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Sampling methods

Preprint · September 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22856.57605

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Sanjoy Datta
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 Concept of sampling methods and different types of sampling

Introduction to Sampling

The way in which we select a sample of individuals to be research participants is

critical. How we select participants (random sampling) will determine the population to which
we may generalize our research findings. The procedure that we use for assigning participants
to different treatment conditions (random assignment) will determine whether bias exists in
our treatment groups (Are the groups equal on all known and unknown factors?).

If we do a poor job at the sampling stage of the research process, the integrity of the entire
project is at risk. If we are interested in the effect of TV violence on children, which children are we
going to observe? Where do they come from? How many? How will they be selected? These are
important questions.

Distinguishing Between a Sample and a Population

Before describing sampling procedures, we need to define a few key terms. The term
population means all members that meet a set of specifications or a specified criterion. For
example, the population of the United States is defined as all people residing in the United
States. A single member of any given population is referred to as an element. When only
some elements are selected from a population, we refer to that as a sample.

Types of sampling

1) Probability sampling methods.

2) Non-probability sampling methods.
Probability Sampling Methods

> Probability sampling is also called as random sampling or representative sampling.

> In probability sampling every member of the population has a known (non zero)
probability of being included in the sample.
> The probabilities can be assigned to each unit of the population objectively.
> These techniques need population to be very precisely defined.
> These techniques cannot be used for the population that is too general a category
found almost everywhere in the world.
> For instance if our target population is defined as college students. It means person
studying at any college of the world is an element of our population.
> In this case probability sampling can be done as the population is precisely defined
and limited to an infinite number of elements.

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 1
Advantages:

 This sampling technique reduces the chance of systematic errors.

 The methods minimize the chance of sampling biases.
 A better representative sample is produced using probability sampling techniques.
 Inferences drawn from sample are generalizable to the population.
Disadvantages:

 The techniques need a lot of efforts.

 A lot of time is consumed.
 They are expensive.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

> Probability sampling is also called as judgment or non-random sampling.

> Every unit of population does not get an equal chance of participation in the
investigation. No random selection is made.
> The selection of the sample is made on the basis of subjective judgment of the
investigator.
> These techniques need not population to be very precisely defined.
> These techniques can be used for both types of population: the population that is too
general a category, and the population that is a specific category (precisely defined).
> For instance if our target population is defined as college students. It means person
studying at any college of the world is an element of our population. It is too general a
category consisting of infinite number of elements.
> Thus, non probability techniques make it possible to take a sample of population the
elements of which are infinite in number.
> Non-probability sampling is well suited for exploratory research intended to generate
new ideas that will be systematically tested later.
> Probability sampling is well suited for research that is intended to develop the
understanding of a population.
> Advantages:

o The techniques need less effort.

o These techniques need less time to finish up.
o They are not much costly.
> Disadvantages:

o The sampling techniques are prone to encounter with systematic errors and
sampling biases.
o The sample cannot be claimed to be a good representative of the population.
o Inferences drawn from sample are not generalisable to the population.

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 2
Types of probability sampling methods
Following methods are used for probability sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multistage Sampling

1) Simple Random Sampling:

> In this type of sampling each and every element of the population has an equal chance
of being selected in the sample.
> The population must contain a finite number of elements that can be listed or mapped.
> Every element must be mutually exclusive i.e. able to distinguish from one another
and does not have any overlapping characteristics.
> The population must be homogenous i.e. every element contains same kind of
characteristics that meets the described criteria of target population.
2) Systematic Random Sampling

> This type of sampling is also used for homogenous population.

> It is a bit different from simple random sampling.
> Unlike simple random sampling, there is not an equal probability of every element
been included.
> In this type of sampling the elements are selected at a regular interval.
> The interval may be in terms of time, space or order. For instance, element appearing
after every 30 minutes, or present at a distance of two meters, or every 5th element
present on a list.
> Thus this regularity and uniformity in selection makes the sampling systematic.
> The list of elements may or may not be required before the conduction of research.
> Sometimes it is not even possible to create a list because of the nature of population.
Say, if it is possible to tell who is going to visit the coffee shop today.

3) Stratified Random Sampling

> This type of sampling method is used when population is heterogeneous. i.e. every element
of population does not matches all the characteristics of the predefined criteria.
> Instead the elements differ from one another on a characteristic.
> So the sub groups are formed that are homogenous i.e. all the elements within a group
contains same kind of characteristics (keep in mind, those characteristics are to be taken
into account that defines the target population).
> The sub groups are called as strata (single stratum).
> The topic and nature of the investigation tells on what criterion the strata are to be made.

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 3
> Common criterions used for stratification are gender, age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status.
However, the criterion vary greatly investigation to investigation
> This formation of strata can also be called a mini reproduction of population as each
stratum consists of elements that are different from other strata’s element in some
characteristics.
> For instance if an investigation is taking young adults into account, so this population may
need to be divided (of course, on the basis of what the investigation is about) into sub
groups like male young adults and female young adults, educated young adults and
uneducated young adults, high income young adults and low income young adults etc. in
this way each stratum is a different population
> The sample is selected from each stratum randomly.
> There are two techniques that are used to allocate sample from strata: proportional
allocation technique and equal allocation technique.
> Using proportional allocation technique the sample size of a stratum is made proportional
to the number of elements present in the stratum.
> Using equal allocation technique same number of participants is drawn from each stratum
regardless of the number of elements in each stratum.

