Permeability and Seepage :

• One dimensional flow, Darcy‟s law, laboratory methods for

determination of co-efficient of permeability.
• Seepage through soils - two-dimensional flow, flow nets, uplift
pressure, piping;
• Principle of effective stress, capillarity, seepage force and
quicksand condition.

Module 3 Permeability and Seepage

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WCE Syllabus
No. Modules Hrs
1 Introduction 04
a) Definitions
b) Three-phase system and phase relationships:
c) Determination of various soil parameters in laboratory

2 Soil Classification 04
a) Grain size and hydrometer analysis,
b) Plasticity Characteristics of Soil and their determination
c) Unified and IS soil classification system.

3 Permeability and Seepage 05 hrs

a) Permeability
b) Seepage
c) Effective stress

4 Compaction of Soils: 03
a) Theory of Compaction
b) Field compaction

5 Compressibility and Consolidation of soils 05

6 Shear Strength of Soils 05

2
 GATE :Section 3: LOGO
Geotechnical Engineering (8 %)
Soil Mechanics:
 Origin of soils, soil structure and fabric; Three-phase system and phase relationships, index
properties; Unified and Indian standard soil classification system;
 Permeability - one dimensional flow, Darcy‟s law; Seepage through soils - two-dimensional flow,
flow nets, uplift pressure, piping; Principle of effective stress, capillarity, seepage force and
quicksand condition;
 Compaction in laboratory and field conditions;
 One-dimensional consolidation, time rate of consolidation;
 Mohr‟s circle, stress paths, effective and total shear strength parameters, characteristics of clays
and sand.

Foundation Engineering:
 Sub-surface investigations - scope, drilling bore holes, sampling, plate load test, standard
penetration and cone penetration tests;
 Earth pressure theories -Rankine and Coulomb;
 Stability of slopes - finite and infinite slopes, method of slices and Bishop‟s method;
 Stress distribution in soils - Boussinesq‟s and Westergaard‟s theories, pressure bulbs;
 Shallow foundations - Terzaghi‟s and Meyerhoff‟s bearing capacity theories, effect of water table;
Combined footing and raft foundation; Contact pressure;
 Settlement analysis in sands and clays;
 Deep foundations - types of piles, dynamic and static formulae, load capacity of piles in sands and
clays, pile load test, negative skin friction.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW LOGO
OF WATER THROUGH SOILS

 The flow of water has caused instability and failure of

many geotechnical structures (e.g., roads, bridges,
dams, and excavations).
 “hydraulic conductivity”
 (also called permeability).

“Permeability is defined as the property of a soil which allows

the seepage of fluids through its interconnected void spaces. “
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Darcy’s Law

Note: velocity v given by Equation is the discharge velocity calculated

on the basis of the gross cross-sectional area.
Since water can flow only through the interconnected pore spaces, the
actual velocity of seepage through soil, can be given by
 When the properties of water affecting the flow are included, we
can express k by the relation,
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Validity of Darcy’s Law
 true for laminar flow of water through the void spaces

 For laminar flow conditions in soils, experimental results

show that
• flow of water through all types of
sol (sand, silt, and clay), the flow
is laminar and Darcy‟s law is valid.

• With coarse sands, gravels, and

turbulent flow of water can be
expected,
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Factor Affecting the k
 Void ratio(e) : k increases with increase of void ratio.

 Degree of saturation(S) : Permeability increases with

increase of degree of saturation

 Composition of soil particles: For sands and silts this is

not important; however, for soils with clay minerals this is
one of the most important factors.

 Soil structure : Fine-grained soils with a flocculated

structure have a higher coefficient of permeability than
those with a dispersed structure.

