Stratigraphy

- The term Stratigraphy comes from "stratum" (bed) and "graphia" (description).

- Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of the rock layers (strata) and layering
(stratification) including:
description of rock bodies of the earth's crust, organization of rock bodies into units. It includes their
description, classification, naming and correlation.

- These units must be distinctive, useful and mappable.

- This organization of stratigraphic units based on properties (lithologic composition, fossil content,
geophysical properties) and the age relations of rock bodies.

-Why Stratigraphy? Significance of stratigraphic analysis:

• Stratigraphy has implications for age determination, correlation, tectonic movements,
paleogeography, paleoclimate, paleoecology and geological history.
• Displays the vertical and lateral distribution of rock strata and their interrelationship.
• Displays the strata geometry and missing intervals.
• Contributes in oil /gas-field evaluation and reserve estimation.
• Contributes in locating development and appraisal wells.

The Fundamental Laws (Principles) of Stratigraphy:

There are several principles or laws of stratigraphy essential to geologic interpretation of any
sequence of depositional events:
1.Uniformitarianism.
2.The Law of Original Horizontality.
3.The Law of Superposition.
4.The Law of Cross-cutting Relations.
5.The Law of Faunal Succession.
6. Stratigraphic Contacts (Conformity and Unconformity)
7. Lapout

1. Uniformitarianism
The present is the key to the past.
This principle is saying that past geologic events and processes, and fossil forms are essentially
similar to modern analogues of these events, processes and fossils.

Ancient Ripples Modern Ripples

Fossil Cephalopod Living Cephalopod

2. The Law of Original Horizontality

Beds are usually deposited in approximately horizontal sheets.

This principle allows geologists to recognize when rock layers have been tectonically disturbed.
Typically, such disturbance causes the beds to dip, e.g. folding.

3. The Law of Superposition

In any undisturbed sequence of strata, the oldest or first deposited layer lies at the bottom, and the
youngest or last deposited layer is found at the top "the beds higher in elevation are younger than the
lower ones in elevation".
This rule can't apply in: Tilted rock sequences, Fluvial Terraces and Channel Deposits, Deposits with
Depositional Relief.
A critical aspect of this principle is the assumption that the sedimentary strata have not been
overturned by folding.

4. The Law of Cross-cutting Relations

Any structure or rock body that cuts across another is younger than the one which it cuts across. The
sandstone bed is cross-cut by the fault, and the fault is cross-cut by the basalt dyke. Therefore, the
fault is younger than the bed and the dyke is younger than the fault.
5. The Law of Faunal Succession

Each layer in a succession of rock strata can be identified by its distinctive fossil content.
Thus, plant and animal fossils succeed one another in a recognizable order. This allows distinctive
fossil groups and their host rock strata to be correlated between widely separated geographic areas.
It provides evidence that distinct rock layers from different areas were deposited at roughly the same
time.

6. Stratigraphic Contacts

Conformability of contacts
Vertically superposed strata (layers lying one on top of the other) are either conformable or
unconformable depending on whether deposition was continuous or not.
Conformable contacts
when there has been continuous (uninterrupted) deposition between two depositional assemblages.
The beds are generally deposited as parallel layers, one above the other.
Unconformable contacts (or unconformities)
These are those representing surfaces of erosion or non-deposition, separating younger strata from
older rocks.
Unconformities:
Missing in time record via a break in sedimentation and or erosion.
These are surfaces of erosion or non-deposition, separating younger strata from older rocks.
The unconformity represents a significant hiatus. An unconformity indicates a lack of continuity of
deposition and corresponds to the periods of non-deposition, weathering or erosion, either subaerial
or subaqueous, prior to deposition of younger beds.

There are four recognized types of unconformable contact (unconformities):

a- Angular unconformity
b- Nonconformity
c- Disconformity
d- Paraconformity

Angular Unconformity
Horizontal flat parallel strata of sedimentary rock are deposited on tilted eroded layers.
layers above and below are not parallel to each other (Flat strata over steeply dipping strata).

Non-conformity
Sedimentary Strata deposited on crystalline basement rocks (pre-existing and eroded igneous or
metamorphic).

