1.

INTRODUCTION

A computer is an electronic machine or device that can be instructed to accept raw data (input)
and process it into some useful information (output).

It can perform a variety of tasks. We use computers for programming, spreadsheets, data
management, graphics and communication. Much of the processing computers can be separated
into two operations – arithmetic operations and logical operations. Processing is built around the
computer’s ability to perform arithmetic and logical operations. Software is a set of instructions
written by humans and given to the computer. These instructions (programs) tell the computer
which operations to apply data, to ultimately produce informational output. Software directs the
processing sequence and allows a computer to perform specific tasks.

1.1 FUNCTIONS/OPERATIONS OF A COMPUTER

 Arithmetic Operation - Computations with numbers (addition, subtractions, division,

multiplication)

 Logical Operations –They are a comparison of two numbers to determine if one is greater
than, smaller than or equal to the other. A computer can compare numbers, letters, or
special characters. The computer can then take action based on the results of the
comparison

All computer systems perform the following basic operations:

 Input - you input your data into the computer

 Processing - Process input or stored data as per instructions by user
 Output - The computer displays processed results e.g. through monitor, printer
 Storage - A computer can store data and instructions for future use and processing. It has
memory and can store large amounts of data
1.2 DATA AND INFORMATION

All computer processing requires data, which is a collection of raw facts, figures and symbols,
such as numbers, words, images, video and sound, given to the computer during the input phase.
Computers manipulate data to create information. Information is data that is organized,
meaningful, and useful. During the output Phase, the information that has been created is put
into some form, such as a printed report. The information can also be put in computer storage for
future use.

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS

1. Speed - The computer is the fastest calculating machine ever invented. The performance
of a computer is judged by its processing speed which is based on its ‘cycle time’ .The
speed is measured in megahertz (MHz) which means millions of machine cycle per
second. So a computer with a speed of 900 MHz will be capable of handling roughly 900
million machine cycles per second.

2. Accuracy - A computer is consistently highly accurate in it calculations and decisions. It

performs each and every calculation with the same accuracy. A computer may perform
wrong results but that is due to human error rather than the technological factor. If the
input is inaccurate the output is bound to be inaccurate. A computer follows a principle of
GIGO which means Garbage in Garbage out. It means if the input is inaccurate and
wrong the output will certainly be inaccurate and wrong. Thus the accuracy of the output
produced by a computer is determined by the accuracy of the data entered.

3. Reliability - As far as accuracy, speed, and serviceable life is concerned, a computer is

an extremely reliable machine

4. Storage Capacity - Depending upon its secondary storage capacity, a computer can store
and recall any amount of data. Data on the computer can be saved and retained as long as
desired by user and can be retrieved when needed. Time does not affect a computer’s
storage and retrieval capability.

5. Diligence - Being a machine, a computer is free from any monotony, tiredness, lack of
attention, etc. and therefore can work for hors constantly with the same speed. This
quality is very rare in human beings especially where the work is routine and requires
great accuracy.

6. Versatility - A computer can perform several and varied functions at the same time. At a
particular point of time, it may be processing the examination result and at the same time
 computing salaries of the employees and in between, it may be searching an important
document from its memory.

3. APPLICATION AREAS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

1. Learning Institutions - Computers and new technology are gradually being integrated into
the learning environment. The power of computers is used for complex mathematical and
statistical calculations and number crunching which is crux of any scientific and technological
research. With the help of computers, more and more students are able to access courses or even
entire academic programs without ever setting foot on campus. (E -learning).

2. In health Care - Maintaining and sharing records, monitoring patient’s vital signs, assist in
research and diagy2nosis, conduct medical tests.

3. Office Automation - The extensive use of computers in offices is often referred to a office
automation. Such offices use includes word processing, electronic mail, spreadsheet application
and data sharing.

4. Computers in Banks - Computers are used to maintain customer transactions such as deposits
and withdrawals

5. Manufacturing and Engineering- Computers are used in manufacturing industry for

designing and process control besides other management activities like inventory control,
financial analysis, project management, developments of MIS etc. Computers have altered
techniques of engineering by its tools called Computer Aided Designing which helps engineers
to automating the design and drafting process and build different graphics.