 Viscosity of permeant / fluid

 Density and concentration of permeant/ fluid

 LOGO
Empirical Relationships….
 For fairly uniform sand (that is, sand with a small
uniformity coefficient), Hazen (1930) proposed an empirical
relationship for hydraulic conductivity in the form
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Effective ‘k’ for Stratified Soils
 Natural soil deposits are stratified.
 If the stratification is continuous, the effective k for flow in the
horizontal and vertical directions can be readily calculated

Effective k can be
calculated as weighted
average of all k
values.

q is the flow rate through the

stratified soil layers combined
Substitute values of q in above equation,
 Flow in vertical
direction in stratified
soil deposits
Total head loss,
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Directional Variation in „k‟
 Most soils are not isotropic with respect to
permeability.
 In a given soil deposit, the magnitude of k
changes with respect to the direction of flow.
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT IN THE
LABORATORY

1. Constant-head test.
2. Falling-head test.
3. Indirect determination from consolidation test.
4. Indirect determination by horizontal capillary test.
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Constant-Head Test
v  ki
Q / A QL
k v/i  
H / L Ah

• constant head (h).

• outflow rate (Q)
• Q=V/t = volume of water
collected in a graduated
cylinder divided by
duration (t)
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Falling-Head Test
 used for fine-grained soils because the flow of
water through these soils is too slow to get
reasonable measurements from the constant-
head test.
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Examples
2.
Problem
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Determination of k in the Field
Why in the Field?
• It is sometimes difficult to obtain undisturbed soil
specimens from the field.
• For large construction projects, it is advisable to
conduct permeability tests in situ and compare the
results with those obtained in the laboratory.
• Several techniques
– pumping from wells, borehole tests,
» pumping from a well at a constant rate and observing
the steady state water table in nearby observation
wells.
» The steady state is established when the water level
in the test well and the observation wells become
constant
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Pumping from wells


.
 Summary
Effective
: Effective Stress in soil uptill now…..
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 Effect of Variation in Ground Surface (GL) :

I. Raising GL.. (Earth-fill) causes increase in total and effective
stresses.

II. Lowering of GL (Excavation) causes decrease in the total as
well as the effective stresses .

Effect of Capillary Rise :

Rise of capillary water causes increase in effective stress as

capillary pressure is negative / tensile.
 It is of temporary nature and hence neglected in analysis and
designs.
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Negative Pore Water Pressure
Effects of Capillarity :
 In silts and fine sands, the soil above the groundwater can be saturated by
capillary action.
 Consider a single idealized tube, as shown in Figure
For soils,
d = equivalent to 0.1 D10 (effective size)

“smaller the soil pores, the higher the capillary zone. The capillary
zone”

The porewater pressure due to capillarity is negative

(suction),
= function of the size of the soil pores and the water content.

NOTE: The approach we have taken to interpret capillary action in soils is simple,
but it is sufficient for most geotechnical applications. For a comprehensive
treatment of capillary action, you can refer to Adamson (1982).
Capillary Pressure ¡n Soils
Capillary Rise of Water ¡n Soils
 In contrast to capillary tubes the
continuous voids in soils have a
variable width.

 When water rises in to the network

from below, the lower part of the
network becomes completely
saturated.

 In the upper part, however, the

water occupies only the narrowest
voids and the wider areas remain
filled with air.

 Capillary Pressure =
n= porosity
 Capillary Siphoning

 Capillary forces are able to raise water against the force of

gravity not only into capillary tubes or the voids in columns
of dry soil, but also into narrow open channels or V-shaped
grooves.
 If the highest point of the groove is located below the level
to which the surface tension can lift the water, the capillary
forces will pull the water into the descending part of the
groove and will slowly empty the vessel.
 LOGO
Effective Stress Example 1
 A borehole at a site
reveals the soil
profile shown in
Figure

 Plot the distribution

of vertical total and
effective stresses
with depth.
Example 2: Murthy Book : Solved Example
Depth Total Stress Pore Water Pressure Effective Stress
(m) (KN/m2) (KN/m2) (KN/m2)

