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Republic of the Philippines

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus
College of Engineering and Architecture
Gmelina Road, CSU Carig compound, Carig Sur
Tuguegarao City, 3500, Cagayan

Engr. Ralph S. Reyes, CE

Instructor, CSU Carig Campus
College of Engineering and Architecture

Unit 2
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT,
PLANNING and DESIGN

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Lesson 1

HIGHWAY PLANNING
DEVELOPMENT

Phases of Project Management

Life cycle
 Initiation : Conception “Briefing Stage”
 Planning : Designing Stage
 Execution : Procurement : Preconstruction:
Tendering Stage
 Control & Monitoring : Construction Stage
 Closing : Close out : Commissioning Stage

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Planning

 It is very important stage in the field of

construction because any modification in the
project after this stage would prove
expensive.
 Once the design is finalized and approved,
it’s time to move on to the preconstruction
phase.

Planning

 Deliverables and goals are documented

along with the needed requirements and
objectives for proper function.

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Planning

 Definition of terms……
 Project Plan– These are set of
documents that will guide the entire
project.
 Statement of Work – is a documents
which basically has a work agreement
between two parties, usually contains
scope of works and other deliverables.

Planning

 Definition of terms……
 Work Breakdown Structure “WBS” –
Decomposition of the total work into
smaller deliverable components.
 Project Scope Management – involves
the scope of the project or the work
included for the project. Scope of work
may vary in time.

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Planning

 Definition of terms……
 Schedule Management – a process
which refers to how the project
manager manages his schedule for the
project.
 Cost Management – The process that is
concerned with planning and
controlling the finances for the project

Planning

 Definition of terms……
 Schedule Management – a process
which refers to how the project
manager manages his schedule for the
project.
 Cost Management – The process that is
concerned with planning and
controlling the finances for the project

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Planning

 Definition of terms……
 Quality Management – is a main criteria
to determine the value of a project.
 Resource Management – how the
project manager handles the different
project resources.

Planning

 Definition of terms……
 Communication Management – project
communication is what keeps all the
teams members on the same page.
 Risk Management – risk management
work includes process in identification
and analyzing risks, which later form a
risk response plan to control these risk.

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 Is the project Possible and feasible ?

 What are the resources required?
 How many days to complete the project?
 Surveys
 Estimates
 Budgeting
 Financing

HIGHWAY PROGRAMMING

 Involves the process of selecting and scheduling

improvement projects on the basis of the relative urgency
of the work. The key Element of the process is matching of
needed project with the available funds to accomplish
highway improvements during a given period.
 Three inoperable set of inputs
1. Economic
2. Financial
3. Political and administration

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Highway programming
Approaches

1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged

implementation by the agencies functions like
construction, operations, and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative
desire and constraints.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis,
critical situations, present and future expected level
of traffic, and claims based on political subdivisions.
4. Providing continuity of route system and
coordination with the other transportation mode.

Highway programming
Approaches

5. Selection of projects based on availability

of labor and materials, including climatic
conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in
coordination with the other agencies,
acquiring right of way and making final plan
and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies
like floods and natural disasters.

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Direct effect of highway

construction and its use

A. Quantifiable market value

1. Cost of highways as to:
1. Planning cost
2. Right of way appropriation
3. Construction costs
4. Maintenance costs
5. Operating costs

Direct effect of highway

construction and its use

2. Cost benefits to highway users

1. Vehicles operating costs( including
congestion cost) net income or decrease in
costs of vehicles operation per year
2. Traveler savings time (commercial). Net
increase or decrease in travel time multiplied
by the peso value of commercial time.
3. Motorist safety ( economic cost accident) net
change in expected number off accidents
times the average cost per accident per year

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Direct effect of highway

construction and its use

B. Non-Quantifiable non- market value

1. Motorist safety- accidents cost of pain
suffering and deprivation.
2. Comfort and conversion- discomfort,
inconvenience and strain of driving.
3. Aesthetics from driving viewpoint- benefits
of pleasing views and scenery from road.

Direct effect of highway

construction and its use

C. Quantifiable Non-Market value

1.Cost benefits to highway users- traveling
savings time.
(non- commercial) minutes save per vehicle
trip

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Highway Economy

 W. Gillespe, Professor of Civil Engineering at the Union

College said:
“A minimum of expenses is of course, highly desirable;
The road which is truly cheapest is not the one which has cost
the least money, but the one which makes the most
profitable returns in proportion to the amount expended
upon it”

Highway Economy

 The intent of expenditures for highways and public transportation

are numerated as follows:
1. To augment the country’s level of economy
2. To provide easy access to work place to Facilitate public
service, police and fire protection.
3. To facilitate medical care
4. To give benefit to transportation and increase property
assessment.
5. Benefit in time saving
6. To lessen road accident
7. To give ease of access and max comfort

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Highway Economy

 Arguments of those who favors Borrowing:

1. The need is immediate to have instant infrastructure.
2. No impact project will be seen because the “pay as you go”
fund is scattered through out the entire road system
3. Borrowing encourage investors because of fast progress.
 Counter Arguments against Borrowing.
1. Borrowing may impair the credit rating of government
2. If future income is committed to pay past improvement, no
more funds available to maintain the existing system
3. With much amount available, temptation is there to over
build and recklessly spend extravagantly.
4. Interest of loan is a big waste of public funds.

PLANNING DIFFICULTIES

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Planning

 Inadequate planning leads to frustration towards the end of the

project & poor project performance

Project Start Project End

 Problems categorized as Follows.