6. Government Administrations and other services – Today governments throughout the

world are expected to provide welfare state to their citizens and have a wide ranging
responsibility towards their citizens, responsibility such as security, health, employment,
education and welfare of their citizens. For discharging these duties, governments need huge data
on their citizens for planning .Weather forecast and early warning systems for calamities such as
cyclones, floods, etc are some of the essential services heavily dependent on computers.
 2. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

1. THE FIRST GENERATION - 1941 to about 1956 (The Vacuum Tube era)

Characteristics
1. Used vacuum tubes to store and process information.
2. They had binary code called machine language that told it how to operate. This made the
computer difficult to programme.
3. Vacuum tubes consumed large amounts of power, generated much heat, and were short-
lived. Therefore, first-generation computers had limited memory and processing
capability.
4. Processes hundreds of instructions per second

Examples
1) In 1941 German Engineer Konrad Zuse created a Z3 computer to design airplanes and
missiles
2) In 1943 The British Developed a code breaking computer called Collosus to decode
German messages
3) 1944 IBM created An all-electronic calculator which was used to create charts for the
US Navy
4) Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), produced by the US
5) Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC),1945 University of
Pennyslavia

2. THE SECOND GENERATION of computers, 1956–1965, (The era of the transistor)

Characteristics
1. They used transistors for storing and processing information. Transistors consumed less
power than vacuum tubes, produced less heat, and were cheaper, more stable smaller and
more reliable. Second-generation computers, with increased processing and storage
capabilities, began to be more widely used for scientific and business purposes.
2. Processed thousands of instructions per second.
3. They replaced machine language with assembly language allowing abbreviated
programming codes to replace long difficult binary codes.

Examples
1. Early super computers such as Stretch and LARC (Livermore Atomic Research Computer
– developed for atomic energy laboratories.
2. IBM1401
3. IBM 16020
 4. THIRD-GENERATION, 1965–1972

Characteristics

1. They used integrated circuits for storing and processing information. Integrated circuits
are made by printing numerous small transistors on silicon chips. These devices are
called semiconductors.
2. Third-generation computers employed software that could be used by nontechnical
people, thus enlarging the computer’s role in business.

3. FOURTH GENERATION 1972-1984

Characteristics

1. Used very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuits to store and process information. The
VLSI technique allows the installation of hundreds of thousands of circuits (transistors
and other components) on a small chip. With ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI), 100
million transistors could be placed on a chip. These computers are inexpensive and
widely used in business and everyday life.
2. Started the invention of the microprocessor which contains thousands of Integrated
Circuits
3. Gave rise to the P.C revolution
4. Concept of internet was introduced

Examples 1981- the personal computer by IBM for use at home office or school

5 THE FIFTH GENERATION 1984 ONWARDS

CHARACTERISTICS

1. Uses massively parallel processing to process multiple instructions simultaneously.

Massively parallel computers use flexibly connected networks linking thousands of
inexpensive, commonly used chips to address large computing problems, attaining
supercomputer speeds.
2. They use Grand Scale Integrated circuits to store and process information.
3. They process billions of instructions per second
4. They work on artificial languages such as PROLOG. Artificial intelligence includes
robotics, game playing, and expert systems to make decisions on real life situations.
5. They are able to accept spoken words instructions and imitate human reasoning. The
ability to translate foreign languages

3 TYPES OF COMPUTERS
COMPUTERS DIFFER IN TERMS OF SIZE e.g. desktop Computers that can fit on an office
desk and mainframe computers taking an entire room. And Functionality (e.g. desktop
computers used for drawing annual reports, workstations used for 3D rendering and super
computers used for weather forecasting or nuclear simulations. It is therefore important to
classify computers correctly so that you are able to use the correct computer for a specific
application or use.

1. MOBILE DEVICES – Is a term for a variety of small portable computer devices. These
include

a. Laptops – Laptops and notebooks are small light portable computers that can be carried
around by the user. Laptops can run on battery power and are portable all-in- one
computer system typically having a built in LCD display, keyboard, pointing, pointing
device such as a touch pad. Reputable high quality laptops are however more expensive
than their equivalent desktop counterparts.

b. Netbooks are portable computers that are smaller and cheaper than conventional laptops;
however the internal components are less powerful than those in standard laptops are.

c. Tablet P.Cs
A tablet P.C is a portable computer with touch screen as its primary input. Most tablets are
smaller and weigh less than the average laptop. A popular example is Apple IPAD.

d. Smartphones and PDAs (personal digital assistants)

These are small handheld computers. They have limited hardware capabilities when compared to
some mobile devices.

