives

1
M m (3≤m≤6)
 VA 
1  
V
 BR 
 1. Vbr은 수치적으로 임명하는 것, 이미 소자의 특성은 정해짐
2. lattice ionization의 mean free path를 이동할 동안에만 E에 의해 에너
지 get, so mean free path가 길어지면 더 많은 운동에너지 get할 수 있
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다. On the other hand, mean free path가 짧아지면 minority carrier가 얻

Doping dependence of VBR 는 운동에너지는 줄어드므로, 눈사태를 위해 더 많은 V(=E)가 필요하다.

- When carriers gain an ionizing amount of energy in traveling a mean free path,
⇒ Breakdown takes place.

- Electric field determines the amount of energy gain in traveling a mean free path.
⇒ Critical electric field ECR corresponds to VBR.
breakdown이 일어나는 필드 값

- Ionization energy is independent of the junction doping.

- For a step junction,

1/ 2
qN D  2q  N A N D   VA 에 -VBR 값 대입,
E ( x  0)   xn     (Vbi  VA )
K S 0  K S  0  N A  N D  
because VBR은 음수값

- Making use of the fact that E(0) → ECR when Vbi－VA → Vbi+VBR≒VBR and that ECR is
independent of doping, N  ND 1 VBR >> Vbi이므로,
VBR  A 
VBR이 도핑과 상관없어야 하므로, Na와 Nd를 상쇄해야함
N AND NB
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Other dependence of VBR

- The required ionization energy obviously increases with increasing EG, but the mean
free path is found to vary only slightly for Ge, Si, and GaAs.
⇒ VBR increases going from Ge to Si to GaAs.
Eg가 커지면 VBR도 커진다.

- Temperature↑ ⇒ lattice scattering ⇒ mean free path.

⇒ (larger / smaller) electric field for avalanching ⇒ (higher / smaller) VBR.

- For a given applied voltage, the electric field is greater in the nonplanar region than in
the planar part of the device.
⇒ Breakdown occurs sooner in the nonplanar regions, lowering VBR.
“Curvature effect” 온도가 증가하면, lattice의 진동이 커져서
mean free path가 줄어들게 된다. so, 운
p-n 다이오드에 구조상 curve가 있을 수
동에너지를 받을 시간이 줄어들수 밖에
밖에 없는데, 이곳에 crowding effect
없으므로, 눈사태 효과가 발생하기 위해
(curvature effect) 즉, 이곳에 더 많은 전
더 많은 V(=E)가 필요하게 된다.
계가 발생함. 따라서 curve 구역에서 먼저
반대로 온도가 낮아지면 동일한
breakdown이 발생함. 또한 평탄한 부분
sequence로 필요한 VBR이 작아도 된다.
은 전계를 뺴앗겨 이론값보다 낮은 VBR
이 찍힌다.
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Zener Process

- Zener process: occurrence of “tunneling” in a reverse-biased diode

- Classically, the only way a particle could move to the other side of the barrier
would be to gain additional energy and go over the top of the barrier.
- Quantum mechanically, there is another way
the particle can get to the other side of the barrier
: It can go through the barrier.
⇒ The particle and the barrier are not damaged.
- Two major requirements for tunneling
• There must be filled states on one side of the
barrier and empty states on the other side at
the same energy.
• The width of the potential energy barrier must
be very thin ( less than 100Å).
Zener: 역전압에서, 전자는 파동의 성질로 potential barrier을 통과함.
조건 1: barrier의 두께는 less than 10nm
조건 2: 전자는 허용된 에너지 준위만 가진다. 따라서 반대편에 empty state가 있
어줘야한다.
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Zener Process

- Zener process, tunneling in a reverse-biased pn junction diode.