1. Financial.
 Present Economic condition is related to government
budgetary expenditures. Appropriation of funds, meet
difficulties because of lack of funds.
2. Political
 Political Interest – either roads are deferred,
amended, realigned which causes consequences with
different laws conflicting purposes causing impede or
obstruct implementation.
3. Technical

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ROAD SURVEY

Computation and Survey

 Early engineering approach to highway and transportation problems

were based on the results of their computation with the aide of slide
rule and replaced by calculator machines.
 Some Problems using Computers:
1. Projection and statistical studies of traffics and transit passengers
2. Economic analysis
3. Financial programming
4. Geometric
5. Bridges
6. Pavement design and maintenance and management.
7. Scheduling
8. Computation of earthworks

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Computation and Survey

 With the aide of sophisticated computers and its appurtenances,

engineering practice today is not difficult. Computers are less
prone to computational errors if correctly programmed.
 Remote Sensing
The science and art of obtaining measurements withour direct
contact with the object of interest.
Locations, Planning, Geometric Design, right of Way, Traffic
Studies, Drainage, Soil classification & identification, Earthworks
measurements, Material Locations, Pavement condition Survey
 Photogrammetric Mapping
- Vertical aerial photograph taken by a camera almost straight
downward is the most useful for highway purposes.

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Computation and Survey

 Orthophotograph
Aerial photograph corrected for scale and tilt better for engineering
accuracy and right of way purposes.
 Colored Photographs
presents a more detailed and precise information on traffic and parking
studies
 Lidar
Lidar (/ˈlaɪdɑːr/, also LIDAR, or LiDAR; sometimes LADAR) is a method for
determining ranges (variable distance) by targeting an object or a surface
with a laser and measuring the time for the reflected light to return to the
receiver. It can also be used to make digital 3-D representations of areas on
the Earth's surface and ocean bottom of the intertidal and near coastal zone
by varying the wavelength of light. It has terrestrial, airborne, and mobile
applications.

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Location of Proposed
Highways and Bridges

Location of the Proposed

Highways

 Early Roads started from trails.

 Movement of people and use motor vehicles prompted road
agencies to improvements road alignment minimizing sharp
curves. Road widths was standardized and grades were
flattened.
 Highway locations are blended with curvature grades and other
roadway elements to offer.
: Comfortable easy driving, free flowing traffic arteries, comply
on safety standard

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Location of the Proposed

Highways

 To improve the highways

1. There should be a Tentative plans as to control
2. Minimum design speed
3. Roadway cross sections
4. Maximum slope
 Considerations in highway improvement
1. Reliable cost estimate
2. Character and hourly distribution
3. Economic and community benefit factor
4. Availability of funds.

Location of the Proposed

Highways

 Location Surveys in rural areas are divided into 4 stages.

1. Reconnaissance survey of the entire area between terminal
points.
2. Reconnaissance survey of all feasible routes
3. Preliminary survey of the best route
4. Location survey, staking right of way, the highway and the
structure for construction.

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Location of the Proposed Bridges

 Location and position of bridges – subordinate to general

alignment and grade
 The general policy for minor roads is to determine the proper
highway location, then provide the structures.
 The cost of a bridge and its full approach must be combined
before crossing site should be determined
 Bridge survey report

Location of the Proposed Bridges

 Requirements to consider in bridge location:

1. complete data report and special survey of the site
2. prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles
3. the survey report must contain accurate data of the
waterway for all behaviour of water
4. complete report on foundation condition and stream
characteristics.
5. complete data of adjacent structure particularly in waterway
opening
6. if possible skewed bridge should be avoided

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Highway plans and Specifications

 Plans and Specifications – set of documents and instructions and

conditions under which highways and bridges are built.
 Complete detailed scheme for the road which are incorporated in
the geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage
3. Erosion control
3. Roadside Development
4. Structure
5. Soils
7. Pavement

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Highway plans and Specifications

Partial List of Standard Drawings Contents :

1. Pipe Culverts
2. Concrete Box Culverts
3. Guardrails and parapets
3. Curbs and gutter
4. Sidewalks
5. Drainage inlet and outlet
7. Manholes
8. rip-rap and outer devices used for bank protection
11. Fences and right of way
12. other survey markers

Highway Plans and specifications

Presentation of a Road Plan

 The upper sheet is allocated for the plan,
top view showing the horizontal alignment,
right of way taking, drainage arrangement
and other features.
 The lower half is allotted to the profile where
the original elevation of the ground surface
is plotted. The roadway centreline and the
vertical alignment or grade line for the road
is indicated.

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Highway Plans and specifications

Presentation of a Road Plan

 The vertical scale of the profile is usually
exaggeratedly enlarged from five to ten times for
precise detail
 The profile and other details of the drainage,
channels or connecting roads including ramps
are also presented.
 The estimated earthwork quantities for every 50
meters station or other intervals are indicated
along the bottom of each sheet along with the
estimated overhead. This will serve the engineer
and the contractor.

Highway Plans and specifications

Presentation of a Road Plan

 The roadway cross section for every situation
in the whole project stretch is indicated on
another sheet of the plan
 Another sheet of drawing showing all
structures and roadway appurtenances is
included
 The standard size of drawing sheet is 55 cm
x90 cm.

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Partial list of subjects covered by

the standard drawing:

Pipe culvert
Concrete box culverts
Guard rail and parapet
Curbs
Gutters
Curb structures
Sidewalk

Partial list of subjects covered by

the standard drawing:

Drainage inlet and outlet structures of

numerous types
Manholes
Rip-rap and other devices used for bank
protection
Fences and right of way
Other survey markers.

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Lesson 2.

HIGHWAY DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

 Road Definition
 Road Classifications
 Road Components

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Consistency

Is the most important single rule in highway design..