Fig 3….P.D.A
 2. Desktop computers
Desktop Computers are inexpensive computers that are powerful enough to perform most
business computing tasks. These computers are not designed for portability, but are small enough
to fit on a home or office desk.

3. Workstations

It is simply a workstation computer that may contain special hardware enhancements such as a
more powerful processor, additional memory and enhanced capabilities for performing
specialized tasks. Workstations are used for tasks such as 3D rendering model by engineers.

4. Servers
A Server is a computer that is dedicated to providing a specific service or performing a specific
task. Servers usually have powerful processors and large memory and storage capacity

Typical servers include

Database server; dedicated to a database
File server - manages a large collection of computer files
Transaction server – Processes business transactions
Web server – processes web pages and web applications

5. Mainframe Computers
These are large powerful computers used in organizations to service multiple users using smaller
machines. These computers are capable of processing and handling large amount of data quickly.
Mainframes are used for tasks such as transaction processing.

6. Super Computers
They are the most powerful computer systems of all. These computers have fastest processing
speed and the best performance. Super computers are used for calculating intensive tasks such as
weather forecasting, aero dynamics, nuclear simulations, and complex scientific computations

COMPUTER AS A SYSTEM
A system is a group of integrated parts that have the common purpose of achieving some
objectives. A computer in this sense can be understood as a system. Computer system consists of
the following

1) Hardware
2) Software
3) Users

HARDWARE
Computer hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system.The function and
purpose of hardware is to assist users with the input - (capturing of data) processing, data
storage and output activities. For an example an Accountant captures accounting data on the
computer system using keyboard (input device).The data input is processed by computer
(processing) and transaction information is created and stored on the hard disk drive (data
storage). The transaction output is displayed on the computer monitor and printed on paper that
is later filed (output devices).

Fig4

1. INPUT DEVICES
Refers to the physical peripheral (Anything connected to your computer is considered a peripheral)
devices used for data entry and input. Input devices are used for data entry by entering human
readable data (words written by a writer on a piece of paper) into a computer (e.g. entering
characters into a computer using a keyboard) where data are converted into machine readable
data.
`

2. OUTPUT DEVICES – These are peripherals devices used to communicate the results of
the data processed by a computer to users. Examples include the following
 Printer
 Plotter
 Speakers
 Headphones
 Projector
 Video Display Unit
 3. PROCESSING – THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) AND PRIMARY
MEMORY
Data and Instructions are entered into the CPU for processing. This processing is carried out by
the CPU which utilizes primary memory for storing and retrieving data.

The CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) is the component of the CPU that carries out
instructions of computer programs and is the primary component of a computer. The CPU carries
out the instructions of a program in sequence by performing the basic arithmetical/logical input
operations of the system. The CPU is the brain of the computer.

A CPU consists of three components

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – which performs mathematical and Logical operations
2. The Control Unit which performs program instructions decodes them and directs the
instructions in and out of the ALU, the registers the primary and secondary storage
and the output devices.
3. Registers are temporary high speed storage areas used to hold program instructions
before, during and after their execution by CPU.

Executing Instructions involves two phase,

a) The first phase consisting of steps 1 and 2 called the instruction phase

1. Fetch Instruction
2. Decode Instruction

b) The second phase consisting of steps 3,4 called the execution phase

3. Execute instruction
4. Store Results

The CPU executes all four steps for every instruction processed. After completing one
instruction, all four steps are performed again for the second instruction and so the process
continues. The CPU process involved in executing and completing is called a machine cycle.

Clock Speed – also called clock rate, is the speed at which a CPU executes instructions. The
faster the clocks speed of a computer, the more the instructions a CPU will be able to execute per
second. Clock speed is measure in megahertz (MHz) or Gigahertz (GHz).
 4. PRIMARY STORAGE/MAIN MEMORY
Primary memory stores data and program statements for the CPU. The CPU store and retrieves
information directly to and from the memory. This memory is accessed by the CPU in a random
manner, thus any location of this memory can be accessed by the CPU either to read information
from it or to store information on it. It has four basic purposes:

1. To store data that have been input until they are transferred to the ALU for processing.
2. To store data and results during intermediate stages of processing.
3. To hold data after processing until they are transferred to an output device.
4. To hold program statements or instructions received from input devices and from secondary
storage.

