TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER
A Transformer is a device which steps up or steps
down the voltage.  In a step-up transformer, the output
voltage is increased, and in a step-down transformer, the
output voltage is decreased. The step-up transformer
will decrease the output current, and the step-down
transformer will increase the output current to keep the
input and output power of the system equal.

It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply

voltage without a change in the frequency of AC
between circuits. The transformer works on the basic
principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual
induction.
Based on Voltage Levels
Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power
generator and the power grid. The secondary output
voltage is higher than the input voltage.
Step-down Transformer: These transformers are used to
convert high-voltage primary supply to low-voltage
secondary output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

Air Core Transformer: The flux linkage between
primary and secondary winding is through the air. The
coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.
Iron Core Transformer: Windings are wound on
multiple iron plates stacked together, which provides a
perfect linkage path to generate flux.

Based on the Winding Arrangement

Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound
over a laminated core. The primary and secondary share
the same coil. Auto means “self” in the Greek language.
Based on Install Location
Power Transformer: It is used at power generation
stations, as they are suitable for high voltage application
Distribution Transformer: It is mostly used at
distribution lanes for domestic purposes. They are
designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to
install and characterised by low magnetic losses.
Measurement Transformers: They are mainly used for
measuring voltage, current and power.
Protection Transformers: They are used for component
protection purposes. In circuits, some components must
be protected from voltage fluctuation, etc. Protection
transformers ensure component protection.
Working Principle of a Transformer

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s

law of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.
There are usually two coils – primary coil and
secondary coil – on the transformer core. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two
coils have high mutual inductance. When an alternating
current passes through the primary coil, it creates a
varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux
induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary
coil, which is linked to the core having a primary coil.
This is mutual induction.
Overall, a transformer carries out the following
operations:
1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to
another
2. Transfer of electrical power through
electromagnetic induction
3. Electric power transfer without any change in
frequency
4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

Applications of Transformer
 TheTransformer transmits electrical energy through 
wires over long distances.
 Transformers with multiple secondaries are used in 
radio and TV receivers, which require
several different voltages.
 Transformers are used as voltage regulators.
RELAYS
 RELAYS
A Relay is a simple electromechanical switch. While we
use normal switches to close or open a circuit manually,
a Relay is also a switch that connects or disconnects
two circuits. But instead of a manual operation, a relay
uses an electrical signal to control an electromagnet,
which in turn connects or disconnects another circuit.

How a Relay Works?

The following animation shows a simplified working of
a relay.

 Relay works on the principle of electromagnetic

induction.
 When the electromagnet is applied with some
current, it induces a magnetic field around it.
 Above image shows working of the relay. A switch
is used to apply DC current to the load.
  In the relay, Copper coil and the iron core acts as
electromagnet.
 When the coil is applied with DC current, it starts
attracting the contact as shown. This is called
energizing of relay.
 When the supply is removed it retrieves back to the
original position. This is called De energizing of
relay.
There are also such relays, whose contacts are initially
closed and opened when there is supply i.e. exactly to
opposite to the above shown relay.

Solid state relays will have sensing element to sense the

input voltage and switches the output using opto-
coupling.

Types of Relays
Relays can be classified into different types depending
on their functionality, structure, application etc. We
listed out some of the common types of relays here.

 Electromagnetic
 Latching
 Electronic
 Non-Latching
Relay Applications
Relays are used to protect the electrical system and to
minimize the damage to the equipment connected in the
system due to over currents/voltages. The relay is used for the
purpose of protection of the equipment connected with it.

These are used to control the high voltage circuit with low
voltage signal in applications audio amplifiers and some types
of modems.

These are used to control a high current circuit by a low

current signal in the applications like starter solenoid in
automobile. These can detect and isolate the faults that
occurred in power transmission and distribution system.
OPTOCOUPLER
OPTOCOUPLER
Optocoupler is a electronic device which connects two
isolated circuits by light. Basically Optocoupler consists of
LED and a photo sensitive device. Both the circuits are
enclosed in a package. The circuits cannot be changed
externally. Optocouplers are used to prevent the system from
high voltage.
Structure of Optocoupler:

Structure of Optocoupler

It consists of two circuits which are electrically isolated. The

first circuit infra red emitting diode and the second circuit is
infra red sensitive device, it can be photo diode, photo
transistor, photo TRAIC, photo SCR. The space between the
two circuit can be made of glass, air or transparent plastic.
The LED emits the light and the photo transistor receives the
light and amplifies it. The 1st and 2nd pins are the anode and
cathode of LED, 3rd and 4th pins are the emitter and collector
of the photo transistor.
The basic working principle of Optocoupler is the output of
the electrically isolated circuit is controlled by varying the
input of the circuit. Input is given to the Infra red LED by a
voltage source, the intensity of the voltage source is adjusted
by varying the input voltage. The emitted light is of particular
wavelength. The photo detector detects this light and converts
light energy into photo current. The output current produced is
then amplified. The output current is proportional to the
intensity of the light incident on it.
Advantages of Optocoupler:
 Compact and less weight
 Low cost
 Works very fast
 Less noise

Disadvantages of Optocoupler:
 Optocouplers are not capable to handle high current

Applications of Optocoupler:
 Controls for solenoids/valve
 Switches that provide constant power
 Temperature regulation
 Starters and drivers for alternating current motors
 Controls for lighting
Types of Optocouplers
 Opto-coupler which use Photo Transistor.

 Opto-coupler which use Photo Darlington Transistor.

