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TEMPLATE
Math 1500 -Review Session –(Term Test 1)
Date: February 18, 2022
Time: 6:30 PM-9:30 PM
Instructor: Sushil Kumar
([email protected])
Topics for review:

1.1 Review of Functions

1.2 Basic Classes of Functions
1.5 Exponential Functions
2.2 The Limit of a Function
2.3 The Limit Laws
2.4 Continuity
4.6 Limits at infinity and Asymptotes (Omit Oblique asymptotes)
3.1 Defining the Derivatives
3.2 The derivative as a Function
3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change

Note: Instructor owns the copyright to recorded and streamed lessons, which are provided to you
for your personal study only. Recordings and streams may not be reproduced or distributed further
without permission from the copyright owner.
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Important topics:
1) Domain and range (pg.-5)
2) Finding range by complete squaring method (pg.-8)
3) Difference quotient (pg.-13)
4) Even & Odd functions (pg.-15)
5) Increasing & Decreasing functions (pg.-17)
6) Combination/Composition of functions (pg.-20)
7) Exponential functions (pg.-26)
8) Helpful table for transformation (pg.-30)
9) Solving limits using factors (pg.-34)
10) Solving limits using rationalising (pg.-36)
11) One sided limit (pg.-40)
12) Infinite limits (pg.-48)
13) The Squeeze theorem (pg.-53)
14) Limit laws (pg.-57)
15) Continuity (first type) (pg.-64)
16) Continuity (second type) (pg.-67)
17) Intermediate value theorem (IVT) (pg.-75)
18) Asymptotes (pg.-77)
19) First Principle (pg. 83)
20) Differentiable Functions (pg. 93)
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Review of Functions

Relations involving real numbers may be represented in four ways:

1) Verbally 2) Graphically 3) Analytically and 4) Numerically.

Ex: 1) Verbal: R consists of all points (x, y) that are (?,?) units from the origin.

2) Graphical: 4) Numerical (a list of ordered pairs) or a table):

y
x y

3) Analytic (i.e., an equation): y=2x+3

Function: A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly
one element, called f(x) in a set E.
Domain & Range

x →  f  → f ( x)
Input Output
(DOMAIN) ( RANGE )
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Domain: The set of all possible input values (commonly x-variable) which produce
a valid output from a particular function is called a domain. It is the set of all real
numbers for which a function is mathematically defined.

Range: It is the complete set of all possible resulting values of the dependent
variable (usually ‘y’) after we have substituted domain. The range is the resulting
y-values we get after substituting all the possible x-values.

A F F(x)

F(A)

c F(c)

DOMAIN Function (F) RANGE

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A few Shortcuts to find domain of different kind of functions.

1) Polynomial functions :
Domain is :

f ( x)
2) Rational functions : provided g ( x)  0
g ( x)

For domain use :

3) Function ' s with square root = H ( x)

For domain use :

4) Function ' s with rational & radical =

f ( x)
Type A) : for domain use :
g ( x)

f ( x)
Type B) : for domain use :
g ( x)
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Example: Find domain and range of the relation

{(2,-3), (4,6), (3,-1), (6,6), (2,3), (0,-3)}
Solution:

Note: It is important to list these in numerical order but it is not required. Don’t
duplicate technically.
Example: Find domain and range of the relation
{(-4,7),(-3,7),(-2,7)(-1,7),(0,7),(1,7)}
Solution:

3x 2 + 2 x − 1
Example: Find Domain of y= 2
x − 4x − 5
Solution:

Example : Find Domain and Range of y = − − 4x + 6

Solution :
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Example : Find Domain and Range of y = − x + 4

4

Solution : There are no denominator and no radicals. These kinds of functions are
called GARDEN VARIETY POLYNOMILAS.

There are no problems/restrictions with a polynomial. There are no values that I

can’t plug in for x. When I have a polynomial, the answer is always “ALL x”.
For Range: It is clear from graph it goes high only as y = 4 but goes low as we like.
So, range “y  4”

Example: Find Range of f(x)= y = 2 x + 6 x − 1 Without taking help from graph.

2
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Example : Find Range of f(x)= y = − 3x2 + 6x −1 Without taking help from graph.
Solution :

Example : Find Domain and Range of y = | x | Without taking help from graph.
Solution :
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Example : Find Domain and Range of f(x)= y = 2| x −1| +3 Without taking help from
graph.
Solution :

Example : Find Range of f(x)= y = − 2| x −1| + 3 Without taking help from graph.
Solution :
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TRY MORE
Find the Domain of the following:

−11x + 6 4 x2 + 3
a) b) 3x − 27
2
c)
2ecos x −1 x−6

4 x 2 + 3 −11x + 6
d) f ( x) = − cos x −1 + 3x 2 − 27
x−6 2e
SOLUTION
−11x + 6
a) f(x) =
2ecos x −1

b) f(x)= 3x2 − 27 is a rational Function and so should be greater or equal to

zero.

NOTE:

1) if x 2  a 2  x  a  − a  x  a  x  [− a , a ]
2) if x 2  a 2  x  a  − a  x  a  x  (−, −a]U [a, )
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4 x2 + 3
c) f(x) =
x−6

4 x 2 + 3 −11x + 6
d) f ( x) = − cos x −1 + 3x 2 − 27
x−6 2e
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TRY SIMILAR EXAMPLES:

x2 + 1 4 x + 6
1) f ( x) = − cos x + 2 x 2 − 8
x −5 e

Answer :(−, −2]U [2,5) U (5, )

x2 + 9 −6 x + 2
2) f ( x) = − s in ( x −1) + 2 x 2 − 32
x−9 3e

Answer :(−, −4]U [4,9) U (9, )

Find the domain of the following :

3sin( x) − 1
1) f ( x) = 2 + x + 2 x(2 x − 4 x ) + sin( x − 2) 2) f ( x) =
5

x 4 + 3x 2

−3cos( x) + 1 3cos x − 1
3) f ( x) = 4) f ( x) =
x 4 + 3x 2 x x2 + 3

x2 + 1 x +1
5) f ( x) = 6) f ( x) =
x x2 + 3 ( x 2 − 3x + 2) x + 3
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f ( x + h) − f ( x )
DIFFERENCE QUOTIENT Formula:
h
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
Question: If f(x) = 5 − 2x + 1 Evaluate:
x
h

Solution:

Try the similar examples:

1) f(x) = 4 + 3x + 1 2) f(x) = 3 + 2
x x

3) f(x) = 4 − a − 2 x 4) f(x) = 2 x − 5 x + 1
x 2

5) f(x) = 3x − 6 x − 7 6) f(x) = 6 x − 4 x + 4
2 2

2x −1 −3x − 1
7) h(x) = 8) g(x) =
x+2 x − 12
2x2 −1 −3x 2 − 4 x − 1
9) g(x) = 10) f(x) =
3 − 2 x2 x − 12 x 2
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SYMMETRY 1) EVEN FUNCTION

2) ODD FUNCTION

1) EVEN FUNCTION: If a function f satisfies f(-x) = f(x) for every number x in its
domain, it is called an even number.