Drivers expect the highway agency to provide them with:

1. Clear information and guidance through a variety of road
signs
2. Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as well as the road
standards

Definition of terms

AASTHO – American Association of the State Highway and

Transportation Officials, which was established in 1914

AASHTO publications (Authoritative) includes:

1. Transportation Materials Specification and Tests
2. Specification for highway bridges
3. Geometric design Standards
4. Numerous policy statements and guides

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THE DESIGN SPEED

AASHTO defined Design Speed as:

the speed determined for design and correlation of the
physical features of a highway that influence vehicle
operation. The maximum Speed That can maintained over a
specified section of the highway when weather and traffic
conditions are as favorable that the design features of the
highway govern.
Basic Design Features refers to tightness and super elevation
of curves, sight distances and grade. Design Speed is
basically higher than the anticipated average speed. Must
be set to the greatest degree possible to satisfy the needs of
nearly all drivers both today and throughout road anticipated
life.

What is the difference between a

street and a highway?

 Highway - can accommodate greater traffic volume.

 Street or road - serves service area connecting to
highways.

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DEFINITION

A road is a structure that link barangays and cities in the country,

and serve as medium in transporting goods and commodities
from one place to another, and as communication link which
brings economic development to a nation. Has somewhat
broader application in usage while generally used to describe a
public thoroughfare. It can also refer to railways.

Definition of terms

Roads and Highways –defined as strips of land that have been

cleared, or improved for the movement of the people and
goods.
Road . – has somewhat broader application in usage while
generally used to describe a public thoroughfare. It can also
refer to railways.
Highway – Term used in England to describe a public road built
by digging ditches on both sides and heaping up earth in the
middle creating a way higher than the adjacent land, a higher
state of development than road.
Expressway – is a divided arterial highway for through traffic with
full or partial control or access and generally provided with
separation at major intersections

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Definition of terms

Freeway – an expressway with full control of access.

Control of access – a condition where the rights of owner or
occupants of adjoining lands of access to lights, air or view in
connection with a highway is fully or partially controlled.
Full control of access – the Authority to control access is
exercised to give preference through traffic by providing
access connections to selected public roads only.
Partial Control Access – the Authority to control access is
exercised to give preference through traffic by providing
access connections to selected public roads, there may be
some crossing at grade and some private driveway.

Definition of terms

Through Street or through Highway – every highway or portion

on which vehicular traffic is given preferential right of way,
and at which vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is
required by law to yield right of way to vehicles on such
through highway in obedience to either stop sign or yield
signs erected thereon.
Parkway – an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic with
full or partial control of access usually located within a park or
ribbon park like development.
Arterial Street – an arterial route that carries traffic to the
nearest access point or through traffic. Often serves as the
most advantageous routes for relatively long distance travel.

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Basic Consideration in Planning Arterial Roadways

1. Selection of Routes.
2. Studies of traffic volume
3. Origin And Destination
4. Accident experienced
5. Width should not be less than 15 meters.
6. Must carry at least one lane of traffic in each direction
7. Should be at least one kilometer in length.
8. Should skirt neighborhood areas rather than penetrate them
9. On grid system streets, arterial are spaced about 600 to 900 meters
apart
10. Where accident hazard is not a factor, the minimum volume to
justify arterial road is 300 vehicles per average hour during the day
and 450 vehicles per hour during peak periods

Possible solutions to increase arterial road capacity during

peak hour
1. Parking is prohibited on one or both sides of the roads
2. Parking is prohibited at few meters from intersections or
corners at both sides
3. Right turn is allowed during red signals anytime with care.
4. Left turn are eliminated on congested intersections
5. Direction of traffic is reversed in the center lane to provide
more lanes in the direction of heavier traffic traffic flow

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Definition of terms

Collector street – form smaller mesh grid patter where

passenger are pick up from service streets and carried to the
arterials
Local Roads – Street or road primarily for access to residence
business or other adjoining properties. It is also defined as a
road constructed and maintained by the local government.
Highway Capacity – Maximum number of vehicles that are
reasonably expected to pass a given point over a given
period of time usually expressed as vehicles per hour.
1. Under ideal conditions, one freeway lane can
accommodate about 2000 passenger cars / hour.
2. Two lane Road Can carry up to 1000 passenger cars /
hour in each direction

Definition of terms

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Definition of terms

AADT or ADT – Average Annual Daily Traffic / Average Daily

Traffic – refers to traffic volume or flow on a highway as
measured by the number of vehicles passing a partial station
during a given interval of time.

1. For economic Reasons, the geometric features of

certain road sections are designed for the speed from 30-50
km/hr. Some Motorist drive faster, highway design adopted
controls by reducing the super elevation combined with
easement of curves, Delineators, stripping signs and rumble
strips to alert motorists and inform them of approaching
curves.
2. Selection of proper Road design is one of the most
important decisions to make, because it set limits to
curvature, sight distances and other geometric figures.

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1. Classify road as Urban or Rural.

2. Classify if Freeway, arterial, Collector
Rural collectors are classified flat, rolling or mountainous.
Highway design Speed is 80 km/hour but projected Speed is
up to 120 km/Hour.
Although the design speed of most highways is governed by
construction cost, the concept of the relatively high speed
“design for freeway is regardless of cost”.?

See table 2-1

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Classifications of Road

 According to usage
 According to national importance
 According to its surface course
 According to traffic volume

Types of Road According to Usage

1. National Road
a. Primary National Road
- the main highway trunk line system that is continuous in
extent that goes from province to province and region to
region.
b. Secondary National Road
- connects a provincial or national road to a public wharf or
railway station.

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Types of Road According to Usage

2. Provincial Road
- connects two municipalities or cities within a
province
3. City Road
-street within the urban area of the city.

Types of Road According to Usage

4. Municipal Road
-street within the poblacion area of a municipality.
5. Barangay Road
–street located outside the poblacion area of a
municipality or urban area of a city and those outside
industrial, commercial areas or residential subdivisions.