0 0 0 0

2 2x 17.31 =34.62 -2*9.81*n= -8.08 42.70

3 53.95 -4.04 58

4 73.28 0 73.28

6 111.94 19.62 92.32

Seepage

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Introduction
 In many instances, the flow of water through soil
is not in one direction only, nor is it uniform over
the entire area perpendicular to the flow.
 In such cases: use of graphs referred to as flow
nets.
 is based on Laplace’s equation of continuity, which
governs the steady flow condition for a given point in
the soil mass.
Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward LOGO
Seepage
 • lateral resistance provided by the
embedment is reduced.
Effects of seepage on
the retaining wall • Seepage stresses in this problem play a
double role (increase the lateral disturbing
force and reduce the lateral resistance) in
reducing the stability of a geotechnical
structure
If the rate of seepage and thereby the
hydraulic gradient gradually are increased,
a limiting condition will be reached, at
which point

boiling, or a quick condition

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Problem
 First calculate u for
boundary conditions
and then for point A,
interpolate
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Seepage Force
 “effect of seepage is to increase or decrease the
effective stress at a point in a layer of soil”
 seepage force per unit volume of soil =

 Flow nets can be used to find the hydraulic

gradient at any point and, thus, the seepage
force per unit volume of soil.
 LOGO
Seepage

 In many instances, the flow of water through soil

is not in one direction only, nor is it uniform over
the entire area perpendicular to the flow.

 In such cases: use of graphs referred to as flow

nets.
 is based on Laplace’s equation of continuity, which
governs the steady flow condition for a given point in
the soil mass.
 LOGO
Laplace’s Equation of Continuity
 let us consider a single row of sheet piles that have been driven
into a permeable soil layer,
 Assuming that water
is incompressible and
that no volume
change in the soil
mass occurs,

 we know that the

total rate of inflow
should equal the total
rate of outflow
 With Darcy‟s law, the discharge velocities can be expressed
as

If the soil is isotropic with respect to

the hydraulic conductivity,
 Continuity Equation for , LOGO
Solution of Simple Flow Problems

One-dimensional flow problem

 constant head is maintained across a two-layered soil

for the flow of water.
 The head difference between the top of soil layer no. 1
and the bottom of soil layer no. 2 is h1.
 Because the flow is in only the z direction, the
continuity equation is simplified to the form;

Note :
Target
h : head lost of plane in soil mass w.r.t. datum level :Dependent Variable
z : space coordinate of plane in soil mass : Independent variable
 Datum level for z

Datum level for h

z: depth coordinate
h: head difference w.r.t. datum
As it is a One-dimensional flow
problem,

..Integrated both sides twice w.r.t. z

(A1 & A2 are constants of integration)

Substitute Boundary conditions

For flow through soil layer no. 2, the boundary conditions are,

Use 1st Boundary condition;

Also, from 2nd Condition

At any given time, flow through soil layer no. 1 equals flow through
soil layer no. 2, so
Note :
 h : Dependent Variable
 Z : Independent variable
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Flow Nets
 The continuity equation in an isotropic medium represents two orthogonal
families of curves—that is, the flow lines and the equipotential lines.

 A flow line is a line along which a water particle will travel

 An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all
points is equal.

Graphic construction of
a flow net,
 takes several trials.
 keep the boundary
conditions in mind.
 The equipotential lines
intersect the flow lines at
right angles.
 The flow elements formed
are approximate squares.
 LOGO
Seepage Calculation from a Flow Net
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LOGO
 Effective Stress under LOGO
Transient Hydrodynamic Conditions
 When saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase,
the pore water pressure is increased suddenly.

sandy soils clay layer

Elastic immediately immediately
settlement
Consolidation immediately Takes time
setlement

Example: Parking lot vacating after a Cricket match

• Time taken for water to drain out will depend upon k,
drainage path, etc.

• Therefore Effective stress will be function of space and time(and

all other soil properties)

• time-dependent deformation of saturated clayey soil best can

be understood by considering a simple model that consists of a
cylinder with a spring at its center.(Mechanistic model)
Clay has a very low “k”
and
water is incompressible
as compared with the soil
skeleton