- Valence band electrons on the p-side of the junction path through the barrier
(forbidden gap) to empty states at the same energy in the conduction band on the n-
side of the junction.
- Reverse bias↑⇒ tunneling current↑
- The barrier thickness (roughly the n의 conduction band에는
depletion width) must be < 100Å. 허용된 빈 준위가 존재

⇒ Doping in excess of 1017cm-3 on the

lightly doped side of the junction is required. p의 valence band
에는 전자가 가득함
- For VBR < 6EG/q, Zener process is significant.
온도가 상승하면 atom의 진동이 발생하여 격자 간 거리가 더 넓어지는 것과 같은 효과가 발
- Temperature↑⇒ tunneling↑생함, so 에너지 대역의 spliting이 잘 안돼서 Eg이 줄어듦 = tunneling barrier의 폭이 줄어들
어서 tunneling 더 잘 돼
- Slower approach to infinity than avalanching
역전압이 상승하면, p와 n의 에너지 대역도가 더 가파르게 차이가 난다.
따라서 p에서의 전자는 갈 곳이 생긴다. (to conduction band of n type) = tunneling
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아! R-G를 무시했었는데 무
R-G Current 시하면 안되는 구나!!

- A current far in excess of that predicted by the ideal diode theory exist at small
forward biases and all reverse biases in Si diodes at room temperature.
⇒ thermal carrier recombination-generation in the depletion region
- Reverse bias
• Reduced concentration below their
equilibrium values in depletion region
⇒ thermal generation of e-h pairs
• Generated carriers are rapidly swept
into the QNR due to large E-field.
⇒ added to the reverse current

역전압에 의해서, R-G에서 생성된 전자와 양공이 이동

하여 전류가 생성됨 = R-G current by generation
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R-G Current

- Forward bias
• Increased carrier concentration in the depletion region above their equilibrium values
⇒ carrier recombination
• Carriers that cannot make it over the
potential hill are partially eliminated
via recombination at R-G centers in
the depletion region.
⇒ added to the forward current
carrier들은 barrier를 넘지는 못하지만, Et로는 이동 가능하다.
따라서 p의 hole들과 n의 electron들은 Et에서 recombine가능!
= R-G current by recombination

forward bias여서 p의 에
너지 대역이 내려옴
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Formulation of R-G Current 전자나 양공 둘 중 하나에 대해서만 계산 하면 돼

- Summing either the electrons or the holes created/destroyed throughout the

depletion region per second and multiplying by q gives the magnitude of the added
current.
외우지마 n
xn
I R G   qA dx A dx = 부피
 x p t 부피 * 농도 = 개수
thermal R G 개수 * 전하량 = 전체 전하량
2 so 전체 전하량/dt = 전류
n np  ni

t thermal R G
 p (n  n1 )   n ( p  p1 )

 ET  Ei   Ei  ET 
n1  ni exp  p1  ni exp 
 kT   kT 
2
xn np  ni
I R G  qA dx
 x p  (n  n )   ( p  p )
p 1 n 1
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

depletion 영역에서는 캐리어가

Formulation of R-G Current 거의 없다 so, n,p=0
small reverse

- For reverse biases greater than a few kT/q, n→0, p→0.

The integral is evaluated to obtain
W = depletion width는 역전압에 비례하고, 이는 전류와 비례한다.

V 
개 중요
qAni
I R G   W  I R G  W  Vbi  VA
2 0
A

1 p 
 0   p 1   n 1    p e ( E 
외우지마 n 1 T  Ei ) / kT
  n e ( Ei  ET ) / kT
2  ni ni  2

- For forward biases greater than a few kT/q,

small forward
I R G  expqVA kT , 1    2
중요

- Combined forward and reverse bias dependence

외우지마
qAni e qVA / kT  1
I R G  W
2 0  V  V  n p qV / 2 kT 
1  bi A
e A 
 kT q 2 0 
 
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Total Diode Current

- The total diode current is the sum of the ideal current and the R-G current

I  I Ideal  I R G
𝐷 n 𝐷 n
𝐼 = 𝑞A( + )(e −1)
𝐿 N 𝐿 N

- For Si @ RT, qAniW/2τ0≫I0 ⇒ IR-G dominates at reverse and small forward biases.
- Reverse bias IR-G is proportional to W. ⇒ Reverse current never saturates.
- Forward bias current varies as exp(qVA/2kT) for VA> few kT/q at small forward biases.
- With increasing forward bias, IIdeal component eventually overtakes IR-G component
leading to exp(qVA/kT) dependence of total current.
- I0 ∝ ni2 and IR-G ∝ ni ⇒ Ge diode @ RT and Si diodes at elevated temperatures
closely approach the ideal current characteristics.
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

VA  Vbi High-current Phenomena

- When VA→Vbi; Large current flows. Ideal diode assumptions and approximations are
no more valid.