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Types of Road According to

National Importance

1. Major roads
are those roads of national importance.
They are frequently used by traffic and leads
to vital areas such as major cities and
installations. Example of major roads are the
those roads classified as National Roads or those
which are part of the highway system.

Types of Road According to National

Importance

2 . Minor roads
are roads which is local in nature as it
serves only the interest of the locality such as
a street. Minor roads are less frequently used by
traffic.

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Types of Road According to

Surface Course

 Earth Road
 Gravel Road
 Asphalt Road
 Concrete Road

Earth Road…..

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Earth Road…..

 It is the simplest form of road constructed by

shaping and smoothing the natural soil traversed
by the road line.
 A trail that has been developed with use over a
number of years can be purposely converted into
a road that has a properly designed and
engineered alignment, cross section and drainage.
 One of the most important aspects of the design of
a road is the provision made for protecting the
road from surface water or ground water.
 The road surface must be constructed so that it
drains rainwater away quickly to drainage ditches.
 The formation of the road must be raised above
the level of the local water table to prevent it from
being soaked by ground water.

Gravel Road…..

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Gravel Road…..

 Are constructed from natural gravel together with a

sufficient amount of good quality soil to serve as
binder.
 It is sometimes termed as an all weather road and
are used to construct Farm to Market Roads which
serves to connect rural and agricultural areas to
market towns.
 These routes serve as a better quality road, usually a
highway which allows farmers to transport their
products to market towns and/or distribution
centers.

Asphalt Road……

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Asphalt Road……

 It is frequently described as flexible pavement implying its

ability to absorb the stresses imposed by traffic and
weather without cracking.
 The tensile strength of an asphalt pavement enables
resistance to displacement and the flexibility to conform to
minor irregularities of the base without failure.
 It is composed of hot-mix combination of asphalt cement,
crushed stone, sand fines and a small amount of air.
 Flexible pavement

PCC Pavement Road……

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PCC Pavement Road……

 It is sometimes termed rigid pavement because it is

strong in resisting compressive load but weak in
resisting tensile stresses.
 Concrete pavement resting on a weak subgrade
and base courses is considered also weak in
carrying heavy load associated with impact forces.
 Portland cement is the essential ingredient in rigid
pavements, and in most structural concrete.
 It is a fine dry powder which, when combined with
water, forms a paste that sets into a stone-like
substance.

PCC Pavement Road……

 This is moderately strong in itself, and has the

quality of binding sand and stones into rigid
masses with great strength.
 Cement and water are mixed with clean
sand to produce mortar, which is used chiefly
as a binder and filler between bricks, stones,
and blocks; and with sand and graded sizes
of crushed rock or similar material to make
concrete.

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Types of Road According to Traffic

Volume

 For heavy traffic load

 For medium traffic load
 For light traffic load

FACTORS INFLUENCING HIGHWAY DESIGN

• Functional classification
• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and
medians
• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
• Topography of the area that the highway traverses
• Level of service
• Available funds
• Safety
• Social and environmental factor

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LESSON 3.

HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGNS

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
ROADWAY
Allow or conveys movement/flow of
vehicles. Roadways are divided into lanes
which is dependent on the volume of
traffic. (4.5m standard road way then to
3m 1st class paved one lane and 3.6m in
one lane of a freeways

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
SHOULDERS
Area for emergency stop of vehicles,
increases horizontal sight distance thus
reduces accidents, adds structural strength
to roads. Paved shoulders 3-6% slope and
gravel shoulder 4-6% slope and 7% slope is
effective for turf grass. 3-3.6m wide if truck
volume is <250 ADT. Also Known as stop
lane.

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
CROSS SLOPES
Usually falls and provided in both directions from centreline of the
highway except where super elevation curves which directs all water
towards the inside. Highway crowning is usually 1-2%.. Cross slope, cross
fall or camber is a geometric feature of pavement surfaces: the
transverse slope with respect to the horizon. It is a very important safety
factor. Cross slope is provided to provide a drainage gradient so that
water will run off the surface to a drainage system such as a street
gutter or ditch.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
GUARDRAILS They are a boundary feature and may be
a means to prevent or deter access to
dangerous or off-limits areas while allowing
light and visibility in a greater way than
a fence. Common shapes are flat,
rounded edge, and tubular in horizontal
railings. Safety Purposes – intended to
reduce risk of serious accidents, Prevents
Vehicles From falling off or being hit by
something. This is a strong fence at the side
of the road or in the middle of an
expressway.

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
FOOTPATH / SIDEWALKS
A sidewalk also known as
a footpath or footway, is a path along the
side of a road. A sidewalk may
accommodate moderate changes in grade
(height) and is normally separated from the
vehicular section by a curb. There may also
be a median strip or road verge (a strip of
vegetation, grass or bushes or trees or a
combination of these) either between the
sidewalk and the roadway or between the
sidewalk and the boundary.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
CUT OR FILL SLOPE
Earth Fill of Normal Height is safe on a slope
of 1:2 ratios (H:V). Cut Slope through
ordinary undisturbed earthfill remain in
place with a ratio of 1:1. For rock slopes:
1:2 and 1:4 were proven stable.
But recently slopes had been generally
lowered.
Slope of 6:1 for
embankments less than
1.2m height and 4:1 for
higher fill.
Slope of 2:1 is allowed to
heights greater than 6m.
Cut slpe should not be
steeper than 2:1 ration
except on solid rock or
special kind of soil.