Example: f(x) = x 2
AS f(-x) = (− x)2 = x2 = f(x)

−3 x 2 + 7
Also 1 − x , x + 7x − 8 ,
4 4 2
all are examples of Even functions.
−6 − 4 x 2

2) ODD FUNCTION: If a function satisfies f(-x)= -f(x), for every number x in its
domain, then f is called an odd function.

Example: f(x) = x3
As f(-x)= (− x)3 = − x3 = - f(x)

−3x3 + 7 x
Also x3 − 3 x , , x 5 − 3 x all are examples of Odd functions.
−6 − 4 x 2

NOTE: If f (-x)  f(x) OR If f (-x)  - f(x)

Then f(x) is neither even nor odd function.
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GEOMETRICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
The graph of an even function is symmetric to y-axis.
The graph of an odd function is symmetric to origin.

Find Even & Odd Functions of the following:

1) x 5 − 3 x 3) 1 − x4 5) 5 x + x(2 x − 4 x 2 ) + cos( x 2 )

2) x5 − 3 x − 5 4) x − x2 6) 8 x + x3 (2 x3 − 4 x5 ) + sin( x 2 )
3sin( x) − 1
7) 2 + x + 2 x(2 x − 4 x 5 ) + sin( x − 2) 8) f ( x) =
x 4 + 3x 2
−3cos( x) + 1 3cos x − 1
9) f ( x) = 10) f ( x) =
x 4 + 3x 2 x x2 + 3
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Increasing and decreasing Functions:

A linear function f(x)=mx + c is increasing over its domain if its slope ‘m’ is
positive. It is decreasing over its domain if its slope ‘m’ is negative. It is constant
over its domain if its slope is zero.

Note: Out of the various definitions of increasing and deceasing functions, we

will use only the definition as discussed below:

For x1 , x2  R if x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 f ( x) is increasing function
For x1 , x2  R if x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )
 f ( x) is decreasing function
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Q.1 Check if f ( x) = 2 x + 1 is increasing or decreasing.

Sol.

Q.2 Check if f ( x) = −2 x + 1 is increasing or decreasing.

Sol.
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TRY the following for Increasing and decreasing nature of given

functions/curves

1) 3x + 3 2) − 3 + x
3) 2 x 2 + 5 4) − 4 x 2 + 1
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COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS

COMPOSITE FUNCTION
If f and g are two functions then f g is called composite function
and is given by : (f g ) x = f ( g ( x) )
Note :This is also called composition of f and g.

Beside this f and g can be combined to form new functions as :

f + g , f − g , fg & f / g in a manner similar to the way add , subtract,
multiply and divide.
( f + g ) x = f ( x) + g ( x) , ( f − g ) x = f ( x) – g ( x)
( f . g ) x = f ( x)  g ( x) , ( f / g ) x = f ( x) / g ( x)

Example : If f ( x) = 3 x 2 and g ( x) = 3 − 2 x
Find (f g ) x and (g f )x ?
Sol.
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2
Example: If f(x) = x and g(x) = x – 3. Find fog and gof ?
Example: If f(x) = x and g(x) = 2 − x .
Find a) fog b) gof c) fof d) gog ?

3x
Example : Find (f g h ) , if f ( x) = , g ( x) = x 5 , h( x ) = 3 − x.
x+2
Sol.
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TRY FEW:

x−4 x+2
1) Consider the function f ( x) = and g ( x) =
x+7 x −3
Find the following
a) fog b) gof c) fof d) gog

2) For the given functions f and g find :

a) f o g b) g o f c) f o f d) g o g
Also find the domain in each case.

a ) f ( x) = 2 x + 3 ; g ( x) = 3 x
b) f ( x ) = − x ; g ( x ) = 2 x − 4
j ) f ( x) = x − 2 ; g ( x) =1 − 2 x
c) f ( x) = 3 x + 1 ; g ( x) = x 2
k ) f ( x) = x 2 + 1 ; g ( x) = 2 x 2 + 3
3 2
d ) f ( x) = ; g ( x) = 1 1
x −1 x l ) f ( x) = ; g ( x) =
x x
x −4
e) f ( x ) = ; g ( x) = m) f ( x ) = x + 5 ; g ( x) = x − 5
x −1 x
n) f ( x ) = x 3 ; g ( x) = 3
x
f ) f ( x) = x ; g ( x) = 2 x + 3
( x + 6)
g ) f ( x) = x 2 + 1 ; g ( x) = x − 1 o) f ( x ) = 2 x − 6 ; g ( x) =
2
x−5 x+2
h) f ( x ) = ; g ( x) = 1
x +1 x − 3 p) f ( x) = ax + b ; g ( x ) = ( x − b)
a
2x −1 x+4
i ) f ( x) = ; g ( x) =
x−2 2x − 5
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3) For the given functions f and g find:

a) f o g (4) b) g o f (2) c) f o f (1) d) g o g (0)

1
a ) f ( x) = 2 x 2 ; g ( x) = 1 − 3 x 2 f ) f ( x) = x ; g ( x) =
x +1
2

b) f ( x ) = 3 x + 2 ; g ( x) = 2 x 2 − 1 3
g ) f ( x) = ; g ( x) = 3 x
c) f ( x) = x + 1 ; g ( x) = 3 x x +1
d ) f ( x) = 2 x g ( x) = 3 x 2 + 1 h) f ( x) = x3/ 2 2
; ; g ( x) =
1 x +1
e) f ( x ) = 4 x 2 − 3 ; g ( x) = 3 − x 2 i ) f ( x) = x ; g ( x) = 2 x
2