Disconformity "Parallel Unconformity"

A disconformity is an unconformity between parallel layers of sedimentary rocks which represents a
period of erosion (subaerial) or non-deposition.
.)‫هنا باين ان فيه فترة بين ترسيب الطبقات المتوازية (الخط األسود‬

Paraconformity "Diastem"
A Paraconformity is a type of unconformity in which strata are parallel; there a gap in the geologic
system but no evidence for a gap in time or erosion and the unconformity surface looks like a simple
bedding plane. It is also called non-depositional unconformity or pseudo conformity identified by
fossils or radiometric dating.
Hiatus: It is a break or interruption in the depositional continuity of the geologic record. It represents
long periods of geologic time for which there are no sediments or other strata.

Diastem: is a minor depositional break involving only short periods of geologic time of non-deposition
with little or no erosion before deposition is resumed " short erosional surface within a conformable
succession of strata".
Unconformity Criteria:
1.Difference in dip angle between the strata above and below the unconformity.
2.The presence of two different types of rocks (Igneous, Metamorphic /Sedimentary rocks).
3.The presence of erosion surface sometimes marked by a conglomeritic layer (basal conglomerates).
4.The absence of certain types of fossils.
Formation of Disconformity
Sharpness of Upper and Lower Contacts

A- Abrupt contacts
These are represented by sudden, distinct changes in lithology, across the
bedding planes resulting from sudden changes in local depositional conditions.
They may also be due to post-depositional chemical alteration of beds, producing
changes in color such as the oxidation or reduction of iron-bearing minerals;
changes in grain size, recrystallization or dolomitization, changes in resistance
to weathering due to differential cementation by silica or carbonate minerals.

B- Gradational contacts
Gradational contacts reflect gradual change in depositional conditions with time,
either vertically or laterally.
• Vertical gradational contacts include: Progressive gradual type: which occurs where one
lithology grades into another by progressive, smoothly gradational changes in grain size,
mineral composition or other physical characteristics. Intercalated contacts: which result from
an increasing number of interbeds of another lithology that appear upward in the section.
• Lateral gradational contacts include:
Lateral gradation Pinch-out= Wedge shape Intertonguing= Interfingering

Stratigraphic units are limited laterally and gradually change to different lithology, for example,
- Pinch-outs "wedge shape": Lateral changes are expressed as progressive thinning of units
until they vanish (disappear).
- Intertonguing "Interfingering": The lateral changes involve the splitting of the lithologic unit
into many thinner units, each pinching out independently.
- Progressive lateral gradation: It is similar to progressive vertical gradation, by involving
gradual change in grain size etc., laterally.
- Lithosome: Refers to masses of rock of essentially uniform character and having
intertonguing relationships with adjacent masses of different lithology. e.g. Sand/shale
Lithosome.
7. Lapout

Lapout is the lateral termination of planes and beds.

Lapout:
• Toplap, Erosional Truncation
• Downlap, Onalap
Transgression and Regression

Transgression (on-lap):
• Refers to the migration of a shoreline towards the inland.
• Deeper-water sediments are superimposed on near shore sediments.
• Create fining upward succession of strata.
• Resulted from a relative rise in sea level and/or low terrigenous sediments influx from the land.

Regression (off-lap):
• Refers to the migration of a shoreline seawards.
• Near shore sediments become progressively stacked on top of finer-grained, deeper water
sediments.
• Create a coarsening upward sequence.
• Resulted from relative fall in sea level and /or high terrigenous sediments influx from the land.

Factors Control Rate of Terrigenous Influx

Terrigenous sediment influx is influenced by climate and tectonic conditions.
1.Climate: During the heavy rain periods, terrigenous influx and erosion rates increase, and lead to
increase the stream transportation compared to dry periods.
2.Tectonism: Produces changes in elevation of the sediment source areas and affecting the rates of
erosion (increase with elevation).
Changes in the Sea Level
It means change in the volume of water and Ocean basins Types.
1.Eustatic Sea-Level Changes: worldwide and affect the sea level on all continents.
"Eustacy = Global sea level measured from center of earth"
2.Relative Sea-Level Changes: affect only local areas.
"Relative Sea Level = Position of the sea surface relative to a datum (I.e basement/sea bed) and hence
incorporates local subsidence/uplift"

Causes of changes in the Sea Level

o Continental glaciations: sea-level rises during interglacial stage as the continental ice sheet
melts.
o Fluctuation in the ocean temperature: produces a small variation in sea level.
o Sea floor spreading: increase in the volume of oceanic crust at mid oceanic ridges and
consequently, a rise in sea level.
o Sediment infill.

o Land subsidence = Relative sea level rises

Tectonic uplift = Relative sea level fall
Stratigraphic Units

- Stratigraphic unit is a body of rock shows specific characters such as rocks characters (Lithology
type, mineral composition, color, texture and grain size), fossil content and time of origin.

