The Agrarian Revolution in Britain

This refers to the period in British history beginning in the mid 18th century and going into the
19th century, characterized by gradual but significant changes that occurred in agricultural
practises. The main characteristics of this revolution involved the enclosure of lands (enclosure
movement), improvements in farming methods, selective breeding, introduction of new crops
and the introduction of new technologies.

Reasons for its development

The main cause of change seems to have been the rapidly growing population (from around 6
million in 1700 to 11 million in 1801), particularly in the towns, which created an increased
demand for food. This was particularly important during the Napoleonic Wars (1803 – 1814),
since Napoleon's Continental System prevented all trade with Europe; Britain had to produce
more food, or starve. Prices rose rapidly, increasing profitability and encouraging an expansion
of production; the Corn Laws also played a part in this. Villages that had been happy to be
merely self-sufficient now began to look to produce for the market, so the changes involved the
adoption of a new capitalist business ethic by the farmers. Better transport also played a part, for
it extended the hinterland of population areas, and allowed more farmers to produce for the
market.

The Enclosure movement

Prior to the Agrarian Revolution, fields were divided into strips and each peasant had his own
strip to cultivate. This system was wasteful as it meant that several men had to work in each
field, farmers used the same farming methods and weeds spread easily from one field to another.
Wealthy men began buying up the strips of land, creating large farmlands and enclosing them
with hedges. This brought changes to farming and rural areas. Small farmers were bought out or
forced off their land by the new men. Few small farmers could afford new lands because land
prices rose. In some cases, whole villages were bought by landowners seeking new lands. As a
result, rural life changed significantly. Some former small farmers became hired hands for the
new large owners. Some moved to the towns, seeking work in the new factories, or opening their
own small shops and businesses. Others migrated to the British colonies in North America and
the Caribbean. Many of the cottage industries that small farmers and their families used to do
disappeared.

Improvement in farming methods

The ‘four-course crop rotation method’ (also known as the
Norfolk crop rotation system), replaced the ‘three field system’
of planting. The old three field system employed a three year
crop rotation, with a different crop in each of two fields, for
example, wheat and barley, with the third field being fallowed
(rested or unused). This meant that a plot of land was not in
active use, reducing productivity. The four course crop rotation
system was designed to ensure that no land was left fallow
during periods of cultivation, since crops were being rotated in
the fields, ensuring that different kinds and quantities of nutrients were being absorbed from and
being put back into the soil. Wheat, barley, red clover and turnip were the crops grown in this
system. This system was popularized by enlightened landowners such as Viscount Charles
‘Turnip’ Townshend and Thomas Coke.
Norfolk Crop Rotation System: This system meant that no land had to remain fallow. The
system worked like this:

Turnip Barley Red Clover Wheat

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Each area of land was split into four sections. The crop that was grown on each field was rotated
so that different nutrients were taken from the land.
First year: turnips or another root crop was grown.
Second year: barley was grown in the field (barley could be sold at a profit).
Third year: clover or a grass crop was grown.
Fourth year: wheat was grown in the field (wheat could also be sold for a profit).

Manure
Over the years farmers discovered that the animal manure possessed certain nutrients that were
beneficial to soil fertilization. As a consequence farmers began to collect animal manure in
special receptacles and spread it over their crop land. This enriched the soil and significantly
increased crop yields. As a natural fertilizer, it has no real adverse side effects.

Selective breeding

Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced selective breeding and inbreeding as ways of
improving the genetic quality of their livestock. Selective breeding involved the mating of two
animals with the particularly desirable traits or qualities the farmer wanted. Inbreeding involved
the mating of close relatives (father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister), in order to
stabilize the qualities sought after. Robert Bakewell was particularly successful in this regard
with crossbreeding the Lincoln and Longhorn sheep, to produce the new Dishley Leicester
variety. His work resulted in a great reduction in the age at which sheep were ready for the
butcher. Other successful breeders included Charles and Robert Colling of County Durham
(Durham Shorthorn cattle) and George Culley of Northumberland (Border Leicester sheep).
These methods proved quite successful in developing the production of larger and more
profitable livestock.

Robert Bakewell Charles and Robert Colling

Dishley Leicester sheep Border Leicester sheep

Introduction of new crops

The introduction of new crops such as potatoes, red clovers and turnips into Britain in the 17th
century, dramatically improved farming practises. Farmers were
able to use these new crops as animal fodder (food) to feed
their livestock during the winter months, as they could be stored
for a long while without spoiling. This meant that it was no longer
necessary to slaughter the animals in the autumn months, so that
the meat could be salted for the winter storage. Thus fresh meat
was now available during winter and spring. It also meant livestock farmers could enjoy better
prices and healthier livestock.

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The use of new crops also had other benefits. For instance, when red clover was planted, it
actually returned certain nutrients to the soil. Thus it was a revitalizing source for a variety of
soils. Turnips also proved very beneficial since they facilitated easy hoeing of the soil. This
allowed for better weeding and aeration of the soil.