4) Find the functions f and g so that fog = H.

a ) H ( x) = ( 2 x + 9 ) e) H ( x) = (1 + x 2 )
6 3

b) H ( x ) = ( x 2 + 9 )
3
f ) H ( x) = 1 − x5
c) H ( x) = 2 x − 7 2 − x2
g ) H ( x) =
d ) H ( x) = x3 −  5
x −1
h) H ( x ) =
3
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SOME DIFFERENT EXAMPLES

If f(x) = -2x+1 and h(x) = 4 x2 − 4 x −1 .Find a function g such that fog = h.
Solution: fog(x) = f(g(x)) = -2 g(x) + 1
But fog = h

-2 g(x) +1 = 4 x − 4 x − 1
2

-2 g( x ) = 4 x2 − 4 x − 2
g(x) = −2 x2 + 2 x + 1

TRY SIMILAR EXAMPLES: Find g in following cases :

1) f(x) = - x +4 and h(x) = 3x2 − 6 x − 5
2) f(x) = 2x+4 and h(x) = 4 x2 + 2 x − 2
3) f(x) = - 5x -6 and h(x) = 3x2 + 6 x + 5
4) f(x) = 2x+4 and h(x) = 7 x2 + 7 x −1
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Question: Given F(x) = cos2 ( x + 9) .Find functions f, g and h such that

F(x) =fogoh(x)
Solution:

TRY SIMILAR EXAMPLES: Find f, g and h if fogoh = H(x) and

1) H(X) = x −1

2) H(X) = 8 2+ x

4
3) H(X) = Sec ( x )
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EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

In general, an exponential function is a function of the form

x
f(x) = a , where a is a constant and positive.
If x=n, a +ve integer

Then an = a.a.a.a.a.a........a
n − factors

0
1) If x= 0 , then f(0) = a = 1

−n
2) If x= -n, f(-n) = a = 1n
a

p
3) If x is a rational number x= ,
q

ax = a p/q = ( a p ) = ( a ) p
q q
Then

LAWS OF EXPONENTS
If a and b are positive numbers and x and y are real numbers, then
x+ y x− y ax
1) a = a .ax y
2) a = y
a
3) ( a x ) = a xy 4) ( ab ) = a xb x
y x

Also a 0 = 1
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GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF y = 2x
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 1/4 1/2 1 2 4 8 16

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF y = 2− x
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y 4 2 1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16
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EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of the Function y= 5 - 2 x and find its domain & Range.
Solution: First we reflect the graph of y = 2 x to get y = - 2 x , then we will shift
graph of y = - 2 x upward 5 units to obtain graph of y = 5 - 2 x .
From Graph we found that
DOMAIN = (-  ,  )
RANGE =(-  ,3)

GRAPH OF y = 2 x

GRAPH OF y = - 2 x
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GRAPH OF y = 5 - 2 x
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Helping Table for Graphing Techniques

To Graph Draw the Graph of f and : Functional Change to

f(x)
VERTICAL SHIFTs:
y = f(x) + c , c>0 Raise the graph of f by c units Add c to f(x).

y = f(x) – c , c>0 Lower the graph of f by c units Subtract c from f(x)

HORIZONTAL SHIFTs:
y = f( x + c) , c > 0 Shift the graph of f to left c units Replace x by x + c

y = f (x - c) , c>0 Shift the graph of f to right c units Replace x by x - c

COMPRESSING OR
STRETCHING
y = k f(x), k>0 Multiply each y-coordinate of y = f(x) by k. Multiply f(x) by k
Stretch the graph of f vertically if k > 1
Compress the graph of f vertically if 0 < k < 1

y = f (kx), k>0 Replace x by kx

Multiply each x-coordinate of y = f(x) by 1/k.
Stretch the graph of f horizontally if 0<k<1
Compress the graph of f horizontally if k>1

REFLECTION ABOUT X-
AXIS
y=-f(x) Reflect the graph of f about the x-axis Multiply f(x) by -1

REFLECTION ABOUT Y-
AXIS
y=f(-x) Reflect the graph of f about the y-axis Replace x by –x

(Pearson: ISBN-13 978-00321-97907-0)

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EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of the Function y= 5 - 3x and find its domain &
Range.
EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of the Function y= 2 - 2− x and find its domain &
Range.
EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of the Function y= -2 + 2− x and find its domain &
Range.
EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of the Function y= 2 + e− x and find its domain &
Range.
EXAMPLE: Sketch the graph of the Function y= -1 - e− x and find its domain &
Range
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2.2) THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

2.3) THE LIMIT LAWS

a) Direct substitution allowed

b) Factorisation and cancelation
c) Rationalizing
d) One side limit
e) Squeeze theorem
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Definition of a Limit:
Definition of a Limit :
Suppose f ( x ) is defined when x is near the number a.
(This means f is defined on some open interval that contains a, except possibly at ‘a’ itself )
We write lim f ( x) = L
x →a

and we speak "The limit of f ( x), as x approaches a , equals L ".

Alternatively we can say :
Value of f ( x) approach ' L ' as x approaches ' a '
That is f ( x) → L as x → a

EXAMPLES:

lim ( 2 x 2 ) = 2 ( 3) = 18
2
1)
x →3

2) lim (5 x + 1) =
x→4

3
3) lim =
x→4 x+3

4) lim ( cos  − 3sin  ) =


→
2

5) lim (7 cos 2 − 5sin 4 + 13 tan 2 + 23)

 →0

( ) ( ) (
= 7 lim cos 2 − 5 lim sin 4 + 13 lim tan 2 + 23
 →0  →0  →0
)
= 7(1) − 5(0) + 13(0) + 23
= 30
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2x 3
6) lim [ + + 5 cos( x − 1)]
x →1 sin c ( x − 4) 2
 x   3 
= 2 lim   + lim   + lim 5 cos( x − 1)
 sin c   ( x − 4) 
x →1 x →1 2 x →1