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
NUMBER OF LANES
Number of lanes in a segment of a
highway is determined from estimated
traffic volume for the design year AADT
and highway lane capacity at expected
level of service
AASHTO policies accept a
dually divided 16 lanes
roadway - Expressways

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
MEDIAN
Area/Island Provided in the middle of a
highways, serves as a division between
lanes.
Effective means of reducing headlight
glares and accident between opposing
lanes. Dense planting serves as safety
crash barrier.
Provides available space for left turn lanes

bretbqert 46
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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
CURB
A short border along the edge of a street
or road, usually concrete. A curb is the
edge where a raised sidewalk (pavement
in British English; pavement or footpath in
Australian English) or road median/central
reservation meets a street or other
roadway

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
GRADE LINE
Longitudinal profile of the highway as a
measure how the centre line of the
highway rises and fall.
A series of straight lines connected by
parabolic vertical curves to which straight
lines are tangents
Considerations :
1. Location which caters minimal
earthworks and consistently
meeting sight distances.
2. In mountainous areas,
balanced excavation and
embankments.
3. In flat area, gradeline is set
parallel to ground surface.
4. Grade line along rivers is
governed by the expected
flood water level.

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
RIGHT OF WAY
Legal right of pedestrian, vehicles,
established by usage or grant to pass
a specific route through grounds or
property belonging to another.
Acquisition of land for the right of way
is costly. Highway agency now
consider a practice to acquire right of
way wide enough to sufficiently
provide for expected development

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE - SSD
Longest distance that a driver could see
the top of an object 15cm above the
road surface where the design height of
the driver is 105cm. Sight distance
available on a highway at any spot
having sufficient length to enable driver
to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any
obstruction
Consist of two elements:
1. Distance travelled after seeing
the object and before driver
applies brakes
2. Distance consumed while
driver applies brakes

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE - PSD
It is the minimum Sight Distance Required on
a highway generally two directional one,
that will allow a driver to pass another
vehicle without colliding with the vehicle in
the opposing lane. This distance also allows
the driver to abort passing if desired.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
ROAD ALIGNMENT
This should be Consistent to avoid hazards
and invite accidents. Designing Circular
curves or compounded Curve is not a good
practice, unless suitable transition between
them are provided. A long flat curve is
preferred for small changes I direction.

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
CIRCULAR CURVES
Vehicles travelling in curved roads are
subjected to centrifugal force which is
balanced with forces through
Super Elevation and side frictions.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
SUPER ELEVATION - RUNOFF

Super elevation of roadways are

usually on curved sections.
The center line of each individual
roadway at profile grade is
maintained while raising the outer
edge and lowering the inner edge to
attain the desired super elevation.

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
Widening of curves
Wider Roadway is necessary on sharp curve
for two lanes pavement under following
reasons:
1. To force drivers to shy away from pavement
edge
2. To increase the effective transverse vehicle
width
3. To give additional width due to slanted
position
Compound Circular curves of
different radii is considered a
poor design.
AASHTO recommends that the
radius of flatter curve for rural
highways should not be more
than 50% that of the sharper
one.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
ISLAND
Defined area between traffic lanes for control
of vehicle movement and for pedestrian
refuge.
Island is included in design of intersection for
following purposes.
1. Separation of Vehicular flow
2. Separation of conflicts
3. Reduction in excessive pavement area
4. Arrangement to Favour a
prominent turning movement.
5. Location of Traffic control
Devices

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
INTERCHANGE
In the field of road transport, 1. Provide separation bet. 2 or
an interchange is a road junction that more traffic arteries
uses grade separation, and typically 2. To facilitate easy transfer of
one or more ramps, to permit traffic vehicles.
on at least one highway to pass
through the junction without
interruption from other crossing traffic
streams. It differs from a
standard intersection, where roads
cross at grade. Interchanges are
almost always used when at least one
road is a controlled-access
highway (freeway or motorway) or
a limited-access divided
highway (expressway), though they
are sometimes used at junctions
between surface streets.

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
Y type
INTERCHANGE

T or Trumpet
INTERCHANGE

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
Diamond type
INTERCHANGE

Partial
Cloverleaf
INTERCHANGE

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
Cloverleaf
INTERCHANGE

Channelized
INTERCHANGE

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GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
HIGHWAY
Railroad – Highway Separation
Vertical clearance requires a minimum of 7
meters.

Bicycle Lane
1. Requires separate from Vehicular Traffic
2. The design speed is 20 to 30 Km/hour

2. The width is 2m minimum for 1 2 way travel

MAIN COMPONENTS OF HIGHWAY

MODE OF TRANSPORTATION
1. The Driver
2. The Pedestrian
3. The Vehicle
4. The Road
To provide efficient and safe highway
transportation, a knowledge of the
characteristics and limitations of each of these
components is essential. It is also important to be
aware of the interrelationships that exist among
these components in order to determine the
effects, if any, that they have on each other.
Their characteristics are also of primary
importance when traffic engineering measures
such as traffic control devices are to be used in
the highway mode.

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1. DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS

One problem that faces traffic

and transportation engineers
when they consider driver
characteristics in the course of
design is the varying skills and
perceptual abilities of drivers on
the highway.

1.1 The Human Response Process

Actions taken by drivers on a road result from their
evaluation of and reaction to information they obtain
from certain stimuli that they see or hear.
Visual Perception
The principal characteristics of the
eye are visual acuity, peripheral
vision, color vision, glare vision and
recovery, and depth perception.
Visual Acuity. Visual acuity is the
ability to see fine details of an object.
It can be represented by the visual
angle, which is the reciprocal of the
smallest pattern detail in minutes of
arc that can be resolved and given
as.

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Visual acuity

where
L - diameter of the target (letter or symbol)
D - distance from the eye to target in the same units as L
For example, the ability to resolve a pattern detail with a visual
acuity of one
minute of arc (1/60 of a degree) is considered the normal vision
acuity (20/20 vision).
Two types of visual acuity are of importance in traffic and highway
emergencies: static and dynamic visual acuity.