There are two types of primary memory; the first is called random access memory (RAM) and
the second one the read only (ROM)

RAM

1. The Random Access Memory is the main Memory.

2. Data can be read into RAM and can be read from RAM
3. RAM is volatile which means it needs a steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents.
As soon as the power is turned off whatever data which were in RAM is lost.

ROM

1. Most computers contain read only memory that holds up instructions for starting up the
computer.
2. One cannot write data to ROM
3. ROM is non-volatile meaning that this memory does not require a steady flow of
electricity to maintain its contents. ROM will retain its contents even if the power if
turned off.
 PROM- (PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY). Most computers contain
read only memory. Once PROM has been used the program cannot be erased or be used
to store something else. PROMS are non-volatile.
 EPROM(ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY) – Is a type of
PROM that can be erasable by exposing it to ultraviolet light
 EEPROM(ELECTICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY
MEMIORY) – An EEPROM is a type of PROM that can be erased by exposing by
electrical charge.EE PROMS are non- volatile
 4. SECONDARY STORAGE
Secondary storage also called permanent also called permanent storage refers to storage devices
or media that are able to store large amounts of data, instructions and information permanently,
unless erased. Secondary storage is not directly accessible by the CPU and is non-volatile owing
to the fact that it does not lose data when the device is powered down.

1. HARD DISK DRIVES

The hard disk drive is the main and usually largest data storage device in a computer. It is a non-
volatile, random access digital magnetic data storage device. A hard drive is made up of platters
which stores the data, and read/write heads to transfer data. A Hard Drive is generally the fastest
of the secondary storage devices, and has the largest data storage capacity. Currently storage
capacity can be as much as 3 terabytes. Some persons use hard drives externally as a form of
storage.

2. OPTICAL DISKS
Optical disk media include disks (CDs), digital versatile disks, or digital video disks
(DVDs).Optical disk drive, referred to as CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive is a disk drive
that uses laser light or electromagnetic waves to read or write data to and from optical
disks. Optical disks are composed of millions of small bumps and indentations. Laser
lights or electromagnetic waves from optical drive read there bumps and indentations as
zeros and ones, thus binary code. Accordingly, the computer processes the code, which is
translated into information output that is images, text and sound. The amount of
information that can be stored on optical disks ranges from 700 megabytes for CDs, 4.7
gigabytes for single layer DVDs and 25 gigabytes for single layer Blu-ray disks.

3. FLASH MEMORY
Is a storage device that is a memory chip. Flash memory in non-volatile meaning that no
power is needed to maintain the information stored. Flash memory is effectively
EEPROM which can be electrically erased and reprogrammed.it is classified as
removable media and is primarily used in memory cards, USB flash drives, mp3 players
for general storage and transfer of data between computers. Other applications include
cell phones, digital camera, digital audio players, and smartphones and laptop computers.

USB flash drives and memory have replaced most previous portable data storage media,
for example floppy disks and zip disks. a USB flash drive connects to a computer via its
integrated USB interface.
 5. COMMUNICATION DEVICES
Communication devices enable a computer to connect to other computers in a network. The most
common types of Communication devices are Modem, network interface card and router.

1. MODEM – Is a communication device that enables data to transmit data over telephone
line or cable line. It converts digital signals from the computer into analog signals to send
over the phone lines and coverts phone analog signals into digital signals for the
computer

2. NETWORK INTERFACE CARD – Enables the computer to have access to a network

3. ROUTER – Allows communication from one network to another. It allows multiple

computers to share one single high speed internet connection

OTHER HARDWARE COMPONENTS TO NOTE

a. Motherboard – The motherboard connects the of the computer including the CPU and
primary memory, secondary storage devices as well as the peripheral devices connected
to the computer
b. Power Supply – It delivers electrical power to the internal components of the computer
c. Video card – It generates output images to the monitor. High performance video cards
are used for purposes more graphically demanding such as 3D rendering and PC games
d. Sound card – It facilitates the input and output of audio signals to and from a computer