TRY

x 2 − 100 x 2 − 49 x2 − 5
1) lim 2) lim 3) lim
x →10 x − 10 x →7 x−7 x→ 5 x − 5

x 2 − 16 x2 − 2 x − 16
4) lim 5) lim 4 6) lim 2
x →2 x−2 x → 2 x − 16 x →16 x − 256
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MORE EXAMPLES (WHERE DIRECT SUBSTITUION NOT ALLOWED)

5( y − 3) t2 − 3 y+ a
1) lim 2 2) lim 3) lim 2
y →3 y − 4 y + 3 t →− 3 t + 3 y →− a y − a

2( x − 1) 2 ( x − 4) (t 2 + 2t − 8)
4) lim 5) lim 2
x →1 x2 − 2x + 1 t → 2 t − 5t + 6
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MORE EXAMPLES (WHERE SOLUTION WILL BE DONE WITH RATIONALISING)

x+4 −2
1) lim
x →0 x

EXAMPLES

x2 + 9 − 3
lim
x →0 x2
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TRY THE SIMILAR

x + 49 − 7 x +1 −1
1) lim 2) lim
x →0 x x →0 x
x + 25 − 5 x+9 −3
3) lim 4) lim
x →0 x x →0 x

4u + 1 − 3
Ex. lim
u →2 u−2
Rationalising we will get
4u + 1 − 3 4u + 1 + 3
= lim .
u →2 u−2 4u + 1 + 3
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 1 1
Ex. lim  − 
t →0  t 1 + t t
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TRY SOME EXTRA

x2 + 9 − 5 x2 + 9 − 5
1) lim 2) lim
x →−4 x+4 x→4 x−4

 4− x  3+ x − 3
3) lim  2
4) lim
x →16 16 x − x x
  x →0

3+ x − 3 1+ x − 1
5) lim 6) lim
x →0 x x →0 x
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ONE SIDED LIMITS

The Heaviside Function H(x) is defined as :

0 if x  0
H ( x) =  
1 if x  0
1) We clearly notice that H(x) approaches 0 as x approaches 0 from left.
2) We clearly notice that H(x) approaches 1 as x approaches 0 from right.

Symbolically we will write:

Here
a) t → 0− means Values of ‘t’ are less than 0

b) t → 0+ means Values of ‘t’ are greater than 0.

NOTE

1) If lim f ( x) = l
x →a−

We will say Left-Hand limit of f(x) as x approaches ‘a’ is equal to L.

2) If lim f ( x) = l
x →a+

We will say Right-Hand limit of f(x) as x approaches ‘a’ is equal to L

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NOTE : Some times for the existence of a limit, we will need to find Left as well as
right Handed limits. Then we will say that the limit exists iff
L.H.L = R.H.L = L
i.e both Left and Right Handed limits exist & Equal

 lim f ( x) = L iff lim f ( x) = L = lim+ f ( x)

x→a x→a− x →a

 x − 4 if x  4 
Evaluate lim f ( x) if f ( x) =  
8 − 2 x if x  4
x →4
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( x − 2 ) if x  1
 2

TRY Q. If f ( x) =  

 x 2
+ 1 if x  1

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EXAMPLE

−2ax + 2 if x  −1
Let f ( x) =  2 
 x − a if x  − 1 
For what value(s) of ‘a’ does the limit xlim
→−1
f ( x) exists ?
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Question : For what value( s ) of k does the lim f ( x) exist if

x →−1

 k 2 + cos( x + 1) if x  −1 
f ( x) =  .
 2k + sin ( 2 x ) if x  −1
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EXAMPLE :

Evaluate lim x
x →0
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x x −1
Evaluate 1) lim+ 2) lim .
x →0 x x →1 1 − x

1− x ( x − 2) x − 1
3) lim 2 4) lim− .
x →0 x − 1 x→2 2− x
Solution :
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Q. Find the Limit if it exists for lim

x →3
( 2x + x − 3 )
Solution: Given

Try the following:

x x−2 x+3
1) lim− 2) lim 3) lim
x →0 x x →2 x−2 x →−3 x+3
2x − 6 x −5 2x + 4
4) lim 5) lim 6) lim
x →3 x −3 x →5 x −5 x →−2 x+2
 Page 48

INFINITE LIMITS (+  or -  ):
Sometimes we take limit as infinite (  ) or the answer becomes infinite either
+ve or –ve. These such cases in either way are called infinite limits e.g.:
1
1) lim = 
x →0 x 2

7x + 2
2) lim
x →− x + 7

3x − 2
3) lim
x →−
x2 + 5x + 4
These all are the examples of infinite Limits.

How to avoid your answer to get infinite (  or -  )

1 1
Remember: =  and =0
0 

So if limit is  or − we will try to use it in denominator so that 1 = 0 or 1

=0
 −

If in case Answer for a question becomes infinite we will say LIMIT DOES NOT
EXIST.
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x+3
EXAMPLE.1 lim
x → x − 4

Solution : Dividing Numerator and Denominator by ‘x’ we will get :

 x2 + 1 
EXAMPLE.2 lim  2 
x → x − 2 x + 5
 
 Page 50

 (100 x − 1)( x − 1) 
EXAMPLE.3 lim  
x →
 ( x)(2 x − 1) 
 Page 51

x 4 − 3x 2 + x
Example : lim 3
x →− x − x + 2

Solution :
 Page 52

EVALUATE THE FOLLOWING :

1) lim  16 x 2 + 5 + 4 x  Ans. → 0
x →−  
3x 5 x 2 + 1
2) lim 2 Ans. → − 5
x →− 3 x − 7 x + 1

2 x 2 + 7 x2 2 7
3) lim 2 Ans. →
x → 3 x − 7 x + 1 3
2 x 2 + 7 x2 + 5x6 2 5
4) lim Ans. → −
x →− 3x 4 − 7 x + 1 3
2 x 2 + 7 x2 + 5 x6 2 5
5) lim Ans. →
x →− 3x 4 − 7 x + 1 3
2 x ( 5 x 4 − 7 x3 + x 2 − 2 ) 10
6) lim Ans. →
x →−
1 − x + 2 x 2 + 7 x5 + 3x10 3
x 4 − 3x 2 + x
7) lim Ans. − 
x →− x 3 − x + 2

x3 − 3x 2 + x
8) lim Ans. 0
x →− x 4 − x + 2
 Page 53

*** The Squeeze Theorem ***

If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x) when x is near a (except at a possibly )

and lim f ( x)  lim h( x) = L

x →a x →a

Then by SQUEEZE THEOREM lim g ( x) = L

x →a

EXAMPLES BY SQUEEZE THEOREM

Example : When x is near 0, it is given that f ( x )  h( x )  g ( x ),

where f ( x) = 3x 3 − 2 x 2 + 1 and g ( x ) = 1 − 5 x 2 .
Find lim h( x). Justify your answer.
x →0

