PRELIMINARY

CONCEPTS OF STATISTICS
Math 101 - STATISTICS
1st Semester, School Year 2023-2024

VICENTE G. PADILLA
Associate Professor IV
College of Science
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
▪Introduction
▪Brief History of Statistics
▪Significance of studying Statistics
▪Meaning of Statistics and its types
▪Population and sample
▪Types of variables
▪Levels of data measurement
▪Methods of data collection
 INTRODUCTION
❑How many times have you asked yourself
why you even need to learn statistics?
❑All too often students find themselves
drowning in a mathematical swamp of
theories and concepts and never get a
chance to see the “big picture” before going
under.
INTRODUCTION
❑In today’s technologically advanced
world, we are surrounded by a barrage
of data and information from sources
trying to convince us to buy something
or simply persuade us to agree with
their point view.
❑When we hear on TV that a politician is leading in
the polls and in small print see +/- 4 percent, do we
know what that means?
 INTRODUCTION
❑When a new product is
recommended by 4 out of 5 doctors,
do we question the validity of the
claim? Were the doctors paid for their
endorsement?
✓Statistics can have a POWERFUL influence on
our feelings, our opinions, and our decisions that
we make in life. Getting a handle on this widely
use tool is a good thing for all of us.
 HISTORY OF STATISTICS
▪Population surveys appear to be the primary
motivation for its historical development.
▪The word “statistics” comes from the Latin word
status, which means “state.”
▪This etymological connection reflects the earliest
focus of statistics on measuring things such as
the number of (taxable) subjects in a kingdom (or
state) or the number of subjects to send off to
invade neighboring kingdoms.
 The Early Pioneers
▪Sir William Petty provided
the first accounts of the
number of deaths in London
on a weekly basis in 1932.
▪So began the insurance
companies’ morbid
fascination with death
statistics.
1623-1687
 The Early Pioneers
▪James Bernoulli, a Swiss
mathematician was credited
during the 1600s with
calculating the probability of a
sequence of events, otherwise
known as “independent trials.”

1654-1705
 The Early Pioneers
▪Thomas Bayes, an English
mathematician developed during
the 1700s probability concepts
that have also been very useful to
the field of statistics. Bayes used
the probability of known events of
the past to predict probabilities of
the future.
▪This concept of inference is widely 1702-1761

used statistical techniques today.

 The Early Pioneers
▪William Gosset developed the famous
“t-test” using the Student’s t-distribution
while working at the Guinness brewery
in Dublin, Ireland. 1876-1937

▪W. Edwards Deming merged the science

of statistics with the field of quality control
in manufacturing environments. He spent
his time in Japan to promote the concept
of statistical quality for businesses.
1900-1993
SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDYING

STATISTICS
Learning to understand and
appreciate statistics helps us to
better understand our world.

We are exposed to
statistics on a daily basis.
Statistical procedures are used to advance
our knowledge of ourselves and the world
around us.
▪It is by systematically studying groups of people,
gathering scores, and analyzing results
statistically that we learn about how humans
perform under different treatments and
procedures.
Statistics helps to strengthen our critical
thinking skills and reasoning abilities.
▪Understanding statistical protocol and rules of
conduct enable us to evaluate the validity of
such assertions to see if they stand up to
scientific scrutiny.
▪Without research evidence to support various
claims, theories, and beliefs, we would have no
way to separate fact from mere opinion or to
protect ourselves from scam artists and quacks.
Statistics enables us to understand research results in
the professional journals of our own area of
specialization.
▪Most fields of study publish professional journals,
many of which contain articles describing firsthand
accounts or research. Such publications enable
professional to remain abreast of new knowledge
in their respective areas of expertise.
▪However, for students who have not taken a
course in statistics, the results sections of such
articles probably look like ancient hieroglyphic.
Statistics enables us to understand research results in
the professional journals of our own area of
specialization.
For example, you may see results reported as follows:
❑Males were significantly more competitive against
other males versus females. Reject Ho, t(53)=3.25,
p<.01.
❑There was no significant relationship between
gender and level of creativity. Fail to reject Ho,
χ2(3,n=73)=5.23, p>.05.
 STATISTICS
▪In its plural sense, refer to any group of
quantitative data or classified numerical records,
such as but not limited to the following:
✓Data on births, deaths, and marriages by the PSA
✓Data on production, employment, prices, etc. found
in business and economic journals, magazines and
newspapers
✓School records on enrolment, dropouts, failures,
expenditures, and many more.
 STATISTICS
▪In singular sense, it is a science which deals with
the
oCollection
oPresentation
oAnalysis
oInterpretation
of a set of numerical data.
 STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
▪The foundation of Statistics is DATA,
which can be transformed into useful facts
and information that an analyst or decision
maker can use.
▪Often, a fundamental characteristic of data
is variability
Aaron Levenstein on unseen Statistics

Aaron Levenstein (1913-1986)

Benjamin Disraeli on Statistics

Aaron Levenstein (1913-1986)

 FIELDS OF STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
▪Methods concerned ▪Methods concerned
with collecting, with the analysis of
describing, and subset of data
analyzing a set of leading to
data without drawing predictions or
conclusions (or inferences about the
inferences) about a entire set of data.
large group.
 Examples of Descriptive Statistics
1. The monthly collection of water samples
for testing required for all operating water
refilling stations in the province to determine
the quality of drinking water in terms of
Heterotrophic Plate Count, Total coliform and
Escherichia coli.
 Examples of Descriptive Statistics
2. Taking the vital statistics before taking the
Covid-19 vaccines for persons under Priority
Group A such as health workers, senior citizens,
persons with comorbidities, personnel from
essential sectors, and indigent population.
 Examples of Descriptive Statistics
3. Identifying the common symptoms
observed from the patients positive from
Covid-19 during the month of May 2021.