- Stratigraphic units include:

1- Lithostratigraphic Units (Rock Units)

Rock unit is a body of rock strata distinguished on the basis of their lithologic characteristics and
lithostratigraphic position.

• The formal Rock Units are Super Group, Group, Formation, Member and Bed.
• Super Group: include more than one Group.
• Group: include more than one Formation.
• Formation: is the fundamental Rock Unit of lithostratigraphic classification characterized by
significant thickness, (mappable) can be drawn on the map with a suitable scale, laterally
extensive, accessible, and composed of sedimentary, metamorphic or igneous rocks.
• Member: part (subdivision) of the Formation with a characteristic lithology but not necessarily
regionally extensive.
• Bed: the smallest rock unit and represents a part of Member.

Nomenclature of Rock Units

o The formal name of Rock Units consists of a geographic name combined with the suitable rank {Super
Group, Group, Formation, Member and Bed} or suitable lithic term such as limestone. These names
have capitalized first letters. Examples: Mokattam Formation, Abo Roash Formation or Farafra
Limestone or Esna Shale.
o The informal Rock unit names have insufficient information to be formal units, Examples: oil sands, coal
beds, mineralized zones, shaly zone, etc.…,
o Type locality is the area at which the Formation was described for the first time.
o Type section is the stratigraphic section from which the Formation was described for the first time.

Location
map of the
study area
Stratigraphic columnar section of the Mokattam Formation in Gebel Shabrawet.
 2- Geochronologic Units (Time Units)
Time unit is a division of time on the basis of the rock record.

• They are: Eon – Era – Period – Epoch - Age

• Example: Phanerozoic Eon Paleozoic Era Cretaceous Period Late Cretaceous Epoch
Maastrichtian Age

3- Chronostratigraphic Units (Time Rock Units)

Time-rock unit is a body of rock strata deposited during a certain span of time.

• They are: Eonothem - Erathem – System – Series - Stage

• Example: Phanerozoic Eonothem Paleozoic Erathem Cretaceous System Upper Cretaceous
Series Maastrichtian Stage

4- Biostratigraphic Units (Biozones)

Biozone is a body of rock strata identified and characterized on the basis of their fossil content.
It's used in: age dating determination, depositional environment identification.

5- Magnetostratigraphic Units
Magentostratigraphy is concerned with magnetic pole direction and its related to the depositions
(normals "magnetic pole refers to the north" or reversals "magnetic pole refers to the south).

5- Chemostratigraphic Units
Chemostratigraphy is concerned with the elemental studies (elements association from samples
analysis in a specific section0 to correlate between sections and wells.
Correlation

Correlation is the determination of equivalence of rock bodies at different locations, on the basis of
lithologic, paleontologic, or chronologic similarity.

Types of correlation:
1.Lithocorrelation.
2.Biocorrelation.
3.Chronocorrelation.

Lithocorrelation

• Matching up units of similar lithology and lithostratigraphic position.

• Rock units are often distinguished on the basis of color, mineral composition, primary
sedimentary structures, and textures.
• Correlation means continuous lateral tracing or mapping out of Rock units from one outcrop to
another.
Chronocorrelation

• Chronocorrelation is the linking up of stratigraphic units on the basis of time equivalence.

• Age of rocks determined by fossil content and radioactive materials.
• The radiometric dating of igneous and sedimentary rocks provides the basis for detailed
calibration of the geologic time scale.
Biocorrelation

• Expresses the similarity of fossil content and biostratigraphic position.

• Can be traced and matched from one locality to another in the same way as lithostratigraphic
units.

Sequence Stratigraphy
Sequence stratigraphy
 • It is the branch of stratigraphy that integrates all geological and geophysical data to correlate
genetically related strata within a framework of chronostratigraphic significant surfaces as
sequence boundaries, regressive, transgressive and maximum flooding surfaces. It explains
the vertical and lateral variation of strata units in terms of space and time according to relative
sea level changes.