Solution :
 Page 54

EXAMPLE :
1
Evaluate or Show that lim x 2 sin =0 .
x →0 x
Solution :

1
TRY : Evaluate or Show that lim+ x 4 cos =0
x →0 x
 Page 55

TRY SIMIALR WITH SQUEEZE THEOREM

1) If 3x − 5  f ( x)  x 2 − 2 x + 1 for x  0, find lim f ( x).

x→2

2) If 2 x3 + 2 x − 1  h( x)  x 4 − x 2 + 3 for x  0, find lim h( x).

x →1

7
3) Prove that lim x 6 cos =0
x →0 x

4) Prove that lim+ 3x esin  x = 0

x →0

5) Assume that lim g ( x) = 8, lim h( x) = 2

x →3 x →3

g ( x)
& + 5  f ( x)  x ( h( x) − 1) where x is near 3.
h( x )
Evaluate lim f ( x) ?
x →3

6) Assume that lim g ( x) = 5, lim h( x) = 2

x→4 x →4

3x
& g ( x )  h( x ) − 8  f ( x )  where x is near 4.
h( x ) + 1
Evaluate lim f ( x) ?
x →4
 Page 56

TRY FEW MORE

x3 − 8 2 x2 − 8
1) lim 2) lim
x→2 x2 − 2x x →2 x 2 − 2 x

1 1 1 6 − x7
3) lim  − 
x →3 x − 3 x
4) lim 6 5
x → x − x + 2 x − 24
 3
x2 + x + 3 − 7 x − 5 x+2
5) lim 6) lim+
x→2 x−2 x → 2 ( x + 2)
2

x →−
(
7) lim x + x 2 + x ) 1
8) lim x 2 cos 2 ( SqueezeTheorem)
x →0 x
 x −1 if x  1
 
9) Find lim f ( x), If f ( x) =  e x −1 
x →1
 if x  1
 cos( x − 1) 
10) Find the values of c and d suchthat the function
cx 2 + 2 x if x  2 
 
f ( x) = 3 if x = 2  exists at x = 2.
 x3 − dx if x > 2 
 
 Page 57

Practice Questions :
x2 −1 x3 − 9 x
1) lim 2) lim
x →3 x − 3
x →1
x + 1 − x2 + 1
 x3 − x 2  7x + 9
3) lim−   4) lim
x →1
 x − 1 
x →− x − 3

(15 x − 1)( x − 1) tan x

5) lim 6) lim
x → x(2 x − 1) x →0 2x
3 x 2 − 27 x2 −1
7) lim+ 8) lim 2
x →3 3− x x →−1 x + 2 x + 1

2− x+2 2 6 +x − 6
9) lim 10) lim
x →2 x−2 x →3 x −3
3x + 6 − 6 3x − 2
11) lim− 12) lim
x →2 2− x x →−
x2 + 5x + 4
x2 − 3 x−4
13) lim 14) lim
x →− 2 x − 1 x →+4 x−4
 1 1
 −   5− x 
15) lim  7 + x 7  16) lim  
x →0 x x → 25 25 − x 
   
 
6− x −2
17) lim
x→2 3 − x −1
 Page 58

LIMITS AT INFINITY: HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

INFINITE LIMITS (+  or -  ):
Sometimes we take limit as infinite (  ) or the answer becomes infinite either
+ve or –ve. These such cases in either way are called infinite limits e.g.:
1
1) lim = 
x →0 x 2

7x + 2
2) lim
x →− x + 7

3x − 2
3) lim
x →−
x2 + 5x + 4
These all are the examples of infinite Limits.

How to avoid your answer to get infinite (  or -  )

1 1
Remember: = ? and =?
0 

So if limit is  or − we will try to use it in denominator so that 1 = 0 or 1

=0
 −

If in case Answer for a question becomes infinite we will say LIMIT DOES NOT
EXIST.

x+3
EXAMPLE. lim
x → x − 4

Solution : Dividing Numerator and Denominator by ‘x’ we will get :

 Page 59

 x2 + 1 
EXAMPLE. lim  2 
x → x − 2 x + 5
 

 (100 x − 1)( x − 1) 
EXAMPLE. lim  
x →
 ( x)(2 x − 1) 
Solution : Dividing Numerator and Denominator by we will get :
 Page 60

x 4 − 3x 2 + x
Question 1) lim 3
x →− x − x + 2

2) lim  16 x 2 + 5 + 4 x 
x→ −   
 Page 61

x2 + 1
Example : lim
x→ −  x−2
Solution : METHOD. 1 ( NOT RECOMENDED)

METHOD. 2 ( RECOMENDED )
 Page 62

x x4 + 1 x 3x 6 − x 4 + 1
TRY : 1) lim 2) lim
x→  x3 − 2 x − 3 x→  4x4 + 2x4 − 3
x x4 + 1 x 3x 6 − x 4 + 1
3) lim 4) lim
x→ −  x3 − 2 x − 3 x→ −  4x4 + 2x4 − 3
Page 63
 Page 64

Continuous Function

A function f is continuous at a number ‘a’ if

lim f ( x) = f (a)
x→ a

NOTE:

Discontinuous Function: If a function ‘ f ’ is not a continuous function then it is

called a discontinuous function i.e.

lim f ( x)  f (a)
x→ a

Also a function f(x) is discontinuous if any of three conditions (mentioned under

notice) may fail:
i.e :

1) f (a ) is not defined .
OR / AND
2) lim f ( x) does not exist .
x →a

OR / AND
3) lim f ( x)  f (a)
x →a

Note: A few functions are always continuous e.g. Polynomial functions.