4. The teachers reported the students’

monthly percentage of accomplished outputs
from the activities assigned from their
modules.
 Examples of Inferential Statistics
1. The researcher took an average of 250 mL
water samples for testing from the randomly
selected water refilling stations in the province to
identify the quality of drinking water in terms of
Heterotrophic Plate Count, Total coliform and
Escherichia coli. He would like to determine
whether the different drinking water services
provide proper quality of drinking water to their
customers.
 Examples of Inferential Statistics
▪To accomplish this, he will then test whether the
water quality in terms of HPC, TC, and EC
significantly lower than the standard value set by
the Phil. Nat’l Standards for Drinking Water
(PNSDW).
▪According to PNSDW, the standard basis for
quality of drinking water must absolutely absent (0
count) from both Total Coliform and the
Escherichia coli, and the HPC should be less than
500.
 Examples of Inferential Statistics
2. A high school teacher determined the students’
monthly percentage of accomplished outputs from the
activities assigned from their modules. She would also
interested to take a sample survey on the status of
families of her students to determine whether it
significantly correlates the number of activities
accomplished on the modules assigned to them. Data on
status of families of her students include the family
income, parents occupation and education, number of
children, and the availability of gadgets used in
performing flexible learning.
 POPULATION VS. SAMPLE
Population a collection of all the
elements under consideration in
any statistical study.
Sample a part (or subset) of the
population from which information
is collected
POPULATION VS. SAMPLE

Population

Sample

The relationship between a population and sample.