Stratigraphy is divided into four related subdisciplines:

• Lithostratigraphy
• Chronostratigraphy
• Biostratigraphy
• Sequence Stratigraphy

Sequence Stratigraphy Importance

• Increase the ability to predict hydrocarbon occurrence in the subsurface of frontier areas of
low exploration and calibration elements.
• Understanding stratigraphic relationships by stratigraphic hierarchy.
• Physical description and geometric relations of seismic reflections and interpretation of the
rock record.
• Understanding system tracts and classifying the petroleum system.
• Create play maps (Structure map, Facies and Reservoir maps, SR map, Maturity map) which
describes the stratigraphic variation in terms of gross depositional environment settings.

What make a depositional sequence?

Accommodation Space, Sea Level Changes, Subsidence and Uplift, Sediment Supply.

Sequence Stratigraphy Variables (Sequence Parameters)

Factor affecting Accommodation Space
• Global Sea Level Changes (Eustasy).
• Subsidence and Uplift (Tectonic
movements).
• Sediment Supply (Sediment Influx).

Accommodation Space
o Accommodation space is the space "area" or distance between the depositional surface and
the sea level.
o It is the available space for potential sediments accumulation and preservation below base
level (the level above which erosion occur).
Global "Eustatic" Sea Level Changes
o Sea level changes (while other factors are constant) can affect the accommodation rate; as
the sea level rise decreases the accommodation space.
o It depends on: climate, glacial and tectonics.
o Relative Sea-level Change is the sum of the Eustasy and Subsidence effects

Regional Subsidence and Uplift

o Subsidence is caused by extensional forces usually in rift basing due to tectonic and
movements along faults and rift basins, sediment load or combination between tectonics and
sediment supply.
o High subsidence increases the accommodation space.
o Uplift is caused by compressional forces which may cause inverted basins also, and it
decreases the accommodation space.
o Example of uplift and inversion: Syrian Arc "Late Cretaceous to Oligocene".
o They depend on: tectonic movements, extension and compaction forces.

Sediment Supply
o High rate of sediment supply decreases the accommodation space.
o It depends on climate, erosion, fluvial transport.

Sequence
Boundaries
Sequence Stratigraphy Integrated and Interpretative Techniques
• High quality and high-resolution seismic data.
• Understanding of geological processes and their sedimentary deposits.
• Biostratigraphy parameters and identification of paleo water depths for determining the
depositional environments and paleoenvironments.
• Correlation of well logs for specific lithofacies to characterize sequence components and
system tracts.
• Verify the interpretation and correlation using synthetic seismogram or VSP.

Terminology of Stratigraphic Hierarchies

Order Duration Stratigraphic Mechanism Scale

(Myr) Nomenclature
1st >100 Megasequence Plate Majors Systems and
reorganization Basins
(African Plate, all
Mesozoic, Masajd
> 1000's meters
FM) "Seismic"

2nd 10-100 Supersequence Basin Scale Systems and Series

Tectonics
100's-1000's meters
"Seismic"
rd Climate and
3 1-10 Composite Fields
Sequence Tectonics
10's-100's meters
"Wells, Outcrops and
Cores"
4th 0.1-10 Sequence Milankovitch and Fields and
Climate Reservoirs
1-10's meters
"Wells, Outcrops and
Cores"
5th 0.01-0.05 Parasequence Milankovitch Reservoirs
glacio-eustasy
<1 meter to a few
meters
"Outcrops and Cores"
6th <0.01 Bed (Laminae) Climate < 1m
"Outcrops and Cores"

Milankovitch Cycles (Cyclostratigraphy) "Factors causing climatic Changes"

 • Milankovitch Cycle is a cyclical movement related to the earth's orbit around the sun and the
moon orbit around the earth.

1) Eccentricity
o The path of the earth's orbit around the sun is not a perfect circle but an ellipse.
o This elliptical shape changes from less elliptical to more elliptical and back due to the
gravitational field of neighboring planets.
o This phenomenon has an effect on climate on the earth.

2) Axial Tilt
o The earth is spinning around its own axis so we have day and night.
o The earth's axis isn't upright but it tilts at angles between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees and back.
o These angles are measured between the angle of the axis to an imaginary line which is
normal (perpendicular) to the earth's plane of orbit.
o This complete cycle for the axial tilt lasts for about 41.000 years.