A few other functions e.g. rational, exponential, trigonometric are always
continuous in their domains.
 Page 65

EXAMINE THE CONTINUITY OF THE FOLLOWING :

 x −1 
 x 2 − 16   x2 −1 : x  1 
 : x  4  
1) f ( x) =  x − 4  3) f ( x) =  
 8 1
 : x = 4

 : x = 1

 2 


 x −5 
 x2 − 9   x 2 − 25 : x  5 
 : x 3  
2) f ( x) =  x − 3  4) f ( x) =  
 6 1
 : x = 3

 : x = 5

 2x 

 x 2 + x − 12   − 14 : x = − 3
 : x  3  2 
5) f ( x) =  x − 3  6) f ( x) =  x − 8 x − 33 
 2x  −
: x = 3  
: x 3
   x+3 

Examine the continuity of :

 x2 − x − 2 
 if x 2
f ( x) =  x − 2  at x=2
 3 x = 2
 if 
Solution :
Page 66
 Page 67

CONTINUITY FROM THE RIGHT

A function ‘ f ’ is continuous from the right at a number ‘a’ if

lim+ f ( x) = f (a)
x→ a

CONTINUITY FROM THE LEFT

A function ‘ f ’ is continuous from the left at a number ‘a’ if

lim− f ( x) = f (a)
x→ a

ANOTHER DEFINITON OF CONTINUITY

Sometimes left handed and right handed end points are both included to
get/check for continuity. Then a function will be continuous at ‘ a ’ if

lim− f ( x) = f (a) = lim+ f ( x)

x→ a x→ a
 Page 68

EXAMINE THE CONTINUITY FOR THE FOLLOWING :

 x − 2 if x  2   x −3 
 2 if x  3 
  
1) f ( x) =  0 if x = 2  at x = 2 2) f ( x) =  x − 9  at x = 3
 1 if x  2   1 if x = 3
  6 
 x−2 
 2   x2 −1 

if x 2
 if x  −1 
3) f ( x) =  x − 4  at x = 2 4) f ( x) =  x + 1  at x = −1
 1
if x = 2   − 2 if x = − 1
 4   

 x2 − 9   x + 2 if x  −2 
 if x  3   
5) f ( x) =  − x + 3  at x = 3 6) f ( x) =  0 if x = − 2  at x = −2
 −6 if x = 3  x + 2 if x  −2 
  
 Page 69

Q. Find the value of k so that the function

 
1 − k x
2
if x  1

 

f ( x) = k + 1 if x = 1 is continuous everywhere.
 4k 2 − 4 x 
 if x  1

 x +2
2


Solution :
As given function is continuous everywhere :
It means
 Page 70

Q.Find the values of ' a ' and ' b ' such that the function
bx − a if x  1
 
f ( x) =  − 3, if x = 1  is continuous everywhere.
a − x, if x  3 
 
Justify your answer.
Solution : We have f is continuous on ( −,1) & (1,  ) since f is a
polynomial on ( −,1) & (1,  ) respectively.
Now we can consider the continuity of f at x = 1.
We can have f continuous at x = 1 if and only if
lim f ( x) = lim+ f ( x) = f (1) = −3 ............(1)
x →1 − x→ 1
 Page 71

Find the values of ' a ' and ' b ' that makes f ( x) continuous everywhere
ax 2 − 5 if x  − 2
 
if f ( x) = b x + 6 + 3 if − 2  x  3 
ax − b + 2 if x  3 
 
Solution :
As there are two limits ( x = − 2 and x = 3) also f ( x) is given to be continuous,
soit means : lim− f ( x) = lim + f ( x) & lim− f ( x) = lim+ f ( x)
x →−2 x→ −2 x →3 x→ 3

Thus..........
lim− (ax 2 − 5) = lim + (b x + 6 + 3)
x →−2 x→ −2
lim b x + 6 + 3 = lim+  ax − b + 2
x →3 − x→ 3
(4a − 5) = (b −2 + 6 + 3)
b 9 + 3 = 3a − b + 2
(4a − 5) = (2b + 3) &  
2a − b = 4...................(1) 3b + 3 = 3a − b + 2
− 3a + 4b = − 1................(2)

SOLVING (1) & (2) WE GET a = 3 , b = 2

 Page 72

TRY The following:

2 x5 − 9 x −  2x4 − 4x2 + e
1) Find lim 2) Find lim
x → −3 x 5 − 7 x 3 x → −5 x 4 + 4

7 x3 − 4 x 2 + e
3) Find lim 4) Find lim ( 9 x 2 + 1 − 3x)
x →− −2 x 3 − 4 x 2 +  x →

5) Find lim (2 x − 4 x 2 + 1) 6) Find lim ( 16 x 2 + 5 + 4 x)

x → x →−

FOR Q.7, Q.8 & Q.9 Find the value of k such that these functions are continuous everywhere :
 4k 2 
   if x  1 
2e x − (k + x) 2 if x  0   x +1
2

   x 
7) f ( x) =  5k − 4 if x = 0  8) f ( x) = k sin + 1 if x = 1
 2   2 
 cos x. k2 if x  0  3 − k x if x  1
2

 5x + 1 
  
 
 
1 − k x2
if x  1
 
9) f ( x) = k − cos  x if x = 1 
 4k 2 − 4 x 
 2 if x  1 
 x + 2 
 Page 73

EVALUATE THE FOLLOWING

x 2 + 2 x − 24 x2 − 5x + 4
1) lim 2 2) lim−
x→ 4 x − 3x − 4 x→ 4 x−4
3x 2 − 2  3
3) lim
x →− 2 x + 1
 Answer : − 
 2 
12sin ( x − 2 ) sin x
4) lim 6) lim
x→ 2 x2 + 2 x − 8 x→ 0 1 − x −1
tan x x
7) lim 8) lim−
x→ 0 1 − x −1 x→ 0 1 − x −1

1 1  x2 −1
9) lim  − 2  10) lim−
t→0
t t +t  x→ 1 x − 1

 x − 6 if x  2 
2

11) Determine if f ( x) =   is continuous or not at x = 2.