 Example of Population and Sample
Population: All school districts
in the division of Catanduanes
Sample: a subset of school
districts in the division of
Catanduanes
 Example of Population and Sample
Population: All individuals of voting
age in the municipality of Virac
Sample: A subset of individuals of
voting age in the municipality of
Virac
 PARAMETER VS. STATISTIC
Parameter a numerical
characteristics of the
population.
Statistic a numerical
characteristic of the sample.
 Example of Parameter and Statistic
Suppose our population consists of the
department in a government agency
consisting of 25 employees. There are
20 employees who own a cell phone.
Thus, 80% of the employees in the
department own a cell phone.
The parameter of interest here is 80%
 Example of Parameter and Statistic
Suppose we take a sample of 10
employees from this department .
Among 10 employees in the sample, 7
own cellular phones. Thus, 70% of the
employees in the sample own cell
phones.
The statistics of interest is 70%.
 Reasons of Drawing a Sample
•Less time consuming than a census
•Less costly to administer than a
census
•Less cumbersome and more practical
to administer than a census of the
targeted population
 DATA AND VARIABLES
VARIABLE a characteristic or attribute that can assume
different values. Variables whose values are determined
by chance are called random variables.
• Examples are the running speed, reproductive rate,
and genotype.
• Estimates, such as average running speed of a
random sample of 10 lizards, are also variables,
because they differ by chance from sample to sample.
• DATA are the measurements of one or more variables
made on a sample of individuals.
Types of Variables (Abu-Bader, 2021)
•Independent Variable
•Dependent Variable
•Extraneous Variables
•Control Variable
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
• A variable that researchers can control for or
manipulate according to the purpose of the study.
• A variable that believed to cause an outcome to
occur.
• Also known as factor or predictor, depending on the
type of statistical analysis.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
• For example, if you believe that higher levels of
education lead to better quality of life, then the level
of education will be the independent variable.
• Also, if you believe that there are differences
between males and females with regard to their
annual income, then gender will be the independent
variable.
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
• A measure of the effect of the independent variable.
• It is dependent upon the occurrence of the
independent variable.
• In other words, it is the outcome of the independent
variable.
• Quality of life is the dependent variable in the first
example, and annual income is the dependent
variable in the second example.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
• This represents an alternative explanation for
any relationship observed between the
independent and dependent variables.
• It is a third variable that is not part of analysis,
yet researchers believe it may influence the
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables under the study.
EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
• Also known as confounding variables,
• Considered major threats to the internal validity of
longitudinal research studies.
• In the above examples, the relationship between
education and quality of life could also be affected
by an individual’s gender.
• Also, the relationship between gender and income
could be affected by an individual’s education.
CONTROL VARIABLE
• This is a variable that researchers believe affects
the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
• In the sense, it is the same as an extraneous
variable, but in this case data are available for this
variable and thus researchers can statistically
control for it to determine its effect on the
dependent variable.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF VARIABLES
1. Qualitative Variables are variables that can
be placed into distinct categories, according to
some characteristic or attribute.
For example, if subjects are classified
according to gender (male or female), then the
variable gender is qualitative. Other examples
of qualitative variables are religious preference
and geographic locations.
 CLASSIFICATIONS OF VARIABLES
2. Quantitative Variables are numerical and
can be ordered or ranked.
For example, the variable age is numerical,
and people can be ranked in order
according to the value of their ages.
Other examples of quantitative variables:
heights, weights, and body temperatures.
 Two Classifications
of QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
Discrete Variables assume values that can
be counted. IT can be assigned values such
as 0, 1, 2, 3 and are said to be countable.
Continuous Variables by comparison, can
assume an infinite number of values in an
interval between any two specific values. It
is usually obtained by measuring and often
include fractions and decimals.
Examples of Discrete Variables
▪the number of children in a family
▪the number of students in a classroom
▪the number of calls received by a
switchboard operators each day for a
month
Examples of Continuous Variables
▪temperature, which can assume an infinite
number of values between any two given
temperature.
▪During a given interval, a cow might yield an
amount of milk that can be any value between 0
and 5 gallons.
▪When describing relatively smaller amounts,
correct grammar dictates that we use “fewer”
for discrete amounts, and “less” for continuous
amounts.
▪For example, it is correct to say that we drank
fewer cans of cola and, in the process, we
drank less cola.
▪The numbers of cans of cola are discrete data,
whereas the actual volume amounts of cola are
continuous data.
The classification of variables can be summarized
as follows:
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: NOMINAL
▪This level of data measurement classifies data into
mutually exclusive (non-overlapping), exhausting
categories in which no order or ranking can be
imposed on the data.
▪deals strictly with qualitative data.
▪Observations are simply assigned to
predetermined categories.
▪The lowest level of data and the most restrictive
when choosing a statistics to use for analysis.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: NOMINAL
▪Examples of Nominal-level data:
oGender of the respondents: male and female
oPolitical party: PDP-Laban, LP, Nationalista, Nationalist
Peoples Coalition (NPC), Hugpong ng Pagbabago, etc.
oReligion: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, etc.
oMarital status: single, married, separated, divorced, widowed
▪Does not allow us to perform any mathematical
operations
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: NOMINAL
▪We can use numbers as code to represent each of
the categories of a certain nominal variables.
▪Gender: 0-Male, 1-Female
▪Zip codes and telephone numbers are number codes
that represent specific place/address and account,
respectively.
▪Even though the data appears to be numbers, it’s
handled just like qualitative data.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: ORDINAL
▪On the food chain of data, ordinal is
the next level up.
▪It has all the properties of nominal
data with added feature that we can
rank-order the values from highest to
lowest.
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: ORDINAL
▪ An example is if you were to have a Motorcylce race.
Let’s say the finishing order was Jason, Rene, and Arvie.
We still can’t perform mathematical operations on this
dat, but we can say that Jason’s motorcycle was faster
than Renz’s.
▪ However, we cannot say how much faster.
▪ Ordinal data does not allow us to make measurements
between the categories and to say, for instance, that
Jason’s motorcycle is twice as good as Renz’s (it’s not).
▪ Ordinal data can be either qualitative or quantitative.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: INTERVAL
▪Moving up the scale of data, we find ourselves at
the interval level, which is strictly quantitative
data.
▪Now we can get to work with the mathematical
operations of addition and subtraction when
comparing values.
▪For this data, we can measure the difference
between the different categories with actual
numbers and also provide meaningful information.
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: INTERVAL
▪Temperature measurement is degrees Fahrenheit is a
common example here.
▪For instance, 70 degrees is 5 degrees warmer than
65 degrees. But, multiplication and division can’t be
performed on this data. Why not? Simply because we
cannot argue that 100 is twice as warm as 50.
▪Interval data does not have a true 0 point.
▪For example, 0F does not represent the absence of
temperature, even though it may feel like it.
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: RATIO
▪The king data type is the ratio level.
▪Now we can perform all four mathematical operations
to compare values with absolutely no feelings of guilt.
▪Examples of this type are age, weight, height, and
salary.
▪Ratio data has all the features of interval data with the
added benefit of a true 0 point. The term “true zero
point” means that a 0 data value indicates the
absence of the object being measured.
 LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: RATIO
▪ For instance, 0 salary indicates the absence of any
salary. With a true 0 point, we can use the rules of
multiplication and division to compare data values.
▪ This allows us to say that a person who is 6 feet in height
is twice as tall as a 3-foot person or that a 20-year old
person is half the age of a 40 year old.
▪ To help identify the proper scale, use the “twice as much”
rule. If the phrase “twice as much” accurately describes
the relationship between two values that differ by a
multiple of 2, then the data can be considered ratio level.
Characteristics of Data Measurement
Summary of Data Measurement
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
SURVEYS
SURVEYS
OBSERVATION METHOD
USE OF EXISTING RECORDS
EXPERIMENTATION
THANK YOU…!