3) Precession
o Aside from the tilt, the axis also wobbles like a top.
o A complete wobble cycle is about 26.000 years.
o This motion is caused by tidal forces from the sun and moon and effects on sea level.
o Precession and Tilting are the reasons why the regions near the poles have very long
nights and very long days at certain times of the year.

Stacking Patterns
Because of the sequence parameters, the system (sediments) movement is:
• Toward into the basin.
• Backward opposite the basin.
• Stacking vertically.

1. Progradation
o The sediments and the shelf break step seaward into the basin.
o The sediments move from the old to the new seaward (basin).
o Low accommodation space causes the sediments to move toward the basin.
o Fall sea level causes the system to be more progradation.
o High subsidence causes the system to be more progradation.
o High sediment influx causes the system to be more progradation.

2. Retrogradation
o The sediments and the shelf break step landward opposite the basin.
o The sediments move from the old to the new (landward).
o High accommodation space causes the sediments to move landward.
o Rise sea level causes the system to be more retrogradation.
o High subsidence causes the system to be more retrogradation.
o High sediment influx causes the system to be more progradation.

3. Aggradation
o The system is staked vertically above each other.
Effects of Base Sea Level Fluctuations

• Relative sea level fall will lead to reduced deposition and formation of sequence boundaries in
updip areas and increased deposition in downdip areas (submarine fans).

• Relative sea level rise will lead to trapping of sediments in the updip areas (coastal plains) and
reduced transfer of sediments to the deep sea.

Sequence Stratigraphic Geometries

Basin Margin Concepts – Clinoforms

o Prograding basin margin systems often have a consistent depositional geometry called
clinforoms.

o Topset: Proximal portion of the basin margin profile characterized by very low gradients
(<0.1°). Topset appear flat on the seismic data containing alluvial, deltaic and shallow marine
depositional systems. The shoreline can be located at any point within the topset.

o Foreset: More steeply portion of the basin margin profile. It contains deeper water
depositional characteristics and environments.

o Bottomset: Base of the clinoform characterized by very low gradients containing deep marine
(deepest) depositional systems.
Sequence Boundaries (SB)

Types
o SB Type 1: If the sea level fall and
reached the inflection point, the
sediments above the shelf break (edge)
will exposed into a subaerial erosion and
truncate into the basin.

o SB Type 2: If the sea level fall, the

sediments below the shelf break (edge)
will be conformable with no missing
sections but equivalent to the eroded
section above the shelf break.

Process
o Relative Fall in Sea Level.

Characteristics
o Onlap on the clinoform.
o Subaerial Erosion.
o Braided Streams and Incised valleys forming.

On Seismic
From bottom to top:
o Truncation caused Angular Unconformity.
o Truncation Sequence Boundary.
o Onlap on the tilted sequence boundary.

On Electric Logs
o Dip meter logs: Variation in dipping.
o GR / SP: Sharp base due to variation from channels and deep marine sediments.

Other Observations
o Drop Diversity and abundance of marine faunas.
o Presence of reworked faunal and floral association (fossils from old to new).

Sequence Stratigraphy Ranks (Classifications)

• System Tracts.
• Parasequence.
• Parasequence Sets.
• Depositional Sequence

System tracts can be subdivided into Parasequence and Parasequence sets.

System Tracts
• Systems tract is the building block of the depositional sequence.
• It is a three-dimensional unit of linked contemporaneous depositional systems that were active
together during a certain stage of sea level.
• It is defined by the nature of its boundaries and internal depositional geometry.

Low Stand System Tract (LSST)

o It is stratigraphically the oldest stratigraphic unit in the depositional sequence.
o It lies above sequence boundary and represents the depositional products during the falling
stage of sea level up to the slow rise of sea level.
o It is associated with a relative fall of sea Level (slow rise) after a specific sequence boundary.
o When relative sea level falls at the Offlap break, the previously accumulated shelf deposits
will expose to subaerial condition and erosion with unconformity sequence boundary created
from erosion.
o Sediment begins to onlap onto the basin margin.
o Rivers Profile stabilize and river valleys backfill.
o Prograding low stand clinforoms form and capped by topset layers that onlap, aggrade and
become thicker upward and landward.
o High percentages of sand and forming most reservoirs.