4) Cluster Sampling

> The group of elements residing in one geographical region is called as cluster.
> And sampling of clusters is called as cluster sampling.
> This sampling technique is used when the elements of population are spread over a wide
geographical area.
> The population is divided into sub-groups called as clusters on the basis of their
geographical allocation.
> Usually this division of population is similar to what the standard of division has been
used yet.
> For instance population spread over a country is clustered up into cities, population spread
over a city is clustered up into towns etc.
> The clusters ought to be homogenous among them on the characteristic variable of the
research.
> However for being truly representative sample, the selected clusters must capture the
heterogeneity of population.
> For instance if in the selection of towns only small towns are selected leaving behind the
bigger towns, the sample is not going to be a true representative of the population.

5) Multistage Sampling

> It is a sampling technique where two or more probability techniques are combined.
> It is used when the elements of population are spread over a wide geographical region
and it is not possible to obtain a representative sample with only one aforementioned
technique.

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 4
 > It can be described as sampling within the sample.
> The final unit or element of population which is used in investigation is obtained after
sampling at several stages.

Random sampling methods

 Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population is equally likely to be

selected).
 Systematic Sampling: Simple Random Sampling in an ordered systematic way, e.g.
every 100th name in the yellow pages.
 Stratified Sampling: Population divided into different groups from which we sample
randomly.
 Cluster Sampling: Population is divided into (geographical) clusters - some clusters
are chosen at random - within cluster units are chosen with Simple Random Sampling.

Terminologies

 Element - a single indivisible entity of a population.

 Exhaustive list - a list which contains each and every element in a way that not a
single element is left.
 Generalizability - the extent to which inferences drawn from a sample are true for the
population.
 Heterogeneous population - a population the elements of which are not similar to
each other.
 Homogenous population - a population whose every element is similar regarding the
variables required for the research.
 Investigator/ Researcher - one who is conducting a research.
 Lottery method - method of selecting elements by taking out the slips from a bowl,
box etc.
 Mutually exclusive category - a category of sampling technique which is totally
different and is not a sub or super category of other types.
 Participant - a person taking part in a research.
 Sampling bias - a situation where the selected sample does not truly reflect the
characteristics of population.
 Sub groups - groups within a population that differ from one another on some
variables.
 Systematic errors - the errors that are caused by over or under representation of some
characteristics of population in the sample.

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 5
 Difference between probability and non-probability sampling techniques

Non probability Sampling

Probability sampling Technique
Techniques
Requirement of Require more resources in terms of
lesser resources are required
resources time, cost and efforts.

random; non random;

Selection of
no subjective judgment of researcher subjective judgments of researcher is
sample
is involved involved

Quality of
Inferences generalizable to the population not generalizable to the population
Drawn

Best suited for the goal of which is to understand a the goal of which is to understand or
researches population develop a concept or idea

elements of which are finite elements of

Applicable to elements of which are finite in number
which are infinite which is a too general
The kind of which is precisely defined and a
category, not very precisely defined
Population specific category
which is precisely defined

Chances of
sampling errors and systematic biases prone to encounter with systematic
Error and
are less likely to occur errors and sampling biases
Biases

• Volunteer sampling
• Convenient sampling
• Simple random sampling • Purposive sampling
• Quota sampling
• Systematic random sampling
(proportional
Types • Stratified random sampling and non proportional)
• Cluster sampling • Snowball sampling
• Multistage sampling • Matched Sampling
• Genealogy Based
Sampling

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 6
 Name of Characteristics Method Benefits Draw backs/ Crucial
Type Issues

Simple Every element has an Exhaustive list of Omits the chance Difficult for very large
Random equal chance of been elements is produced of systematic population
Sampling selected Each element is allotted a errors and
Exhaustive lists of number sampling biases
elements are essential
Numbers are randomly Representative
Elements are selectedselected through lottery sample is
randomly method or using produced
computer generated
random table
Systematic elements are selected in the case where the lists ensures the If the existing grouping
Random at a regular interval are available, the lists are extension of sample is biased in some way
Sampling (may be time, order or compiled to form a single to the whole the sample may not be
space) list each element is given population make it representative difficult
Exhaustive list may or a number possible to get a for very large population
may not be required is to select an appropriate probable sample
used when a interval, N* is divided by where list of
homogenous n**; number obtained by elements cannot be
population is grouped this division (say k) is the produced
within itself size of interval first an
element is selected at
random and then every kth
element from the first
selection is included in
the sample
Stratified is used when a first the population is ensures a it requires more
Random population is divided into representative resources in terms of
Sampling heterogeneous homogenous sub groups sample for a time and efforts if the
called as strata then heterogeneous variable used for
elements are randomly population making strata is not
selected from each appropriate depending
stratum on the research, the
whole working may go
in vain

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 7
 Cluster is used when first the population is make the there is possibility of
sampling the target divided into clusters probability systematic error if the
population is each cluster is allotted a sampling selected clusters fail to
homogenous number possible for a capture the
but is spread then the decided number large characteristic diversity
over a wide of clusters are selected population of the target population,
geographical randomly the sample cannot be
region instead claimed to be
of elements representative of the
clusters are population
randomly
selected
a cluster is
defined as a
group of
elements
residing
together in one
geographical
region

Multistage it can be first the target a representative if the characteristic

sampling defined as population is divided sample is criterion used for the
sampling within into clusters produced for a formation of strata at
the clusters are randomly population that any stage is not
sample selected is spread over a appropriate, the sample
two or more out of the selected wide cannot be
probability clusters, there may be a geographical representative of the
sampling formation of clusters or region and is population if also there
techniques are strata (in case of also occurs a systematic
combined heterogeneity of heterogeneous error in the selection of
first a sample is population) clusters, the results
extracted now a random selection would not be able to
randomly of clusters is done/ or generalize
and then from there occurs a selection
the of elements from each
selected sample strata the final units
another sample selected are investigated
is
extracted
thus the to
reach a
final sample
there are
at least two
stages

Dr. Sanjoy Datta, Asst. Professor, Dept. of AGB, F/VAS, WBUAFS Page 8

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