Peripheral Vision

Peripheral vision is the ability of people to see

objects beyond the cone of clearest vision.
Although objects can be seen within this zone,
details and color are not clear. The cone for
peripheral vision could be one subtending up to
160 degrees; this value is affected by the speed
of the vehicle. Age also influences peripheral
vision.

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Color Vision

Color vision is the ability to differentiate one

color from another, but deficiency in this ability,
usually referred to as color blindness, is not of
great significance in highway driving because
other ways of recognizing traffic information
devices (e.g., shape) can compensate for it.
Combinations of black and white

Glare Vision and Recovery

There are two types of glare vision: direct and

specular. Rowland and others have indicated
that direct glare occurs when relatively bright
light appears in the individual’s field of vision
and specular glare occurs when the image
reflected by the relatively bright light appears
in the field of vision. Both types of glare result in
a decrease of visibility and cause discomfort
to the eyes. It is also known that age has a
significant effect on the sensitivity to glare,
and that at about age 40, a significant
change occurs in a person’s sensitivity to
glare. The time required by a person to
recover from the effects of glare after passing
the light source is known as glare recovery.

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Depth Perception

Depth perception affects the ability of a person to

estimate speed and distance. It is particularly important
on two-lane highways during passing maneuvers, when
head-on crashes may result from a lack of proper
judgment of speed and
distance.

Hearing Perception

The ear receives sound

stimuli, which is important to
drivers only when warning
sounds, usually given out by
emergency vehicles, are to
be detected. Loss of some
hearing ability is not a serious
problem, since it normally
can be corrected by a
hearing aid.

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PERCEPTION REACTION PROCESS

THE PROCESS THROUGH WHICH A DRIVER, CYCLIST, OR PEDESTRIAN

EVALUTES AND REACTS TOA STIMULUS CAN BE DIVIDED ONTO FOUR
SUBPROCESSES:

1.PERCEPTION: the driver sees a control device, warning sign or

object on the road.

2.IDENTIFICATION: the driver identifies the object or control device

and thus
understands the stimulus.

3. EMOTION: the driver decides what action to take in response to

the stimulus; for example, to step on the brake pedal, to pass, to
swerve , or to change lanes.

4.REACTION OR VOLITION: the driver actually executes the action

decided on during the emotion sub-process.

EXAMPLE

A Driver with a perception-reaction time of 2.5 seconds

is driving at 65 km/hr when she/he observes that an
accident has blocked the road ahead. Determine the
distance the vehicle would move before the driver
could activate the brakes. The vehicle will continue to
move at 65km/hr during the-reaction time of 2.5 sec

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OLDER DRIVER’S CHARACTERISTICS

As one grows older, his or her sensory, cognitive,

and physical functioning ability declines, which
can result in older drivers being less safe than
their younger counter parts, and with a higher
probability of being injured when involved in a
crash.

PEDESTRIAN CHARACTERISTICS

Pedestrian characteristics may influence the design

and location of pedestrian control devices. Such
control devices include special pedestrian signals,
safety zones and islands at intersections, pedestrian
under passes, elevated walkways, and crosswalks.
Apart from visual and hearing characteristics, walking
characteristics play a major part in the design of these
controls,

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BICYCLISTS AND BICYCLES CHARACTERISTICS

Bicycles are now an important components of the

highway mode, especially for the highways located in
urban areas. It is therefore essential that highway and
traffic engineers have an understanding of the
characteristics if bicycles and bicyclist. The basic
human factors discussed for the automobile driver also
apply to the bicyclist, particularly with the respect to
perception and reaction.

BICYCLISTS AND BICYCLES CHARACTERISTICS

Three classes of bicyclists( A, B and C) have been

identified in the Guide for the Development of Bicycle
Facilities by AASHTO.
Class A bicyclist typically consider the bicycle as a
motor vehicle and comfortably ride in traffic
Class B bicyclist prefer to ride on neighbourhood streets
and are more comfortable on designated bicycle
facilities, such a bicycle paths.
Class C bicyclist use mainly residential streets that
provide access to schools, recreational facilities, and
stores.

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VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS

CRITERIA FOR THE GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY ARE

PARTLY BASED ON THE STATIC, KINEMATIC, AND
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF VEHICLES. STATIC
CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE THE WEIGHT AND SIZE OF THE
VEHICLE, WHILE KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS INVOLVE
THE MOTION OF THE VEHICLE WITHOUT CONSIDERING
THE FORCES THAT CAUSE THE MOTION. DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS INVOLVE THE FORCES THAT CAUSE THE
MOTION OF THE VEHICLE.

VEHICLE STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

THE SIZE OF THE DESIGN VEHICLE FOR A HIGHWAY IS

VERY IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE DETERMINATION OF
DESIGN STANDARDS FOR SEVERAL PHYSICAL
COMPONENTS OF THE HIGHWAY. THESE INCLUDE LANE
WIDTH, SHOULDER WIDTH, LENGTH AND WIDTH OF
PARKING BAYS AND LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVES. THE
AXLE WEIGHTS OF VEHICLE EXPECTED ON THE HIGHWAYS
ARE IMPORTANT WHEN PAVEMENT AND MAXIMUM
GRADES ARE BEING DETERMINED.

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VEHICLE STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example 3.2 Estimating Allowable Gross Weight of a

Truck
A 5-axle truck traveling on an interstate highway has the
following axle characteristics:
Distance between the front single axle and the first set
of tandem axles = 20 ft
Distance between the first set of tandem axle and the
back set of tandem axles = 48 ft
If the overall gross weight of the truck is 79,500 lb,
determine whether this truck satisfies federal weight
regulations.