Introduction of new technologies

In 1701 Jethro Tull invented a seed drill. This device distributed the seeds more efficiently across
a plot of land. The seed drill facilitated more effective crop cultivation, since it promoted better
spacing among seedlings.

In 1730 the Rotherham plough was invented by Joseph Foljambe. While not the first iron
plough, it was the first iron plough to have any commercial success, combining a number of
technological innovations in its design, and being lighter than traditional ploughs. It remained in
use in Britain until the development of the tractor.

It was referred to as a swing plough, because no depth wheel was used, it was like ploughs
before it, constructed from wood. The difference was that the fittings and coulter were made of
iron and the mould board and share were covered with an iron plate. This new design was
considered by all who saw it at work to be more efficient as it was light and economical enough
in draught to be drawn by a pair of horses. Joseph Foljambe's was perhaps the first factory where
a plough was produced on a large scale.

The Rotherham plough was further improved upon in 1763. In that year, James Small invented
the Scots plough. This plough used an improved cast iron share to turn the soil more effectively
and with less strain on the ploughing team.

Jethro Tull Seed drill Rotherham plough Scots plough

New farming ideas

After 1750, new farming ideas and techniques began to reach Britain from abroad. Most of these
ideas came from Holland and Denmark. At first, the ideas were not popular, but they soon started
to spread across Britain because the farmers using them were making good profits.

Changes in farming techniques during this period were connected with:

• A more scientific approach used for crop rotation.
• Soil improvement that allowed better quality crops to be grown.
• New stock breeding techniques to produce bigger cattle and better meat.
• The use of new machinery in fields.

Agricultural improvers played an important role in changing and improving British farming
techniques. Improvers were divided into three categories:

1. Agricultural improvers - people who worked to improve the land.

2. Selective breeders - people who worked to improve the quality of cattle.
3. Propagandists - people who worked to spread new ideas about farming techniques.

The Agricultural Improvers

Charles 'Turnip' Townshend

He popularised new techniques and proved that they were more profitable. He:

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• Introduced the Norfolk Four-Course crop rotation (wheat, turnips, barley, clover) to Britain.
Turnips were used as a cleansing crop to allow the land to be hoed to
kill the weeds, and clover was grown to replace the nutrients in the
soil that the crops had depleted. This rotation prevented land from
lying fallow and both turnips and clover were fodder crops, which
could be fed to animals to allow more of them to survive cold
winters.
• Used a method called marling, which mixed rich subsoil with a
poorer sandy soil to produce better quality crops and increasingly
more profit.
• Gave his tenant farmers longer leases to encourage them to invest
more money to experiment with new ideas and improving their land.

Jethro Tull
He was important because he introduced ideas that others went on to develop.
• In 1701, he invented a horse-powered seed drill that planted seeds at the same depth in straight
lines. This wasted less seeds and allowed farmers to manage their crops more easily.
• In 1714, he invented a horse-drawn hoe that made it easier for farmers to weed between their
seed rows. In 1731, he wrote a book called "Horse Hoeing Husbandry", which promoted new
farming ideas.

The Selective Breeders

Robert Bakewell
He was a pioneering selective breeder. His new methods were simple:
• He only chose the best farm animals and bred from them. His most successful animals were the
New Leicester Sheep and the Dishley Longhorn cattle. They were bigger animals, but they did
not have better meat.
• Bakewell kept detailed records about his livestock, made sure they were very healthy and their
stables and pens were always clean.
• He was so successful that other farmers often hired his animals to breed from. Bakewell also
wrote articles and pamphlets describing his new breeding techniques and their advantages.

Charles and Robert Colling

They were also selective breeders, but not as well known as Robert Bakewell. They improved on
Robert Bakewell's methods and their main success was breeding the Durham Shorthorn cattle,
which were able to produce large amounts of milk and high quality lean meat for sale at market.

The Propagandists

Arthur Young
He was a propagandist for agricultural improvement who was
convinced that Britain needed a strong agricultural community.
• Young travelled around the country and some parts of Europe, writing
articles about agricultural change and also edited an agricultural journal
called "The Annals of Agriculture".
• In 1793, he became secretary of the new Board of Agriculture and
encouraged the spread of new agricultural techniques and ideas.

Thomas Coke
He was a Norfolk landowner who adopted and spread new agricultural methods on his farm in
Norfolk.
• He gave his tenant farmers leases of 20 to 40 years to encourage them to try out new methods.
He believed that if his tenant farmers felt they owned the land for a significant period of time,
they would be more willing to invest in it.
• Coke encouraged farmers to use the new techniques by organising annual events on his estate
that demonstrated the newest methods. One such event was called Coke's Clipping. This was a
competition to see how quickly a sheep could be sheared. He was important for sharing and
spreading new farming ideas.