− x + 2 if x  2
Explain why or why not.
2 x 2 + 4 x − 16 x2 + 2x − 3
12) lim 13) lim−
x→ 2 x2 − 4 x→ 1 x2 −1
14sin ( x + 4 )
14) lim
x→ −4 x 2 + x − 12
− x 2 + 2 if x  −1 
 
15) Given f ( x) =  x + 1 if − 1  x  3  Find lim f ( x) if it exist.
x →−1
5 x − 13 if x  3
 
If it doesn ' t explain why.
Also Discuss the same for lim f ( x).
x→ 3

6 x 2 − 24
16) Evaluate lim 2 , if exist. If not explain why .
x→ − 2 x − 2 x − 8

10sin(4 − x)
17) Evaluate lim 2 , if exist. If not explain why
x→ 4 x − 3x − 4
Page 74
 Page 75

THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM

STATEMENT : Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a,b] and let N
be any number between f(a) and f(b), where f(a)  f(b).Then there exists a
number c in (a,b) such that f(c) =N

Example : Show that there is a root of the equation

4 x3 − 6 x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0 in [1, 2]. Justify your answer.
Sol.
Our equation is equivalent to the equation f ( x) = 0,
where f ( x) = 4 x3 − 6 x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0
Because f is a polynomial , so is continuous everywhere, in particular
on a closed interval [1, 2]:
f (1) = 4(1)3 − 6(1) 2 + 3(1) − 2 = − 1
f (2) = 4(2)3 − 6(2) 2 + 3(2) − 2 =12

Since f (1) = − 1  0  12 = f (2)

by Intermediate Value theorem there exists a value ' c ' in (1, 2) such that f (c) = 0
 Page 76

Example : Show that the equation 2 − e x = 4 x has a solution on

the interval [0,1]. Justify your answer.
Sol.

Example : Show that the equation x 2 − x + 1 = 0 has a solution on

the interval [1, 2]. Justify your answer. ( 2 = 1.414, 3 = 1.732 )
Sol.
 Page 77

LIMITS AT INFINITY ; HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

Definition: In analytic geometry, an asymptote of a curve is a line such that the distance
between the curve and the line approaches zero as one or both of the x or y coordinates tends
to infinity.

A SIMPLE DEFINITION: A line that continually approaches a given curve but does not meet it
at any finite distance.

THERE ARE THREE KINDS OF ASYMPTOTES:

1) HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE
2) VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE
3) OBLIQUE ASYMPTOTE
 Page 78

HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTE’S

The line y=L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y= f(x) if

Either
lim f ( x) = L O R lim f ( x) = L
x→  x → −

VERTICAL ASYMPTOTE’S

Use denominator = 0 and claim for the Potential asymptote ( s ) .

Suppose x = a is the potential asymptote.
We confirm that x = a is the vertical asymptote iff for left or right limit of x = a,
the given function does have infinite value.
If it does not give infinite value then x = a will be not a vertical asymptote.
 Page 79

Question : Find the horizontal and vertical asymptote( s ) of

2x2 + 1
f ( x) =
3x − 5
Sol. For Horizontal Asymptote :
1
x 2+
2x +1
2
x2
A) lim f ( x) = lim = lim
x→  x→  3x − 5 x → 3x − 5
1 1
x 2+ 2 2+
x = lim x2 = 2
= lim
x → 3x − 5 x →
3−
5 3
x
2
So the Line y = is a horizonal asymptote
3
1
x 2+ 2
2x +1
2
x
B) lim f ( x) = lim = lim
x → − x → − 3x − 5 x → − 3x − 5
1 1
−x 2 + 2 2+ 2
= lim x = lim − x = − 2
x → − 3x − 5 x → −
3−
5 3
x
2
So the Line y = − is a horizonal asymptote
3
For Vertical asymptote : Put denominator = 0
5
so 3 x − 5 = 0  x =
3
1
x 2+
2x +1 2
x2 = 
lim + f ( x) = lim + = lim +
 5
x→ 
 5
x→  3x − 5  5
x→  3x − 5
 3  3  3

5
Hence x = the Vertical asymptote
3
 Page 80

Q. Find all horizontal and vertical asymptote( s) of the function :

4 1 + 5x2 x2 − 4x + 3
a) f ( x) = b) f ( x ) = 2
x−4 x − x−6
3x − 2 − 2 9 x − 20 − 5
c) f ( x) = d ) f ( x) =
| x − 4 | ( x − 2) | x − 7 | ( x − 5)
Page 81
Page 82
 Page 83

DERIVATIVES AND RATES OF CHANGE

The problem of finding the tangent line to a curve and the problem of finding the
velocity of an object both involves finding the same type of limit.
The special type of limit is called a Derivative and We will say that it can be
interpreted as a rate of change in any of sciences or engineering.
DERIVATIVES (First Principle OR By Definition)
The derivative of a function ‘ f ’ is denoted by f ’(x) and is given by :

f ( x + h ) − f ( x)
f ' ( x) = lim if this limit exists
h→0 h
The derivative of a function ‘ f ’ at a number ‘ a ’ is denoted by f ’(a) and is given
by :

f (a + h ) − f (a)
f ' (a) = lim if this limit exists
h→0 h

This formula is also called First Principle OR By Definition

Alternatively
If x = a + h then h = x − a
and h → 0 as x → a
f ( x) − f (a)
f '(a ) = lim
x→a x−a

Slope of a line:

f ( a + h) − f ( a )
m = lim
h→ 0 h
 Page 84

Equation of Tangent Line:

y − y 1 = m ( x − x1 )

Equation of Normal Line:

1
y − y1 = − ( x − x1 )
m

Example Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola y = x

2

at the point P(1,1).