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VEHICLE STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

AASHTO also has suggested the following

guidelines for selecting a design
vehicle:
• For a parking lot or series of parking lots, a
passenger car may be used
• For intersections on residential streets and park
roads, a single-unit truck could
be considered

VEHICLE STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

• For the design of intersections of state

highways and city streets that serve bus traffic
but with relatively few large trucks, a city transit
bus may be used
• For the design of intersections of highways
with low-volume county and township/ local
roads with Average Annual Daily Traffic of 400
or less, a large school bus with a capacity of 84
passengers or a conventional bus with a
capacity of 65 passengers may be used. The
selection of the bus type depends on the
expected frequency of each of the buses on
the facility.

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VEHICLE STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Figure 3.1 Examples of Different Types of Trucks

• For intersections of freeway ramp terminals
and arterial highways, and for intersections of
state highways and industrial streets with high
traffic volumes, or with
large truck access to local streets, the WB-20
(WB-65 or 67) may be used.

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VEHICLE KINEMATIC CHARACTERISTICS

THE PRIMARY ELEMENT AMONG KINEMATIC

CHARACTERISTICS IN THE ACCELERATION
CAPABILITY OF THE VEHICLE. ACCELERATION
CAPABILITY IS IMPORTANT IN SEVERAL TRAFFIC
OPERATIONS, SUCH AS PASSING MANEUVERS
AND GAP ACCEPTANCE

VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

SEVERAL FORCES ACT ON A VEHICLE

WHILE IT IS IN MOTION: AIR RESISTANCE,
GRADE RESISTANCE, ROLLING RESISTANCE,
AND CURVE RESISTANCE.

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VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

AIR RESISTANCE
A VEHICLE IN MOTION HAS TO OVERCOME
THE RESISTANCE OF THE AIR IN FRONT OF IT AS
WELL AS THE FORCE DUE TO THE FRICTIONAL
ACTION OF THE AIR AROUND IT. THE FORCE
REQUIRED TO OVERCOME THESE IS KNOWN AS
THE AIR RESISTANCE AND IS RELATED TO THE
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF THE VEHICLE IN A
DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION
OF MOTION AND TO THE SQUARE OF THE SPEED
OF THE VEHICLE.

VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

AIR RESISTANCE
Fa = pa CdAu2
2

Fa= air resistance force(N)

p= density of air (1.227 kg/m3) at sea level:
less at higher elevations
Cd= aerodynamics drag coefficient
(current average value for passengers cars
is .4; for trucks, this value ranges from .5 to
.8, but a typical value is 0.5)
A= frontal cross sectional area (m^2)
u= velocity (m/s)

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VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

GRADE RESISTANCE
When a vehicle moves up a grade, a
component of the weight of the vehicle acts
downward, along the plane of the highway. This
creates a force acting in a direction opposite
that of the motion. This force is the grade
resistance. A vehicle traveling up a grade will
therefore tend to lose speed unless an
accelerating force is applied.

VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

GRADE RESISTANCE
The speed achieved at any point along the
grade for a given rate of acceleration will
depend on the grade. Figure 3.5 shows the
relationships between speed achieved and
distance traveled on different grades by a
typical heavy truck of 200 lb/hp during
maximum acceleration. Note: grade resistance
weight grade, in decimal.

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VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

ROLLING RESISTANCE
These are force within the vehicle itself that
offer resistance to motion. These forces are due
mainly to frictional effect on moving parts of the
vehicle, but they also include the frictional slip
between the pavement surface and tries. The
sum effect of these forces in motion is known as
rolling resistance. The rolling forces are relatively
lower on smooth pavements than on rough
pavements

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VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

ROLLING RESISTANCE
The rolling resistance force for the passenger cars on a
smooth pavement can be determined from the relation

Rf = (Crs + 0.077 Crv u2 ) W

Rf = rolling resistance force (kg)
Crs = Constant (typically 0.012 for passengers car)
Crv = Constant (typically 7 x 10^-6) s2 / m2 for passenger
cars)
u =Vehicle speed ( km/h)
W = gross vehicle weight (kg)

VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

ROLLING RESISTANCE
For trucks, the rolling resistance can be obtained from

Rf = (Ca + 0.278Cb u ) W
Rf = rolling resistance force (kg)
Ca = Constant (typically .02445 for trucks)
Cb = Constant (typically 0.00147) s / m for trucks)
u =Vehicle speed ( km/h)
W = gross vehicle weight (kg

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VEHICLE DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

CURVE RESISTANCE
When a passenger car is maneuvered to
take a curve, external forces act on the front
wheels of the vehicle. These forces have
components that have a retarding effect on
the forward motion of the vehicle. The sum
effect of these components constitutes the
curve resistance. This resistance depends on the
radius of the curve, the gross weight of the
vehicle, and the velocity at which the vehicle is
moving.

CURVE RESISTANCE

2
R = .5 0.077 u W
gR
c

Rc= curve resistance (kg)

U= vehicle speed ( km/h)
W =gross vehicle weight (kg)
R= radius of curvature (m)
g= acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/sec2)

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POWER REQUIREMENTS

Power is the rate at which work is done. It is

usually expressed in horsepower, where 1
horsepower is 746 W. the performance
capability of a vehicle is measured in terms of
the horsepower the engine can produce to
overcome air,grade, curve , and friction forces
and put the vehicle in motion.