- The applied voltage is also dropped across the series resistance of the QNR and the
contacts as well as the depletion region.

- High-level injection leads to a reduced current varying as exp(qVA/2kT).

KONKUK UNIVERSITY

Series Resistance Rs

- RS: resistance of QNR + contact resistance

- VJ: “junction voltage”, voltage drop across
the depletion region.
VJ = VA - IRS
- Diffusion current dominates at high current level.
⇒ I  I 0 e qVJ / kT  I 0 e q V A  IRS / kT  VA  Vb i
KONKUK UNIVERSITY

High-Level Injection

- Minority carrier concentration adjacent to the depletion region approaches the doping
concentration at few tenths of a volt below Vbi.
- Further increase in VA ⇒ “high-level injection”
- Majority carrier concentration also increase to maintain charge neutrality in QNR.
- High-level injection ⇒ current varying roughly as exp(qVA/2kT).
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Exercise

1. Photogeneration
2. Thermal recombination in the depletion region
3. Avalanching and/or Zener process
4. Low-level injection
5. Depletion approximation
6. Thermal generation in the depletion region
7. Band bending
8. Series resistance
9. VA > Vbi
10. High-level injection
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Charge Control Approach

- Basic carrier variable: charge associated with the minority carrier excess (or deficit)
within an entire QNR.
- Total excess hole charge in the n-side QNR of a forward biased p+-n junction diode.

QP  qA pn ( x, t )dx
xn

- From the minority carrier diffusion equation,

dQP Q
 iDIFF  P
dt p
- In the steady state we can equate QP to the product of Δpn(xn) and ALP giving

   
2 2
QP LP ni qV A / kT DP ni
I DIFF   qA e  1  qA e qVA / kT  1
p  p ND LP N D

⇒ Expression for the diffusion current in the p+-n junction diode.

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Narrow-Base Diode

- Narrow base diode: width of QNR on the lightly doped side ≤ diffusion length
- xc: distance from the metallurgical junction to the n-side contact (x’c = xc－ xn)
- At a well-made or ohmic contact, R-G rate is high and np= np0, pn= pn0.
- We must solve
-xp xn xc
d pn pn
2
0  DP   0  x '  x 'c wide-base
dx'2 p p+ SCR n
xc>>Lp
subject to the boundary conditions
2 x'=0
n
 
pn ( x'  0)  i e qVA / kT  1 ,
ND
xc'
x'

n narrow-base
pn ( x'  x'c )  0 p+ SCR xc<<Lp
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Narrow-Base Diode

- Solving the differential equation using the boundary conditions,

sinh ( x'c  x' ) LP 

pn ( x' )  pn (0)  0  x '  x 'c
sinhx'c LP 

dpn
As a result, I DIFF  AJ P ( x'  0)   qADP
dx ' x ' 0

leading to  
I DIFF  I 0 ' e qV A / kT  1
2
DP ni cosh( xc ' LP )
I 0 '  qA
LP N D sinh( xc ' LP )
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Limiting Cases/Punch-Through

    0 1   2 2   0
sinh( )    cosh( )   
e 2     e 2   

- If x’c/LP ≫ 1, (wide base)

exp( x'c  x' ) LP  2
pn ( x' )  pn (0)  pn (0) exp( x' LP ) and I0 '  I0
expx'c LP  2
- If x’c/LP ≪ 1, (narrow base)
 x '  x'   x'  ni 2 DP
pn ( x' )  pn (0) c   pn (0)1   and I 0 '  qA
 x 'c   x 'c  N D x 'c

- For VA<0, IDIFF =－I0 ∝－1/x’c does not saturate.

- If xc is sufficiently small, x’c→ 0 ⇒ entire device region becomes depleted.
: “punch-through” I (V  0)  
DIFF A