Chapter 11: Applications and

Processing of Metal Alloys

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are metal alloys classified and what are their
common applications?
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals?
• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys?

Chapter 11 - 1
 Classification of Metal Alloys
Metal Alloys

Adapted from Fig.

Ferrous Nonferrous 11.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

_______
Steels __________
Cast Irons
_________
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5 wt%C
___________

T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,

1600 graphite/cementite
δ
1400 L Fig. 9.24, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
[Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
γ+L Diagrams, 2nd edition, Vol. 1, T. B.
1200 γ 1148ºC L+ Fe3C Massalski (Editor-in-Chief), 1990.
austenite Eutectic: Reprinted by permission of ASM
1000 4.30 International, Materials Park, OH.]

γ + Fe3C
α800 727ºC Fe3C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 α + Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C
Chapter 11 - 2
 Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain
plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility
Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 13.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 3
 Refinement of Steel from Ore
_____
Iron Ore ______________

BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
gas C + O2 →CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of _____ CO2 + C → 2CO
and _________ 3CO + Fe2O3 →2Fe +3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3 → CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 → slag

Chapter 11 - 4
 Ferrous Alloys
Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx ___________________
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
_______________________ >11% Cr

Chapter 11 - 5
 Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > ______________
– more _________________________
• Low melting – relatively easy to cast
• Generally brittle

• Cementite decomposes to ______ + _______

Fe3C à 3 Fe (α) + C (____________)

– generally a slow process

Chapter 11 - 6
 Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram
T(°C)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
γ+L Graphite
• __________ 1200 γ 1153°C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• __________
1000
α+γ γ + Graphite
800
740°C
0.65
600
Fig. 11.2, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
α + Graphite
[Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
Diagrams, T. B. Massalski (Editor-in-
400
Chief), 1990. Reprinted by permission of 0 1 2 3 4 90 100
ASM International, Materials Park, OH.] (Fe) C, wt% C

Chapter 11 - 7
 Types of Cast Iron
Figs. 11.3(a) & (b),
Callister &
_______ iron Rethwisch 9e.
[Courtesy of C. H.

• ___________________ Brady and L. C. Smith,

National Bureau of

Standards, Washington,

• weak & brittle in tension DC (now the National

Institute of Standards

and Technology,
• stronger in compression Gaithersburg, MD]
• excellent _________ dampening
• wear resistant

________ iron
• add Mg and/or Ce
• graphite as _______ not flakes
• matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile
Chapter 11 - 8
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Figs. 11.3(c) & (d),

Courtesy of Amcast Industrial Corporation

Callister &
White iron Rethwisch 9e.

• < 1 wt% Si
• pearlite + ___________
• very hard and ___________

______________ iron

Iron Castings Society, Des Plaines, IL

Reprinted with permission of the 
• heat treat white iron at 800-900°C
• graphite in ____________
• reasonably strong and ductile

Chapter 11 - 9
Types of Cast Iron (cont.)
Compacted __________ iron

Courtesy of Sinter-Cast, Ltd.

• relatively high _________________
• good resistance to thermal shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures

Fig. 11.3(e), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 11 - 10
 Production of Cast Irons

Fig.11.5, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from W. G. Moffatt, G. W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. I, Structure, p. 195. Copyright
© 1964 by John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.)

Chapter 11 - 11
 Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high densities

2) Relatively low electrical conductivities
3) Generally poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 11 - 12
 Nonferrous Alloys
• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low ρ: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be : -very low ρ: 1.7 g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-relatively low ρ: 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 11 - 13
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– ____________ - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

• _____________________
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• Deformation ___________ • Deformation below
high enough for _________________
________________ temperature
• Large ______________ • Strain hardening occurs
• Small ______________

Chapter 11 - 14
 Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (__________________) • Rolling (________________)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force Fig. 11.9,
• Drawing • __________ Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 11 - 15
 Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

– _________________________, perhaps alloying
elements added, then _______ in a mold
– ______________________________
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– ______________________________

Chapter 11 - 16
 Metal Fabrication Methods (iii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• ________ Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• What material will withstand T >1600°C
auto engine blocks)
and is ____________ and easy to mold?
• Answer: ______!!!
Sand Sand
• To create mold, pack _____ around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape

Chapter 11 - 17
 Metal Fabrication Methods (iv)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• _____________________
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
• Stage I — _____ formed by pouring wax I
____________ around wax pattern.
Plaster allowed to harden.
• Stage II — Wax is melted and then
poured from mold—hollow mold
II
cavity remains.
• Stage III — __________________
into mold and allowed to solidify. III

Chapter 11 - 18
 Metal Fabrication Methods (v)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
-- high ____________ -- __________ shapes
-- for alloys having ____ melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified

Chapter 11 - 19
 Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• _________________ • ____________
(metals w/low ductilities) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Fig. 11.10, Callister
& Rethwisch 9e.
densify [From Iron Castings
Handbook, C.F. Walton
• Heat-affected ______: and T.J. Opar (Ed.),
Iron Castings Society,
point contact densification
by diffusion at
(region in which the Des Plaines, IL,1981.]
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).
Chapter 11 - 20
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
• Stress Relief: Reduce • __________ (steels):
stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- ___________ cooling below Teutectoid & hold for
- phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
Annealing to get γ, then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• _______________:
Negate effects of
• _________(steels): Deform
cold working by
steel with large grains. Then heat
(recovery/
treat to allow _______________
recrystallization)
and formation of smaller grains.

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 11 - 21
Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths

a) _____________ A
b) _____________ P

c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite) A
B

Fig. 10.25, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

[Adapted from H. Boyer (Editor), Atlas of
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
Transformation Diagrams, 1977.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.] b) a)
c)
Chapter 11 - 22
 Hardenability -- Steels
• __________ – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure ___________.
Fig. 11.12, Callister &
flat ground Rethwisch 9e.
specimen (Adapted from A.G. Guy,
Essentials of Materials Science,
(heated to γ McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1978.)
phase field) Rockwell C
24°C water hardness tests

• Plot __________ versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Fig. 11.13, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 23
 Reason Why Hardness Changes with
Distance
• The cooling rate _________ with distance from quenched end.

Hardness, HRC
60

40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(°C) 0%
600 100%
Fig. 11.14, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
[Adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.), Atlas of
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
400 Transformation Diagrams, 1977. Reproduced
by permission of ASM International, Materials
M(start) Park, OH.]
200
A→M

0 M(finish)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
Chapter 11 - 24
 Hardenability vs Alloy Composition
100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (°C/s)
• ____________ curves for
60

Hardness, HRC
five alloys each with, 100

80 %M
C = _____________ 4340
50
40 4140

Fig. 11.15, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

8640
(Adapted from figure furnished courtesy
Republic Steel Corporation.) 5140
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

• "Alloy Steels" 800

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) T(°C) TE
600
-- contain Ni, Cr, Mo A B
(0.2 to 2 wt%) 400
-- these ___________ shift
the "nose" to longer times M(start)
200
(from A to B) M(90%)
-- martensite is easier 0 -1 3 5
10 10 10 10 Time (s)
to form
Chapter 11 - 25
 Influences of Quenching Medium &
Specimen Geometry
• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air _________ _________
oil _________ _________
water _________ _________
• Effect of specimen geometry:
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases:
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases
-- hardness throughout interior increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

Chapter 11 - 26
 Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede _________ motion.
• Ex: Al-Cu system 700
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600
-- Pt A: _______________
α+L α θ+L
A
(get α solid solution) 500 θ
-- Pt B: ______ to room temp. α+θ
400 C
(retain α solid solution)
-- Pt C: ________ to nucleate 300
small θ __________ within (Al) 0 B 10 20 30 40 50 wt% Cu
α phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
• Other alloys that precipitation
Fig. 11.25, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
harden: Temp. (Adapted from J.L. Murray, International
Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985. Reprinted by
• Cu-Be Pt A (sol’n heat treat) permission of ASM International.)

• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate θ)

Adapted from Fig.

11.23, Callister & Time
Rethwisch 9e. Pt B
Chapter 11 - 27
 Influence of Precipitation Heat
Treatment on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• _________ on TS curves. • ________ on %EL curves.
• __________ T accelerates
process.

30
tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
400
20
300
149ºC 10
200 204ºC 149ºC
204ºC
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
Fig. 11.28, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys
and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM International,
Materials Park, OH.] Chapter 11 - 28
 Summary

• Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons

• Non-ferrous alloys:
-- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals.
• Metal fabrication techniques:
-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
• Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.

Chapter 11 - 29