Power requirement
2.91 R u
P= 746

P = horsepower delivered (hp)

R = sum of resistance to motion (N)
u= speed of vehicle (Km/h))

bretbqert 74
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 Determine the horsepower produced by a

passenger car traveling at a speed of 105 km/h
on the straight road of 5% grade with a smooth
pavement. Assume the weight of the car is 1800
kg and the cross sectional area of the car is 3.8
m^2

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BREAKING DISTANCE

The action of the forces on the moving

vehicle and the effect of perception-
reaction time used to determine
important parameters related to the
dynamic characteristics of the vehicles.
These include the braking distance of a
vehicle and the minimum radius of
circular curve required for a vehicle
travelling around a curve woth a speed
U where U> 16 km/h

Breaking

Where:
W= weight of the vehicle
F=coefficient of friction
g= Acceleration of gravity
u= speed when brakes applied
Db = braking distance
Ø= angle of incline
G= tan Ø ( % grade/100)
X= distance travelled by the vehicle along the road during
break.

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 a student trying to test the breaking ability of her

car determined that she needed 5.64 m more to
stop her car when driving downhill on road segment
of 5% grade than when driving downhill at the same
speed along another segment of 3% grade.
Determine the speed at which the student
conducted her test and the breaking distance on
the 5% grade if the student is traveling at the test
speed in the uphill direction.
 Use a= 3.41 m/sec^2 and g=9.81 m/sec^2

 a motorist traveling at 105 km/h on an expressway

intended to leave the expressway using an exit
ramp with a maximum speed of 56 km/h. at what
point on the express way should the motorist step
on her breakes in order to reduce her speed to the
maximum allowable on the ramp just before
entering the ramp, if this section of the expressway
has a downgrade of 3%?
 Use a= 3.41 m/sec^2 and g=9.81 m/sec^2

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Stopping site distance

 The distance travelled by a vehicle

between the time the driver observes
an object in the vehicles path and the
time the vehicle actually comes at rest
is longer than the braking distance
 Since it includes the distance travelled
during the perception reaction time.

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 A motorist traveling at 89 km/h down a grade of 5%

on a highway observes a crash ahead of him,
involving an overturned truck that is completely
blocking the road. If the motorist was able to stop
his vehicle 9 m from the overturned truck, what was
his distance from the truck when he first observed
the crash ?? Assume perception-reaction time =2.5
sec.

QUIZ
 A motorist traveling at 25m/s down a grade of 5% on a highway observes
a crash ahead of him, involving an overturned truck that is completely
blocking the road. If the motorist was able to stop his vehicle 9 m from the
overturned truck, what was his distance from the truck when he first
observed the crash

2. a motorist traveling at V1 on an expressway intended to leave the

expressway using an exit ramp with a maximum speed of V2 . at what point
on the express way should the motorist step on her brakes in order to reduce
her speed to the maximum allowable on the ramp just before entering the
ramp, if this section of the expressway has a downgrade of 3%? Convert
answer to meters.

B V1 = 65 mi/hr : V2 = 35 MI/hr Use a = 11.2 ft/sec^2 and g = 32.2 ft / sec^2

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Estimate velocities

 It is sometimes necessary to estimate the speed of

vehicle just before it is involved in a crash. this may
be done if skid marks can be seen on the
pavement.

 In an attempt to estimate the speed of a vehicle just before It

hit a traffic signal pole. A traffic engineer measured the
length of skid marks made by the vehicle and performed trial
runs at the site to obtain an estimate of the coefficient of
friction. Determine the estimated unknown velocity if the
following date were obtained:
 Length of skid marks =178 m,180 m, 177 m, 181 m
 Speed of trial run= 48 km/h
 Distance travelled during the trial run = 90 m
 Examination of the vehicle just after the crash indicated that
the speed of impact was 56 km/h

bretbqert 80
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Minimum Radius of a Circular

Curve

 When a Vehicle is moving around a circular curve,

there is an inward radial force acting on a vehicle(
centrifugal force). There is also an outward radial
force acting towards the center of curvature as a
result of the centripetal acceleration.
 The centripetal acceleration depends on the
component of the vehicle’s weight along the
inclined surface of the road and the side friction
between the tires and the roadway.

Minimum radius R

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 An existing horizontal curve on a highway

has radius of 142 m, which restricts the
posted speed limit on this section of the
road to only 61.5% of the design speed of
the highway, determine the minimum radius
of the new curve. Assume that the rate of
super elevation is 0.08 for both existing curve
and the new curve to be designed. Assume
fs = 0.16

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ROAD CHARACTERISTICS

 Sight Distance
- is the length of the roadway a driver can see ahead
at any particular time. The sight distance available at
each point of the highway must be such that, when a
driver is travelling the highway’s design speed,
adequate time is given after an object is observed in
the vehicles path to make necessary evasive
maneuvers without colliding with the object

Stopping sight Distance

 Usually taken as the minimum sight distance

required for a driver to stop a vehicle after seeing
an object in the vehicle’s path without hitting the
object

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Passing Sight Distance

 The minimum sight distance

required on a two-lane, two way
highway that will permit a driver a
driver to complete a passing
maneuver without colliding with
an opposing vehicle and without
cutting off the passed vehicle.

The Minimum passing sight distance is the total of four components:

d1= distance traversed during the perception reaction time and during initial
acceleration to the point where the passing vehicle just enters the left lane
d2= distance travelled during the time the passing vehicle is traveling in the
left lane
d3=distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at he end
of the passing maneuver.
d4=distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two thirds of the time the
passing vehicle is in the left lane (usually taken to be 2/3 D2)

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 The distance d1 obtain from the expression:

t1
d1 = 0.278 t1 (u – m + )

T1 =time for initial maneuver (sec)

= average acceleration rate(Km/h/sec)
U = average speed of passing vehicle (km/h)
m= difference in speed of passing and impeder
vehicles

 The distance d2 obtain from :

d1 = 0.278 u t2

t2 =time passing vehicle is travelling in the left lane

(sec)
U = average speed of passing vehicle (km/h)

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 The clearance distance d3 between the passing

vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the completion
of the passing maneuver has been found to vary
between 30 m and 90 m

bretbqert 86