Darlington Transistor is a two-transistor pair in which one

transistor controls the base of the other transistor. The
Darlington Transistor provides high gain capability in this
configuration. The LED, as usual, emits infrared light and
controls the base of the pair transistor. A few photo-Darlington
optocoupler examples are 4N32, 4N33, H21B1, H21B2, and H21B3.
  Opto-coupler which use Photo TRIAC.

TRIAC is mainly used where AC-based control or switching

is needed. The lead can be controlled using DC, and the
TRIAC is used to control AC. Opto-coupler provides
excellent isolation in this case too. Here is one Triac
Application. The photo-TRIAC-based optocoupler examples
areIL420, 4N35, etc are an example of TRIAC-based
optocouplers.
 Opto-coupler which use Photo SCR.
SCR is an abbreviation for Silicon controlled rectifier,
also known as a Thyristor. The internal construction of
a Photo-SCR-based optocoupler is shown in the upper
image. The LED, like other optocouplers, emits infrared
light. The intensity of the LED controls the SCR. Opto-
coupler based on photo-SCR that is used in AC
circuitry.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A voltage Regulator is used to control the voltage level.
Voltage regulators are used when there is a need for a
stable and reliable voltage. It generates a fixed output
voltage, which remains constant for any changes in
input voltage or load conditions. It also acts as a buffer
to protect any component from damage.
There are two main types of Voltage regulators: linear
voltage regulators and switching voltage regulators.

Working of Voltage Regulator:

The Voltage Regulator circuit is used to generate and

maintain a permanent output voltage even if the input voltage
or load condition is changed in any way. The voltage
regulator receives voltage from the power supply and can be
maintained in range, which is well compatible with the rest of
the electrical components. Mostly these regulators are used to
convert DC/DC power, AC/AC, or AC/DC.

There are two main types of Voltage regulators Which are as

follows :

 Linear voltage regulator.

 Switching voltage regulator.
LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATOR
This Voltage regulator acts as a Voltage divider. In the ohmic
field, it uses FET. The resistance of this voltage regulator
varies with the load. Consequently, the constant output
voltage linear voltage regulators are the basic type of
regulators for regulating the power supply. In such regulators,
the transformation of the active pass element, such as
MOSFET or BJT, is responsible for changing the shear
conductivity output voltage.
Once connected to the load, any input changes or the current
across the transistor will vary to maintain the load output. To
change the current of the transistor, it must operate in the
active otherwise ohmic region.

This type of regulator loses a lot of power during this process.

This is because, inside the transistor, the net voltage is
dropped to destroy it like heat. In general, these regulators are
classified into different categories.

Positively adjustable.
 Negative adjustable.

 Tracking.

 Floating.

 Fixed output.

Advantages of Linear Voltage Regulator:

 Quick response time for load or line change.

 Low electromagnetic interference and low noise.
 The lower output gives a ripple voltage.
Disadvantages of Linear Voltage Regulator:
The disadvantages of linear voltage regulators are as
follows:
 More space is needed. A heatsink is required.

 Efficiency is very low.

 The voltage above the input cannot be increased.

Series Voltage Regulators:

Series Voltage Regulators use a variable element placed
in the series with the load. The voltage across it can
change the resistance of the element in that series, and
the voltage across the load remains constant.

The current drawn quantity is used effectively by the

load. This series is the main advantage of the Voltage
regulator. While the load requires no current, the series
voltage regulator does not draw a full current. The
series regulator is significantly more efficient compared
to the same shunt regulator.

Shunt Voltage Regulators:

This voltage regulator works by providing a passage on
the ground from the voltage given by the variable
resistance. The current flows away from the load
through this regulator and unnecessarily to the ground.
This makes the form generally less efficient than the
range regulator.

Although it is very simple, sometimes only a voltage-

reference diode is involved, and it is used in very low-
power circuits whose waste current is very worrying.
This form is very common for voltage reference
circuits. The shunt regulator usually simply sinks
(absorbs) the current.
SWITCHING VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

A switching regulator can turn a series device on and off with

speed. The function of a switch is to set the amount of charge
transferred to the load. The same reaction mechanism as the
linear regulator controls this.

The switching regulator is efficient because the series element

runs either perfectly. Or off because it dissipates almost no
power. The switching regulator is capable of generating an
output voltage. Which, in contrast to linear regulators, is
higher than the input voltage or anti-polarity.

The switching voltage is quickly turned on and off to change

the regulator output. An oscillator is needed to control it and
also charge the storage components. Pulse rate modulation
varies with the continuous duty cycle and noise spectrum
imposed by the PRM in the switching regulator with different
frequencies; That sound is more difficult to filter.
Pulse width modulation switching with a constant frequency
different duty cycle is efficient and easily filters the regulator
noise. Turning on a continuous mode by the inductor in the
switching regulator allows the highest output power to never
reach zero. It gives better performance. The uninterrupted
mode current through the inductor in the switching regulator
comes to zero. It performs better when the output current is
low.

Advantages of Switching Voltage Regulator

The main advantage of the Switching Power Supply or
Switching Voltage Regulators is the efficiency. Usually,
with a better design efficiency up to 95% can be
achieved.
As the transistor is oscillating between ON and OFF
states, and the times it stays in active region is very less,
the amount of power wasted is very less.
The output voltage can be higher or lesser than the input
voltage.
Doesn’t need a step down or step up transformer but
requires a tiny high frequency switching transformer.
Step Down Voltage regulator (Buck Converter)
In a Step Down Voltage regulator or a Buck converter, the
output voltage is less than that of the input voltage.
Step Up Voltage Regulator (Boost Converter)
In contrast to Buck Converter, a Boost Converter or a Step Up
Voltage regulator provides a voltage that is higher at the
output than the input.