Process

o Reworking of unstable sediments and bypass to deeper areas.

o Accompanied with the drop in sea level, which represents the base level for the rivers that were
debauching in pre-existing shelf area, these rivers must adjust their gradient profiles to the
lowered base (sea) level. So, the rivers incise and erode into the pre-existing shelf deposits.
 o The eroded and reworked sediments with the fluvial load from the hinterland are delivered
directly on to the slope of the pre-existing Offlap break, and the sedimentation processes are
dominated by large-scale slope failure resulting in bypass of the shelf and slope and deposition
of submarine fans in the basin.

o When the river profile stabilizes again, with a relative slow fall, stillstand and then slow rise, a
prograding topset-clinoform system can then be established forming slope fans and lowstand
prograding delta (Lowstand prograding wedge).

Facies (Characteristics)
o Basin Floor Fan: First to deposit Downlap, Progradation
o Slope Fan: Second to deposit, Channel, Levee + Turbidities: Downlap, Progradation
o Low Stand Wedge: Third to deposit Sandy overbank in areas around river mouth bars
(Retrogradation)

On Seismic and Logs

Transgressive System Tract (TST)
o It is the second "middle" system tract at sea level rise.
o It is associated with a rapid relative sea level rise above the shelf margin exceeding the effects
of any tectonic uplift.
o The transgressive systems tract tends to have a lower sand percentage than those of other
systems tracts, because little of the mud grade sediments bypasses the topset. The
transgressive systems tracts can therefore often host sealing horizons and also source beds.
Process
o Condensed sections of slow rate deposits the end with MFS the line at which the flooding reach
it maximum and thee rate of topset accommodation volume decrease matching the sediment
supple rate.

Facies (Characteristics)
o Muddy System with estuaries deposits at shore areas.

o Condensed Sequences (small thickness of sediments deposited and low sedimentation rate
in a long time) are often composed of sediment layers rich in fauna as the sedimentation rates
become very slow in response to the greater area of sea floor exposed to sedimentation.

o Ravinement Erosion Surface is formed when the transgressing sea reworks and it's very
localized.

o Maximum Flooding Surface is formed when the last fine grained widespread transgressive
sediments collect before the high stand builds out over it.

On Seismic and Logs

High Stand System Tract (HSST)
o It is the youngest systems tract in any sequence. It represents the progradational topset
clinoform deposits, accumulated after maximum transgression and before a sequence
boundary, when the rate of creation of accommodation is less than the rate of sediment supply.
o It is associated with a slow relative sea level rise followed by a slow fall.
o Sediments move causes loss of accommodation.
o River profiles stabilize, and river valleys dispersed laterally in a position landward of the shelf
margin.
o Coarsening upward log signature. Typically, fluvial or deltaic with non-marine sediments at the
top. May be indurated with soil profiles on upper surface.
o Prograding high stand clinforoms develop capped by aggrading topsets which become thinner
upward.

Regressive System Tract

Falling Stage System Tract (FSST)
Sequence Evolution Summary
Parasequence

• Parasequence is a relatively conformable succession of genetically related beds bounded by

marine flooding surfaces.

• The marine flooding surface is a surface separating younger from older strata across which
there is evidence of an abrupt increase in water depth. It is a planar surface that sharply
separates deeper water facies as shelf mudstone above from shallow water rocks such as
lower shoreface sandstone below.
• Parasequence Facies Change:
Parasequence Set

• The Parasequence set is a succession of genetically related Parasequence forming a

distinctive stacking pattern, and bounded by major flooding surfaces and their correlative
surfaces.

• Parasequence Staking Pattern:

Depositional Sequence

• Sequence (Depositional Sequence) is the fundamental strata unit of sequence stratigraphy

that records a sedimentation during a complete cycle of sea level.

• Sequence is a stratigraphic unit composed of a relatively conformable succession of

genetically related strata bounded by Unconformities or their correlative conformities.

• Depositional sequence can be identified in outcrops and subsurface sections by searching for
the main key stratigraphic surfaces:
o Sequence Boundaries (SB)
o Top Fan Surface "Downlap Surface"
o Unconformities
o Transgressive Surface (TS)
o Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS) "Downlap Surface"

• Unconformity can be identified by:

1- Toplap truncation from seismic section.
2- Physical properties as: paleosols, karst deposits, subaerial conglomerates, difference in dip
attitudes, etc.
3- Fossils (Paleontologically) via a missing in biozones.
Summary