Solution:
 Page 85

Example : If f ( x ) = x−2
a ) Use the definition of the derivative to find the slope of the tangent line
to the curve y = f ( x) at ( 3,1).
b) Find an equation of the tangent line in part (a ).
Sol : (a )
f (3 + h) − f ( 3)
Slope = m = f '(3) = lim
h→ 0 h
 Page 86

1) Question:
Find the derivative of the function f ( x ) = x 2 − 3x + 9 .
2) Question:
Find the derivative of the following functions :
1) y = 4 x − x3 at (2, 0)
2) y = x3 − 3 x + 1 at (2,3)
3) y= x at (2, 2)
2 x +1
4) y= at (1,1)
x+2
5) f ( x) = x 2 − 3 x + 9 at ' a '.
Also find the equation of tangent and normal in each case.
Page 87
 Page 88

Question :
(a) State The Definition of Derivative f '(x) as a function .
(b) Use only the definition of the derivative to find f '(x)
1
if f(x) =
2+x
Solution :
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
a ) f ' ( x) = lim (if this limit exists )
h→0 h

b) f ' ( x ) =
Page 89
Page 90
 Page 91

TRY : Find the derivative f '( x) of the following by

First principle ( By definition) :
1−x
1) f ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 ) f ( x) =
2+ x
3) f ( x) = x. 4) f ( x) = 1 − x.
5) f ( x) = x 2 x . 6) f ( x) = 2x −1 + x
1 1
7 ) f ( x) = 8) f ( x) =
1+ 2x x
1 1−x
9 ) f ( x) = 10) f ( x) =
2+ x 2+ x

Find the derivative of the Function using the definition of Derivative. State the
domain of the function and the domain of its derivatives.
1 1
1) f ( x) = x − 2) f ( x) = mx + b
2 3
3) f (t ) = t − 9t 2 4) f ( x) = 1.5 x 2 − x + 3.7
5) f ( x) = x 3 − 3 x + 5 6) f ( x) = x + x
1 − 2t
7) f ( x) = 9−x 8) G ( t ) =
3+t

OTHER NOTATIONS OF DERIVATIVES

dy df d
f '( x) = y ' = = = f ( x) = D f ( x)
dx dx dx
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DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS:
Def. : A function f is differentiable at a if f ’(a) exists . It is differentiable on an
open interval (a ,b ) if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

Q. Use the definition of the derivative to show that

 x 2 + 1, if x  1
f ( x) =   is differentiable at x = 1.
 2 x, if x  1
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Q. Use the definition of the derivative to show that

 x 2 , if x  1 
f ( x) =   is differentiable at x = 1.
2 x − 1, if x  1
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Q. Using the definition of the derivative, find the value( s ) of a such that
 x2 , if x  1
function f ( x) =   is differentiable at x = 1.
 ax − a + 1, if x  1 
Sol. By definition, if f is differentiable at x = 1, then
f (1 + h) − f (1)
f '(1) = lim
h →0 h
The left − handed derivative of f at x = 1 is given by :
(1 + h )2  − 1
f (1 + h) − f (1)   h 2 + 2h
f '(1) = lim− = lim− = lim− = 2...........(1)
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h
The right − handed derivative of f at x = 1 is given by :
f (1 + h) − f (1)  a (1 + h ) − a + 1 − 1
= lim+ 
ah
f '(1) = lim+ = lim+ = a........(2)
h →0 h h →0 h h →0 h
For f ( x) to be differentiable at x = 1, left and right handed derivative need
f (1 + h) − f (1) f (1 + h) − f (1)
to be equal i.e. f '(1) = lim− = lim+
h →0 h h →0 h
2 =a using (1) and (2)
Hence for a = 2, the given function f ( x ) will be differentiable at x = 1.
Alternatively By definition, if f is differentiable at x = 1, then
f ( x) − f (1)
f '(1) = lim
x →1 x −1
The left − handed derivative of f at x = 1 is given by :
f ( x) − f (1) x2 −1
f '(1) = lim− = lim− = lim ( x + 1) = 2...........(1)
x →1 x −1 x →1 x − 1 x →1 −
The right − handed derivative of f at x = 1 is given by :
f ( x) − f (1) ax − a + 1 − 1 a ( x − 1)
f '(1) = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ = a........(2)
x →1 x −1 x →1 x −1 x →1 x −1
For f ( x) to be differentiable at x = 1, left and right handed derivative need
f ( x) − f (1) f ( x) − f (1)
to be equal i.e. f '(1) = lim− = lim+
x →1 x −1 x →1 x −1
2 =a using (1) and (2)
Hence for a = 2, the given function f ( x ) will be differentiable at x = 1.
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Q. Using the definition of the derivative, find the value( s) of k

 (k + 1) x 2 , if x  1
such that f ( x) =   is differentiable at x = 1.
 2 x − 1, if x  1 
Q. Using the definition of the derivative, find the value( s) of t such that
 (2 x − 1), if x  1 
function f ( x) =   is differentiable at x = 1.
1 − t + tx , if x  1
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THEOREM If f is differentiable at a then f is continuous at a

OR Prove that every differentiable function is continuous

NOTE: REVERSE OF ABOVE THEOREM IS NOT TRUE

i.e (EVERY CONTINUOUS FUNCTION NEED NOT BE DIFFERENTIABLE )
Ex. f ( x ) = x is not differentiable at x = 0
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Q. Discuss where is and not the function f ( x ) = x is differentiable .

Sol. Three different cases arise :
Case 1) For x  0
Case 2 ) For x  0
Case 3) For x = 0
Case 1) For x  0 , x = x Case 2 ) For x  0 , x = − x
So we can choose a small number h  0 s. t . So we can choose a small number h  0 s. t .
x+h − x x+h − x
f '( x ) = lim f '( x ) = lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
x + h− x −( x + h) − ( − x )
= lim =1 (exists ) = lim = − 1 (exists)
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
So f is differentiable at x  0 So f is differentiable at x  0
Case 3) For x = 0 , We have to investigate
So we can choose a small number h  0 s. t.
0+h − 0
f '( 0 ) = lim
h→ 0 h
0+h − 0 h
= lim = lim (if it exists )
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h

So We will compute Left & Right limits separately ,

0+h − 0 h −h
L.H .L = lim− = lim− = lim− = −1
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
0+h − 0 h h
R.H .L = lim+ = lim+ = lim+ = 1
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
Since these limits are different
L.H .L  R. H . L
So f '( x ) does not exists at x = 0

HENCE WE CAN SAY f ( x) = x IS DIFFERENTIABLE AT ALL x EXCEPT x = 0

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TRY :
1) f ( x ) = x − 1 is not differentiable at x = 1
2 ) f ( x ) = x + 3 is not differentiable at x = − 3
3) Check for the continuity and differentiability for
f ( x) = x + 2 at x = − 2
4 ) Check for the continuity and differentiability for
f ( x ) = 3 x + 1 at x = − 1
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